Biomedical Applications of Untethered Mobile Milli/Microrobots

Proceedings of the IEEE

Volumn 103, Issue 2, 2015, Pages 205-224

  Sitti, Metin ^a,b   Ceylan, Hakan ^a   Hu, Wenqi ^a   Giltinan, Joshua ^a,b   Turan, Mehmet ^a   Yim, Sehyuk ^c   Diller, Eric ^d  

^a MAX PLANCK INSTITUTE FOR INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS   (Germany)

^b CARNEGIE MELLON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

Author keywords

Biomedical engineering; medical robots; microrobots; minimally invasive surgery

Indexed keywords

BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING; MEDICAL APPLICATIONS;

BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENTS; BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS; MEDICAL OPERATIONS; MEDICAL ROBOTS; MICROROBOTS; MINIMALLY INVASIVE; MINIMALLY INVASIVE SURGERY; POTENTIAL IMPACTS;

ROBOTS;

EID: 84926681630     PISSN: 00189219     EISSN: 15582256     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1109/JPROC.2014.2385105     Document Type: Review

References (198)

1. M. Sitti, "Miniature devices: Voyage of the micro-robots," Nature, vol. 458, pp. 1121-1122, Apr. 2009.
2. B. J. Nelson, I. K. Kaliakatsos, and J. J. Abbott, "Micro-robots for minimally invasive medicine," Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng., vol. 12, pp. 55-85, Aug. 2010.
3. M. F. Hale, R. Sidhu, and M. E. McAlindon, "Capsule endoscopy: Current practice and future directions," World J. Gastroenterol., vol. 20, pp. 7752-7759, Jun. 2014.
4. Z. Liao, R. Gao, C. Xu, and Z. S. Li, "Indications and detection, completion, retention rates of small-bowel capsule endoscopy: A systematic review," Gastrointest. Endosc., vol. 71, pp. 280-286, Feb. 2010.
5. Z. Li, Z. Liao, and M. McAlindon, Handbook of Capsule Endoscopy. Dordrecht, The Netherland: Springer Netherlands, 2014.
6. M. K. Goenka, S. Majumder, and U. Goenka, "Capsule endoscopy: Present status and future expectation," World J. Gastroenterol., vol. 20, pp. 10024-10037, Aug. 2014.
7. T. Nakamura and A. Terano, "Capsule endoscopy: Past, present, future," J. Gastroenterol., vol. 43, pp. 93-99, 2008.
8. F. Munoz, G. Alici, and W. Li, "A review of drug delivery systems for capsule endoscopy," Adv. Drug. Deliv. Rev., vol. 71, pp. 77-85, May 2014.
9. F. Carpi, N. Kastelein, M. Talcott, and C. Pappone, "Magnetically controllable gastrointestinal steering of video capsules," IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., vol. 58, pp. 231-234, Feb. 2011.
10. H. Keller et al., "Method for navigation and control of a magnetically guided capsule endoscope in the human stomach," in Proc. 2012 4th IEEE RAS EMBS Int. Conf. Biomed. Robot. Biomechatron. (BioRob), Rome, Italy, 2012, pp. 859-865.
11. A. W. Mahoney, S. E. Wright, and J. J. Abbott, "Managing the attractive magnetic force between an untethered magnetically actuated tool and a rotating permanent magnet," in Proc. 2013 IEEE Int. Conf. Robot. Automation (ICRA), Karlsruhe, 2013, pp. 5366-5371.
12. S. Yim, E. Gultepe, D. H. Gracias, and M. Sitti, "Biopsy using a magnetic capsule endoscope carrying, releasing, retrieving untethered microgrippers," IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., vol. 61, pp. 513-521, Feb. 2014.
13. A. J. Petruska and J. J. Abbott, "An omnidirectional electromagnet for remote manipulation," in Proc. 2013 IEEE Int. Conf. Robot. Automation (ICRA), Karlsruhe, 2013, pp. 822-827.
14. R. W. Carlsen and M. Sitti, "Biohybrid cell-based actuators for microsystems," Small, vol. 10, pp. 3831-3851, Oct. 2014.
15. M. Sitti, "Microscale and nanoscale robotics systems [Grand Challenges of Robotics]," IEEE Robot. Autom. Mag., vol. 14, pp. 53-60, 2007.
16. D. C. Meeker, E. H. Maslen, R. C. Ritter, and F. M. Creighton, "Optimal realization of arbitrary forces in a magnetic stereotaxis system," IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 32, pp. 320-328, 1996.
17. G. Caprari, P. Balmer, R. Piguet, and R. Siegwart, "The autonomous micro robot 'alice': A platform for scientific and commercial applications," in Proc. 1998 Int. Symp. Micromechatron. Human Sci. (MHS'98), 1998, pp. 231-235.
18. N. Kawahara, T. Shibata, and T. Sasaya, "In-pipe wireless micro-robot," in Proc. Photonics East'99, Boston, MA, USA, 1999, pp. 166-171.
19. R. S. Fearing et al., "Wing transmission for a micromechanical flying insect," in Proc. 2000 IEEE Int. Conf. Robot. Automation (ICRA), San Francisco, CA, USA, 2000, pp. 1509-1516.
20. K. Ishiyama, M. Sendoh, A. Yamazaki, and K. I. Arai, "Swimming micro-machine driven by magnetic torque," Sensor. Actuat. A-Phys., vol. 91, pp. 141-144, 2001.
21. S. Hollar, A. Flynn, C. Bellew, and K. Pister, "Solar powered 10 mg silicon robot," in Proc. 2003 IEEE Sixteenth Annu. Int. Conf. Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS), Kyoto, Japan, 2003, pp. 706-711.
22. N. A. Patronik, M. A. Zenati, and C. N. Riviere, "Crawling on the heart: A mobile robotic device for minimally invasive cardiac interventions," in Medical Image Computing and Computer-Assisted Intervention-MICCAI 2004. New York, NY, USA: Springer, 2004, pp. 9-16.
23. N. Darnton, L. Turner, K. Breuer, and H. C. Berg, "Moving fluid with bacterial carpets," Biophys. J., vol. 86, pp. 1863-1870, Mar. 2004.
24. R. Dreyfus et al., "Microscopic artificial swimmers," Nature, vol. 437, pp. 862-865, Oct. 2005.
25. Y. S. Song and M. Sitti, "Surface-tension-driven biologically inspired water strider robots: Theory and experiments," IEEE Trans. Robot., vol. 23, pp. 578-589, 2007.
26. A. M. Hoover, E. Steltz, and R. S. Fearing, "RoACH: An autonomous 2.4 g crawling hexapod robot," in Proc. IEEE/RSJ 2008 Int. Conf. Intell. Robots Syst. (IROS), Nice, France, 2008, pp. 26-33.
27. M. Quirini, R. Webster, A. Menciassi, and P. Dario, "Design of a pill-sized 12-legged endoscopic capsule robot," in Proc. 2007 IEEE Int. Conf. Robot. Automation (ICRA), Rome, Italy, 2007, pp. 1856-1862.
28. A. Degani, H. Choset, A. Wolf, and M. A. Zenati, "Highly articulated robotic probe for minimally invasive surgery," in Proc. 2006 IEEE Int. Conf. Robot. Automation (ICRA), Orlando, FL, USA, 2006, pp. 4167-4172.
29. S. Martel et al., "Automatic navigation of an untethered device in the artery of a living animal using a conventional clinical magnetic resonance imaging system," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 90, p. 114105, 2007.
30. B. R. Donald, C. G. Levey, C. D. McGray, I. Paprotny, and D. Rus, "An untethered, electrostatic, globally controllable MEMS micro-robot," J. Micromech. Microeng., vol. 15, pp. 1-15, 2006.
31. O. J. Sul, M. R. Falvo, R. M. Taylor, S. Washburn, and R. Superfine, "Thermally actuated untethered impact-driven locomotive microdevices," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 89, p. 203512, 2006.
32. S. Martel, "Magnetotactic bacteria as controlled functional carriers in microsystems, microelectronic circuits and interconnections," in Proc. 16th Eur. Microelectron. Packaging Conf. (EMPC), Qulu, 2007.
33. C. Pawashe, S. Floyd, and M. Sitti, "Modeling and experimental characterization of an untethered magnetic micro-robot," Int. J. Robot. Res., vol. 28, pp. 1077-1094, 2009.
34. L. Zhang et al., "Characterizing the swimming properties of artificial bacterial flagella," Nano. Lett., vol. 9, pp. 3663-3667, Oct. 2009.
35. A. Ghosh and P. Fischer, "Controlled propulsion of artificial magnetic nanostructured propellers," Nano. Lett., vol. 9, pp. 2243-2245, Jun. 2009.
36. Y. Sehyuk and M. Sitti, "Shape-programmable soft capsule robots for semi-implantable drug delivery," IEEE Trans. Robot., vol. 28, pp. 1198-1202, 2012.
37. S. Miyashita, E. Diller, and M. Sitti, "Two-dimensional magnetic micro-module reconfigurations based on inter-modular interactions," Int. J. Robot. Res., vol. 32, pp. 591-613, 2013.
38. C. Pawashe, S. Floyd, and M. Sitti, "Multiple magnetic micro-robot control using electrostatic anchoring," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 94, pp. 164108-164108-3, 2009.
39. W. Hu, K. S. Ishii, and A. T. Ohta, "Micro-assembly using optically controlled bubble micro-robots," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 99, p. 094103, 2011.
40. M. P. Kummer et al., "OctoMag: An electromagnetic system for 5-DOF wireless micromanipulation," IEEE Trans. Robot., vol. 26, pp. 1006-1017, 2010.
41. V. Magdanz, S. Sanchez, and O. G. Schmidt, "Development of a sperm-flagella driven micro-bio-robot," Adv. Mater., vol. 25, pp. 6581-6588, Dec. 2013.
42. A. A. Solovev, Y. Mei, E. Bermudez Urena, G. Huang, and O. G. Schmidt, "Catalytic microtubular jet engines self-propelled by accumulated gas bubbles," Small, vol. 5, pp. 1688-1692, Jul. 2009.
43. A. Búzás et al., "Light sailboats: Laser driven autonomous micro-robots," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 101, p. 041111, 2012.
44. S. Martel and M. Mohammadi, "Using a swarm of self-propelled natural micro-robots in the form of flagellated bacteria to perform complex micro-assembly tasks," in Proc. 2014 IEEE Int. Conf. Robot. Automation (ICRA), Hong Kong, 2010, pp. 500-505.
45. M. Rubenstein, A. Cornejo, and R. Nagpal, "Programmable self-assembly in a thousand-robot swarm," Science, vol. 345, pp. 795-799, 2014.
46. K. Y. Ma, P. Chirarattananon, S. B. Fuller, and R. J. Wood, "Controlled flight of a biologically inspired, insect-scale robot," Science, vol. 340, pp. 603-607, May 3, 2013.
47. E. Diller, J. Zhuang, G. Z. Lum, M. R. Edwards, and M. Sitti, "Continuously distributed magnetization profile for millimeter-scale elastomeric undulatory swimming," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 104, p. 174101, 2014.
48. E. Diller and M. Sitti, "Three-dimensional programmable assembly by untethered magnetic robotic micro-grippers," Adv. Funct. Mater., vol. 24, pp. 4397-4404, 2014.
49. S. Tasoglu, E. Diller, S. Guven, M. Sitti, and U. Demirci, "Untethered micro-robotic coding of three-dimensional material composition," Nat. Commun., vol. 5, p. 3124, Jan. 2014.
50. Y. Zhou, S. Regnier, and M. Sitti, "Rotating magnetic miniature swimming robots with multiple flexible flagella," IEEE Trans. Robot., vol. 30, pp. 3-13, 2014.
51. G. Caprari, T. Estier, and R. Siegwart, "Fascination of down scaling-Alice the sugar cube robot," J. Micromechatron., vol. 1, pp. 177-189, 2001.
52. M. Quirini, A. Menciassi, S. Scapellato, C. Stefanini, and P. Dario, "Design and fabrication of a motor legged capsule for the active exploration of the gastrointestinal tract," IEEE/ASME Trans. Mechatron., vol. 13, pp. 169-179, 2008.
53. S. Yim and M. Sitti, "Design and rolling locomotion of a magnetically actuated soft capsule endoscope," IEEE Trans. Robot., vol. 28, pp. 183-194, 2012.
54. J. Edd, S. Payen, B. Rubinsky, M. L. Stoller, and M. Sitti, "Biomimetic propulsion for a swimming surgical micro-robot," in Proc. 2003 IEEE/RSJ Int. Conf. Intelligent Robots Syst. (IROS), Las Vegas, NV, USA, 2003, pp. 2583-2588.
55. B. Behkam and M. Sitti, "Bacterial flagella-based propulsion and on/off motion control of microscale objects," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 90, p. 023902, 2007.
56. K. B. Yesin, "Modeling and control of untethered biomicro-robots in a fluidic environment using electromagnetic fields," Int. J. Robot. Res., vol. 25, pp. 527-536, 2006.
57. K. E. Peyer, S. Tottori, F. Qiu, L. Zhang, and B. J. Nelson, "Magnetic helical micromachines," Chemistry, vol. 19, pp. 28-38, Jan. 2013.
58. S. Martel, C. C. Tremblay, S. Ngakeng, and G. Langlois, "Controlled manipulation and actuation of micro-objects with magnetotactic bacteria," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 89, p. 233904, 2006.
59. D. R. Frutiger, K. Vollmers, B. E. Kratochvil, and B. J. Nelson, "Small, fast, under control: Wireless resonant magnetic micro-agents," Int. J. Robot. Res., vol. 29, pp. 613-636, Apr. 2009.
60. M. S. Sakar, E. B. Steager, A. Cowley, V. Kumar, and G. J. Pappas, "Wireless manipulation of single cells using magnetic microtransporters," in Proc. 2011 IEEE Int. Conf. Robot. Automation (ICRA), Shanghai, China, 2011, pp. 2668-2673.
61. G. L. Jiang et al., "Development of rolling magnetic micro-robots," J. Micromech. Microeng., vol. 20, p. 085042, 2010.
62. R. Pelrine et al., "Diamagnetically levitated robots: An approach to massively parallel robotic systems with unusual motion properties," in Proc. 2012 IEEE Int. Conf. Robot. Automation (ICRA), St. Paul, MN, USA, 2012, pp. 739-744.
63. A. Snezhko and I. S. Aranson, "Magnetic manipulation of self-assembled colloidal asters," Nat. Mater., vol. 10, pp. 698-703, Sep. 2011.
64. W. Jing et al., "A magnetic thin film micro-robot with two operating modes," in Proc. 2014 IEEE Int. Conf. Robot. Automation (ICRA), Hong Kong, 2011, pp. 96-101.
65. B. R. Donald, C. G. Levey, and I. Paprotny, "Planar microassembly by parallel actuation of MEMS micro-robots," J. Micromech. Microeng., vol. 17, pp. 789-808, 2008.
66. I. A. Ivan et al., "First experiments on MagPieR: A planar wireless magnetic and piezoelectric micro-robot," in Proc. 2014 IEEE Int. Conf. Robot. Automation (ICRA), Hong Kong, 2011, pp. 102-108.
67. E. Schaler, M. Tellers, A. Gerratt, I. Penskiy, and S. Bergbreiter, "Toward fluidic micro-robots using electrowetting," in Proc. 2012 IEEE Int. Conf. Robot. Automation (ICRA), St. Paul, MN, USA, 2012, pp. 3461-3466.
68. G. Hwang et al., "Electro-osmotic propulsion of helical nanobelt swimmers," Int. J. Robot. Res., vol. 30, pp. 806-819, 2011.
69. A. Yamazaki et al., "Wireless micro swimming machine with magnetic thin film," J. Magn. Magn. Mater., vol. 272-276, pp. E1741-E1742, 2004.
70. S. Tottori et al., "Magnetic helical micromachines: Fabrication, controlled swimming, cargo transport," Adv. Mater., vol. 24, pp. 811-816, Feb. 2012.
71. S. Martel et al., "MRI-based medical nanorobotic platform for the control of magnetic nanoparticles and flagellated bacteria for target interventions in human capillaries," Int. J. Rob. Res., vol. 28, pp. 1169-1182, Sep. 2009.
72. D. H. Kim, P. S. S. Kim, A. A. Julius, and M. J. Kim, "Three-dimensional control of Tetrahymena pyriformis using artificial magnetotaxis," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 100, p. 053702, 2012.
73. B. J. Williams, S. V. Anand, J. Rajagopalan, and M. T. Saif, "A self-propelled biohybrid swimmer at low Reynolds number," Nat. Commun., vol. 5, p. 3081, 2014.
74. D. H. Kim, P. S. S. Kim, A. A. Julius, and M. J. Kim, "Three-dimensional control of engineered motile cellular micro-robots," in Proc. 2012 IEEE Int. Conf. Robot. Automation (ICRA), St. Paul, MN, USA, 2012.
75. G. Ciuti, A. Menciassi, and P. Dario, "Capsule endoscopy: From current achievements to open challenges," IEEE Rev. Biomed. Eng., vol. 4, pp. 59-72, 2011.
76. G. Pan and L. Wang, "Swallowable wireless capsule endoscopy: Progress and technical challenges," Gastroenterol Res. Pract., vol. 2012, p. 841691, 2012.
77. T. D. Than, G. Alici, H. Zhou, and W. Li, "A review of localization systems for robotic endoscopic capsules," IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., vol. 59, pp. 2387-2399, Sep. 2012.
78. M. Fluckiger and B. J. Nelson, "Ultrasound emitter localization in heterogeneous media," in Proc. 29th Annu. Int. Conf. IEEE Eng. Medicine Biology Society, Lyon, France, 2007, pp. 2867-2870.
79. J. M. Rubin et al., "Sonographic elasticity imaging of acute and chronic deep venous thrombosis in humans," J. Ultrasound. Med., vol. 25, pp. 1179-1186, Sep. 2006.
80. K. Kim et al., "Noninvasive ultrasound elasticity imaging (UEI) of Crohn's disease: Animal model," Ultrasound Med. Biol., vol. 34, pp. 902-912, Jun. 2008.
81. T. D. Than et al., "An effective localization method for robotic endoscopic capsules using multiple positron emission markers," IEEE Trans. Robot., vol. 30, pp. 1174-1186, 2014.
82. C. Di Natali, M. Beccani, and P. Valdastri, "Real-time pose detection for magnetic medical devices," IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 49, pp. 3524-3527, 2013.
83. C. Hu, M. Q. H. Meng, and M. Mandal, "Efficient magnetic localization and orientation technique for capsule endoscopy," Int. J. Inform. Acquisition, vol. 2, pp. 23-36, 2005.
84. D. Soon, S. Yim, and M. Sitti, "A 5-D localization method for a magnetically manipulated untethered robot using a 2-D array of Hall-effect sensors," submitted for publication.
85. S. Yim and M. Sitti, "3-D localization method for a magnetically actuated soft capsule endoscope and its applications," IEEE Trans. Robot., vol. 29, pp. 1139-1151, Jun. 2013.
86. AIWABA. [Online]. Available: http://www.awaiba.com/product/naneye/
87. O. Ergeneman, G. Dogangil, M. P. Kummer, J. J. Abbott, M. K. Nazeeruddin, and B. J. Nelson, "A magnetically controlled wireless optical oxygen sensor for intraocular measurements," IEEE Sensors J., vol. 8, pp. 29-37, 2008.
88. B. P. Timko, T. Dvir, and D. S. Kohane, "Remotely triggerable drug delivery systems," Adv. Mater., vol. 22, pp. 4925-4943, Nov. 2010.
89. S. P. Woods and T. G. Constandinou, "Wireless capsule endoscope for targeted drug delivery: Mechanics and design considerations," IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., vol. 60, pp. 945-953, Apr. 2013.
90. J. Cui, X. Zheng, W. Hou, Y. Zhuang, X. Pi, and J. Yang, "The study of a remote-controlled gastrointestinal drug delivery and sampling system," Telemed. J. E Health, vol. 14, pp. 715-719, Sep. 2008.
91. P. Xitian, L. Hongying, W. Kang, L. Yulin, Z. Xiaolin, and W. Zhiyu, "A novel remote controlled capsule for site-specific drug delivery in human GI tract," Int. J. Pharm., vol. 382, pp. 160-164, Dec. 2009.
92. S. Yim, K. Goyal, and M. Sitti, "Magnetically actuated soft capsule with the multimodal drug release function," IEEE ASME Trans. Mechatron., vol. 18, pp. 1413-1418, Jan. 2013.
93. S. Martel, "Bacterial microsystems and micro-robots," Biomed. Microdevices, vol. 14, pp. 1033-1045, Dec. 2012.
94. S. Martel, "micro-robotics in the vascular network: Present status and next challenges," J. Micro-Bio Robot., vol. 8, pp. 41-52, 2013.
95. P. Pouponneau, J. C. Leroux, G. Soulez, L. Gaboury, and S. Martel, "Co-encapsulation of magnetic nanoparticles and doxorubicin into biodegradable microcarriers for deep tissue targeting by vascular MRI navigation," Biomaterials, vol. 32, pp. 3481-3486, May 2011.
96. S. Fusco, G. Chatzipirpiridis, K. M. Sivaraman, O. Ergeneman, B. J. Nelson, and S. Pane, "Chitosan electrodeposition for micro-robotic drug delivery," Adv. Healthc. Mater., vol. 2, pp. 1037-1044, Jul. 2013.
97. S. Martel, S. Taherkhani, M. Tabrizian, M. Mohammadi, D. de Lanauze, and O. Felfoul, "Computer 3D controlled bacterial transports and aggregations of microbial adhered nano-components," J. Micro-Bio Robot., vol. 9, pp. 23-28, 2014.
98. R. W. Carlsen, M. R. Edwards, J. Zhuang, C. Pacoret, and M. Sitti, "Magnetic steering control of multi-cellular biohybrid microswimmers," Lab Chip, vol. 14, pp. 3850-3859, Oct. 2014.
99. K. Kong, J. Cha, D. Jeon, and D. Cho, "A rotational micro biopsy device for the capsule endoscope," in Proc. 2005 IEEE/RSJ Int. Conf. Intell. Robots Syst., 2005 (IROS 2005), Edmonton, AB, Canada, 2005, pp. 1839-1843.
100. S. Park et al., "A novel micro-biopsy actuator for capsular endoscope using LIGA process," in Proc. 2007 Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems Conf., Lyon, 2007, p. 209.
101. S. Park et al., "A novel microactuator for microbiopsy in capsular endoscopes," J. Micromech. Microeng., vol. 18, 2008.
102. M. Simi, G. Gerboni, A. Menciassi, and P. Valdastri, "Magnetic torsion spring mechanism for a wireless biopsy capsule," J. Med. Devices, vol. 7, p. 041009, 2013.
103. F. Ullrich et al., "Mobility experiments with micro-robots for minimally invasive intraocular surgery," Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci., vol. 54, pp. 2853-2863, Apr. 2013.
104. C. Yu et al., "Novel electromagnetic actuation system for three-dimensional locomotion and drilling of intravascular micro-robot," Sensor. Actuat. A-Phys., vol. 161, pp. 297-304, 2010.
105. P. Miloro, E. Sinibaldi, A. Menciassi, and P. Dario, "Removing vascular obstructions: A challenge, yet an opportunity for interventional microdevices," Biomed. Microdevices, vol. 14, pp. 511-532, Jun. 2012.
106. I. J. Fox, G. Q. Daley, S. A. Goldman, J. Huard, T. J. Kamp, and M. Trucco, "Stem cell therapy. Use of differentiated pluripotent stem cells as replacement therapy for treating disease," Science, vol. 345, p. 1247391, Aug. 2014.
107. S. Kim et al., "Fabrication and characterization of magnetic micro-robots for three-dimensional cell culture and targeted transportation," Adv. Mater., vol. 25, pp. 5863-5868, Nov. 2013.
108. A. Khademhosseini, R. Langer, J. Borenstein, and J. P. Vacanti, "Microscale technologies for tissue engineering and biology," Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., vol. 103, pp. 2480-2487, Feb. 2006.
109. S. Masuda, T. Shimizu, M. Yamato, and T. Okano, "Cell sheet engineering for heart tissue repair," Adv. Drug. Deliv. Rev., vol. 60, pp. 277-285, Jan. 2008.
110. D. L. Elbert, "Bottom-up tissue engineering," Curr. Opin. Biotechnol., vol. 22, pp. 674-680, Oct. 2011.
111. Y. Ling et al., "A cell-laden microfluidic hydrogel," Lab Chip, vol. 7, pp. 756-762, Jun. 2007.
112. P. Zorlutuna et al., "Microfabricated biomaterials for engineering 3D tissues," Adv. Mater., vol. 24, pp. 1782-1804, Apr. 2012.
113. J. S. Liu and Z. J. Gartner, "Directing the assembly of spatially organized multicomponent tissues from the bottom up," Trends Cell Biol, vol. 22, pp. 683-691, Dec. 2012.
114. S. Tasoglu et al., "Guided and magnetic self-assembly of tunable magnetoceptive gels," Nat. Commun., vol. 5, p. 4702, 2014.
115. U. Mirsaidov et al., "Live cell lithography: Using optical tweezers to create synthetic tissue," Lab Chip, vol. 8, pp. 2174-2181, Dec. 2008.
116. D. R. Albrecht, G. H. Underhill, T. B. Wassermann, R. L. Sah, and S. N. Bhatia, "Probing the role of multicellular organization in three-dimensional microenvironments," Nat. Methods, vol. 3, pp. 369-375, May 2006.
117. J. Giltinan, E. Diller, C. Mayda, and M. Sitti, "Three-dimensional robotic manipulation and transport of micro-scale objects by a magnetically driven capillary micro-gripper," in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Robot. Automation (ICRA), Hong Kong, 2014, pp. 2077-2082.
118. D. Di Carlo, H. T. K. Tse, and D. R. Gossett, "Introduction: Why Analyze Single Cells?" in Single-Cell Analysis, vol. 853, S. Lindström and H. Andersson-Svahn, Eds. Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Humana Press, 2012, pp. 1-10.
119. B. F. Brehm-Stecher and E. A. Johnson, "Single-cell microbiology: Tools, technologies, applications," Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev., vol. 68, pp. 538-559, Sep. 2004.
120. Z. Lu, C. Moraes, G. Ye, C. A. Simmons, and Y. Sun, "Single cell deposition and patterning with a robotic system," PLoS One, vol. 5, p. e13542, 2010.
121. E. B. Steager et al., "Automated biomanipulation of single cells using magnetic micro-robots," Int. J. Robot. Res., vol. 32, pp. 346-359, 2013.
122. W. Hu, K. S. Ishii, Q. Fan, and A. T. Ohta, "Hydrogel micro-robots actuated by optically generated vapour bubbles," Lab Chip, vol. 12, pp. 3821-3826, Oct. 2012.
123. J. O. Kwon, J. S. Yang, J. B. Chae, and S. K. Chung, "Micro-object manipulation in a microfabricated channel using an electromagnetically driven micro-robot with an acoustically oscillating bubble," Sensor. Actuat. A-Phys., vol. 215, pp. 77-82, 2014.
124. Z. Ye and M. Sitti, "Dynamic trapping and two-dimensional transport of swimming microorganisms using a rotating magnetic micro-robot," Lab Chip, vol. 14, pp. 2177-2182, Jul. 2014.
125. S. Schurle et al., "Three-dimensional, automated magnetic biomanipulation with subcellular resolution," in Proc. 2013 IEEE Int. Conf. Robot. Automation (ICRA), Karlsruhe, Germany, pp. 1452-1457.
126. M. Hagiwara et al., "On-chip magnetically actuated robot with ultrasonic vibration for single cell manipulations," Lab Chip, vol. 11, pp. 2049-2054, Jun. 2011.
127. L. Feng, M. Hagiwara, A. Ichikawa, and F. Arai, "On-chip enucleation of bovine oocytes using micro-robot-assisted flow-speed control," Micromachines, vol. 4, pp. 272-285, 2013.
128. T. Kawahara et al., "On-chip micro-robot for investigating the response of aquatic microorganisms to mechanical stimulation," Lab Chip, vol. 13, pp. 1070-1078, Mar. 2013.
129. L. Zhang, T. Petit, K. E. Peyer, and B. J. Nelson, "Targeted cargo delivery using a rotating nickel nanowire," Nanomedicine, vol. 8, pp. 1074-1080, Oct. 2012.
130. T. Petit, L. Zhang, K. E. Peyer, B. E. Kratochvil, and B. J. Nelson, "Selective trapping and manipulation of microscale objects using mobile microvortices," Nano. Lett., vol. 12, pp. 156-160, Jan. 2012.
131. G. Thalhammer, R. Steiger, S. Bernet, and M. Ritsch-Marte, "Optical macro-tweezers: Trapping of highly motile micro-organisms," J. Optics, vol. 13, p. 044024, 2011.
132. H. Zhang and K. K. Liu, "Optical tweezers for single cells," J. R. Soc. Interface., vol. 5, pp. 671-690, Jul. 2008.
133. D. H. Kim, P. K. Wong, J. Park, A. Levchenko, and Y. Sun, "Microengineered platforms for cell mechanobiology," Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng., vol. 11, pp. 203-233, 2009.
134. L. Hajba and A. Guttman, "Circulating tumor-cell detection and capture using microfluidic devices," TrAC Trend. Anal. Chem., vol. 59, pp. 9-16, 2014.
135. C. H. Collins, "Cell-cell communication special issue," ACS Synth. Biol., vol. 3, pp. 197-198, Apr. 2014.
136. T. Y. Huang et al., "Cooperative manipulation and transport of microobjects using multiple helical microcarriers," RSC Adv., vol. 4, pp. 26771-26771, 2014.
137. S. Martel, M. Mohammadi, O. Felfoul, Z. Lu, and P. Pouponneau, "Flagellated magnetotactic bacteria as controlled MRI-trackable propulsion and steering systems for medical nanorobots operating in the human microvasculature," Int. J. Rob. Res., vol. 28, pp. 571-582, Apr. 2009.
138. M. A. Zeeshan et al., "Hybrid helical magnetic micro-robots obtained by 3D template-assisted electrodeposition," Small, vol. 10, pp. 1284-1288, 2014.
139. S. Bergbreiter and K. S. J. Pister, Eds., "Design of an Autonomous Jumping micro-robot," in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Robot. Automation (ICRA), Rome, Italy, 2007.
140. W. A. Churaman, L. J. Currano, C. J. Morris, J. E. Rajkowski, and S. Bergbreiter, "The first launch of an autonomous thrust-driven micro-robot using nanoporous energetic silicon," J. Microelectromech. Syst., vol. 21, pp. 198-205, 2012.
141. W. Jing, N. Pagano, and D. J. Cappelleri, "A novel micro-scale magnetic tumbling micro-robot," J. of Micro-Bio Robotics, vol. 8, pp. 1-12, Feb. 2013.
142. B. H. McNaughton, J. N. Anker, and R. Kopelman, "Magnetic microdrill as a modulated fluorescent pH sensor," J. Magn. Magn. Mater., vol. 293, pp. 696-701, 2005.
143. O. Ergeneman et al., "Cobalt-nickel microcantilevers for biosensing," J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct., vol. 24, pp. 2215-2220, Oct. 2012.
144. W. Jing and D. J. Cappelleri, "Incorporating in-situ force sensing capabilities in a magnetic micro-robot," in Proc. 2014 IEEE/RSJ Int. Conf. Intell. Robots Syst. (IROS 2014), Chicago, IL, USA, 2014, pp. 4704-4709.
145. O. Ergeneman et al., "In vitro oxygen sensing using intraocular micro-robots," IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., vol. 59, pp. 3104-3109, Nov. 2012.
146. G. M. Whitesides and B. Grzybowski, "Self-assembly at all scales," Science, vol. 295, pp. 2418-2421, Mar. 2002.
147. D. J. Kushner, "Self-assembly of biological structures," Bacteriol. Rev., vol. 33, pp. 302-345, 1969.
148. S. Tasoglu et al., "Paramagnetic levitational assembly of hydrogels," Adv. Mater., vol. 25, pp. 1137-1143, 2013.
149. F. Xu et al., "The assembly of cell-encapsulating microscale hydrogels using acoustic waves," Biomaterials, vol. 32, pp. 7847-7855, Jul. 2011.
150. F. Xu et al., "Three-dimensional magnetic assembly of microscale hydrogels," Adv. Mater., vol. 23, pp. 4254-4260, 2011.
151. H. Qi et al., "DNA-directed self-assembly of shape-controlled hydrogels," Nat. Commun., vol. 4, Sep. 2013.
152. G. R. Yi, D. J. Pine, and S. Sacanna, "Recent progress on patchy colloids and their self-assembly," J. Phys.: Condensed Matter, vol. 25, p. 193101, 2013.
153. P. A. de Silva, N. H. Q. Gunaratne, and C. P. McCoy, "A molecular photoionic AND gate based on fluorescent signalling,"Nature, vol. 364, pp. 42-44, 1993.
154. S. Ozlem and E. U. Akkaya, "Thinking outside the silicon box: Molecular and logic as an additional layer of selectivity in singlet oxygen generation for photodynamic therapy," J. Amer. Chem. Soc., vol. 131, pp. 48-49, Jan. 2009.
155. S. A. Bencherif et al., "Injectable preformed scaffolds with shape-memory properties,"Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., vol. 109, pp. 19 590-19 595, Nov. 2012.
156. M. Behl and A. Lendlein, "Shape-memory polymers," Materials Today, vol. 10, pp. 20-28, 2007.
157. K. P. Rajurkar et al., "Micro and nano machining by electro-physical and chemical processes," CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology, vol. 55, pp. 643-666, 2006.
158. J. Shao et al., "Generation of fully-covering hierarchical micro-/nano- structures by nanoimprinting and modified laser swelling,"Small, vol. 10, pp. 2595-2601, 2014.
159. H. Messmann, R. Knuchel, W. Baumler, A. Holstege, and J. Scholmerich, "Endoscopic fluorescence detection of dysplasia in patients with Barrett's esophagus, ulcerative colitis, or adenomatous polyps after 5-aminolevulinic acid-induced protoporphyrin IX sensitization,"Gastrointest. Endoscopy, vol. 49, pp. 97-101, Jan. 1999.
160. P. Mountney and G. Z. Yang, "Motion compensated SLAM for image guided surgery," Med. Image Comput. Computat. Assist. Interv., vol. 13, pp. 496-504, 2010.
161. H. G. Lee, M. K. Choi, and S. C. Lee, "Motion analysis for duplicate frame removal in wireless capsule endoscope," Medical Imaging 2011: Image Processing, vol. 7962, 2011.
162. S. Yoshizaki, A. Serb, L. Yan, and T. G. Constandinou, "Octagonal CMOs image sensor with strobed RGB LED illumination for wireless capsule endoscopy," in Proc. 2014 IEEE Int. Symp. Circuits Syst. (ISCAS), Melbourne, Australia, 2014, pp. 1857-1860.
163. P. L. Lam and R. Gambari, "Advanced progress of microencapsulation technologies: In vivo and in vitro models for studying oral and transdermal drug deliveries," J. Control. Release, vol. 178, pp. 25-45, Mar. 2014.
164. M. V. Kiryukhin, "Active drug release systems: Current status, applications and perspectives," Curr. Opin. Pharmacol., vol. 18C, pp. 69-75, Sep. 2014.
165. S. Mura, J. Nicolas, and P. Couvreur, "Stimuli-responsive nanocarriers for drug delivery," Nat. Mater., vol. 12, pp. 991-1003, Nov. 2013.
166. E. Diller, J. Giltinan, G. Z. Lum, Z. Ye, and M. Sitti, "Six-degrees-of-freedom remote actuation of magnetic micro-robots," Proc. Robot.: Sci. Syst., 2014.
167. E. M. Purcell, "Life at low Reynolds number,"Amer. J. Phys., vol. 45, p. 3, 1977.
168. G. Loget and A. Kuhn, "Electric field-induced chemical locomotion of conducting objects,"Nat. Commun., vol. 2, p. 535, Nov. 2011.
169. W. Wang, L. A. Castro, M. Hoyos, and T. E. Mallouk, "Autonomous motion of metallic microrods propelled by ultrasound,"ACS Nano, vol. 6, pp. 6122-6132, Jul. 2012.
170. A. Sen, M. Ibele, Y. Hong, and D. Velegol, "Chemo and phototactic nano/microbots,"Faraday Discuss, vol. 143, pp. 15-27, 2009, discussion 81-93.
171. H. R. Jiang, N. Yoshinaga, and M. Sano, "Active motion of a Janus particle by self-thermophoresis in a defocused laser beam," Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 105, p. 268302, Dec. 2010.
172. W. F. Paxton et al., "Catalytic nanomotors: Autonomous movement of striped nanorods," J. Am. Chem. Soc., vol. 126, pp. 13 424-13 431, Oct. 2004.
173. D. Kagan, S. Balasubramanian, and J. Wang, "Chemically triggered swarming of gold microparticles," Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl., vol. 50, pp. 503-506, Jan. 2011.
174. Y. Yoshizumi, Y. Date, K. Ohkubo, M. Yokokawa, and H. Suzuki, "Bimetallic micromotor autonomously movable in biofuels," in Proc. 2013 IEEE 26th Int. Conf. Micro Electro Mechanical Syst. (MEMS), Taipei, Taiwan, 2013, pp. 540-543.
175. M. E. Ibele, Y. Wang, T. R. Kline, T. E. Mallouk, and A. Sen, "Hydrazine fuels for bimetallic catalytic microfluidic pumping," J. Amer. Chem. Soc., vol. 129, pp. 7762-7763, Jun. 2007.
176. S. Sengupta et al., "Self-powered enzyme micropumps," Nat. Chem., vol. 6, pp. 415-422, May 2014.
177. th IEEE RAS EMBS Int. Conf. Robot. Biomechatron., Sao Paulo, Brazil, 2014, pp. 831-834.
178. F. Chen et al., "In vivo tumor vasculature targeted PET/NIRF imaging with TRC105(Fab)-conjugated, dual-labeled mesoporous silica nanoparticles," Mol. Pharm., vol. 11, pp. 4007-4014, Nov. 3, 2014.
179. H. F. Wehrl et al., "Preclinical and translational PET/MR imaging," J. Nucl. Med., vol. 55, pp. 11S-18S, May 15, 2014.
180. M. S. Judenhofer et al., "Simultaneous PET-MRI: A new approach for functional and morphological imaging," Nat. Med., vol. 14, pp. 459-465, Apr. 2008.
181. C. H. Siu, T. J. C. Harris, J. Wang, and E. Wong, "Regulation of cell-cell adhesion during Dictyostelium development,"Seminars in Cell Develop. Biol., vol. 15, pp. 633-641, Dec. 2004.
182. W. F. Loomis, "Cell signaling during development of Dictyostelium," Dev. Biol., vol. 391, pp. 1-16, Jul. 1, 2014.
183. G. Shaulsky and R. H. Kessin, "The cold war of the social amoebae," Current Biology, vol. 17, pp. R684-R692, Aug. 2007.
184. S. T. Rutherford and B. L. Bassler, "Bacterial quorum sensing: Its role in virulence and possibilities for its control," Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine, vol. 2, Nov. 1, 2012.
185. D. A. Robinton and G. Q. Daley, "The promise of induced pluripotent stem cells in research and therapy," Nature, vol. 481, pp. 295-305, Jan. 2012.
186. P. A. Patah et al., "Microbial contamination of hematopoietic progenitor cell products: Clinical outcome," Bone Marrow Transplant, vol. 40, pp. 365-368, Jun. 2007.
187. M. Stormer et al., "Bacterial safety of cell-based therapeutic preparations, focusing on haematopoietic progenitor cells," Vox Sang, vol. 106, pp. 285-296, May 2014.
188. S. Patyar et al., "Bacteria in cancer therapy: A novel experimental strategy," J. Biomed. Sci., vol. 17, p. 21, 2010.
189. M. Loeffler, G. Le'Negrate, M. Krajewska, and J. Reed, "Attenuated Salmonella engineered to produce human cytokine LIGHT inhibit tumor growth," Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 104, pp. 12 879-12 883, 2007.
190. J. F. Schenck, "Safety of strong, static magnetic fields," J. Magn. Reson. Imaging., vol. 12, pp. 2-19, Jul. 2000.
191. I. C. Atkinson, L. Renteria, H. Burd, N. H. Pliskin, and K. R. Thulborn, "Safety of human MRI at static fields above the FDA 8 T guideline: Sodium imaging at 9.4 T does not affect vital signs or cognitive ability,"J. Magnet. Resonance Imaging, vol. 26, pp. 1222-1227, 2007.
192. M. V. Berry and A. K. Geim, "Of flying frogs and levitrons," European Journal of Physics, vol. 18, p. 307, 1997.
193. Y. Kinouchi, H. Yamaguchi, and T. S. Tenforde, "Theoretical analysis of magnetic field interactions with aortic blood flow," Bioelectromagnetics, vol. 17, pp. 21-32, 1996.
194. F. G. Shellock, E. Kanal, and T. B. Gilk, "Regarding the value reported for the term 'spatial gradient magnetic field' and how this information is applied to labeling of medical implants and devices," Amer. J. Roentgenol., vol. 196, pp. 142-145, 2011.
195. B. Huang, M. W. M. Law, and P. L. Khong, "Whole-body PET/CT scanning: Estimation of radiation dose and cancer risk 1,"Radiology, vol. 251, pp. 166-174, 2009.
196. Guidance for Industry and FDA Staff-Information for Manufacturers Seeking Marketing Clearance of Diagnostic Ultrasound Systems and Transducers, U.S. Food Drug Administration, 2012.
197. A. K. Capulli et al., "Approaching the in vitro clinical trial: Engineering organs on chips,"Lab Chip, vol. 14, pp. 3181-3186, Sep. 7, 2014.
198. E. Diller and M. Sitti, "Micro-scale mobile robotics," Foundations and Trends in Robotics, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 143-259, 2013.