Nutritional and functional potential of Beta vulgaris cicla and rubra

Fitoterapia

Volumn 89, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 188-199

  Ninfali, Paolino ^a   Angelino, Donato ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF URBINO   (Italy)

Author keywords

Antioxidant capacity; Antitumoral activity; Beta vulgaris cicla; Beta vulgaris rubra; Chenopodiaceae; Functional foods

Indexed keywords

ANTIOXIDANT; APIGENIN; BETA VULGARIS CICLA EXTRACT; BETA VULGARIS RUBRA EXTRACT; BETALAIN; ESSENTIAL OIL; FLAVONOID; INORGANIC ACID; LUTEOLIN; NUTRACEUTICAL; PLANT EXTRACT; PLANT MEDICINAL PRODUCT; POLYPHENOL; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VITEXIN;

AMARANTHACEAE; ANTIDIABETIC ACTIVITY; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE ACTIVITY; ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY; ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY; ANTINEOPLASTIC ACTIVITY; ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY; ANTIPROLIFERATIVE ACTIVITY; BEETROOT; BETA VULGARIS RUBRA; BIOAVAILABILITY; BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY; CHEMICAL COMPOSITION; CHENOPODIUM ALBUM; CHENOPODIUM QUINOA; COLON CANCER; COOKING; FOOD INDUSTRY; FUNCTIONAL FOOD; HUMAN; MEDITERRANEAN DIET; NONHUMAN; NUTRITIONAL VALUE; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROPHYLAXIS; REVIEW; SPINACH; SWISS CHARD; TAXONOMY; TRADITIONAL MEDICINE;

AMARANTHACEAE; BETA VULGARIS; BETA VULGARIS CICLA;

EID: 84885156412     PISSN: 0367326X     EISSN: 18736971     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.fitote.2013.06.004     Document Type: Review

References (110)

1. Ruales J, Nair BM. Properties of starch and dietary fibre in raw and processed quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa, Willd) seeds. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 1994;45:223-46.
2. Yadav SK, Sehgal S. Effect of home processing and storage on ascorbic acid and beta-carotene content of Bathua (Chenopodium album) and fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum) leaves. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 1997;50:239-47. (Pubitemid 27468314)
3. Chiej R. Encyclopaedia of medicinal plants. London: TBS The Book Service Ltd; 1984.
4. Norton PB, Esposito JJ. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica Inc.; 1994.
5. Duke JA. The handbook of energy crops. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/ newcrop/duke-energy/dukeindex.html; 1983.
6. Lewellen R, Panella R, Harveson R. Introduction-botany of the beet plant. In: Harveson R, Hanson LE, Hein GO, editors. Compendium of the beet diseases and insects. StPaul, MN: APS Press; 2009. p. 2-3.
7. Lange W, Brandeburg WA, De Bock TSM. Taxonomy and cultonomy of beet (Beta vulgaris L.). Bot J Linn Soc 1999;130:81-96. (Pubitemid 29247439)
8. Logendra LS, Gilrain MR, Gianfagna TJ, Janes HW. Swiss chard: a salad crop for the space program. Life Support Biosph Sci 2002;8:173-9.
9. Ninfali P, Bacchiocca M. Polyphenols and antioxidant capacity of vegetables under fresh and frozen conditions. J Agric Food Chem 2003;51:2222-6.
10. Vali L, Stefanovits-Banyai E, Szentmihalyi K, Febel H, Sardi E, Lugasi A, et al. Liver-protecting effects of table beet (Beta vulgaris var. rubra) during ischemia-reperfusion. Nutrition 2007;23:172-8. (Pubitemid 46110865)
11. Pyo Y-H, Lee T-C, Logendra L, Rosen RT. Antioxidant activity and phenolic compounds of Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris subspecies cycla) extracts. Food Chem 2004;85:19-26. (Pubitemid 37414831)
12. Gennari L, Felletti M, Blasa M, Angelino D, Celeghini C, Corallini A, et al. Total extract of Beta vulgaris var. cicla seeds versus its purified phenolic components: antioxidant activities and antiproliferative effects against colon cancer cells. Phytochem Anal 2011;22:272-9.
13. Georgiev VG, Weber J, Kneschke EM, Denev PN, Bley T, Pavlov AI. Antioxidant activity and phenolic content of betalain extracts from intact plants and hairy root cultures of the red beetroot Beta vulgaris cv. Detroit dark red. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 2010;65:105-11.
14. Kujala TS, Vienola MS, Klika KD, Loponen JN, Pihlaja K. Betalain and phenolic compositions of four beetroot (Beta vulgaris) cultivars. Eur Food Res Technol 2002;214:505-10.
15. Stintzing FC, Reinhold C. Functional properties of anthocyanins and betalains in plants, food, and in human nutrition. Trends Food Sci Technol 2004;15:19-38. (Pubitemid 38024769)
16. Kugler F, Graneis S, Stintzing FC, Carle R. Studies on betaxanthin profiles of vegetables and fruits from the Chenopodiaceae and Cactaceae. Z Naturforsch C 2007;62:311-8. (Pubitemid 47605211)
17. Castellar MR, Solano F, Obon JM. Betacyanin and other antioxidants production during growth of Opuntia stricta (Haw.) fruits. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 2012;67:337-43.
18. Feugang JM, Konarski P, Zou D, Stintzing FC, Zou C. Nutritional and medicinal use of Cactus pear (Opuntia spp.) cladodes and fruits. Front Biosci 2006;11:2574-89. (Pubitemid 43806566)
19. Mee SPH, Lee V, Baldwin JE, Cowley A. Total synthesis of 5, 5′, 6, 6′-tetrahydroxy-3, 3′-biindolyl, the proposed structure of a potent antioxidant found in beetroot (Beta vulgaris). Tetrahedron 2004;60:3695-712. (Pubitemid 38429917)
20. Bavec M, Turinek M, Grobelnik-Mlakar S, Slatnar A, Bavec F. Influence of industrial and alternative farming systems on contents of sugars, organic acids, total phenolic content, and the antioxidant activity of red beet (Beta vulgaris L ssp. vulgaris Rote Kugel). J Agric Food Chem 2010;58:11825-31.
21. Guil JL, Rodriguez-Garcia I, Torija E. Nutritional and toxic factors in selected wild edible plants. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 1997;51:99-107. (Pubitemid 28118025)
22. Chai W, Liebman M. Effect of different cooking methods on vegetable oxalate content. J Agric Food Chem 2005;53:3027-30. (Pubitemid 40525265)
23. Santamaria P. Nitrate in vegetables: toxicity, content, intake and EC regulation. J Sci Food Agric 2006;86:10-7. (Pubitemid 41820201)
24. Leaf CD, Wishnok JS, Tannenbaum SR L-arginine is a precursor for nitrate biosynthesis in humans. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1989;163:1032-7. (Pubitemid 19236953)
25. European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Nitrate in vegetables. Scientific opinion of the panel on contaminants in the food chain. EFSAJ 2008;689:1-79.
26. Mensinga TT, Speijers GJ, Meulenbelt J. Health implications of exposure to environmental nitrogenous compounds. Toxicol Rev 2003;22:41-51. (Pubitemid 37270711)
27. Lundberg JO, Govoni M. Inorganic nitrate is a possible source for systemic generation of nitric oxide. Free Radic Biol Med 2004;37: 395-400. (Pubitemid 38834005)
28. Lundberg JO, Weitzberg E, Cole JA, Benjamin N. Nitrate, bacteria and human health. Nat Rev Microbiol 2004;2:593-602. (Pubitemid 39200033)
29. Czapski J, Maksymiuk M, Grajek W. Analysis of biodenitrification conditions of red beet juice using the response surface method. J Agric Food Chem 1998;46:4702-5. (Pubitemid 128489990)
30. Lidder S, Webb AJ. Vascular effects of dietary nitrate (as found in green leafy vegetables and beetroot) via the nitrate-nitrite-nitric oxide pathway. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2013;75:677-96.
31. Lundberg JO, Weitzberg E, Gladwin MT. The nitrate-nitrite-nitric oxide pathway in physiology and therapeutics. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2008;7:156-67. (Pubitemid 351194063)
32. Webb AJ, Patel N, Loukogeorgakis S, Okorie M, Aboud Z, Misra S, et al. Acute blood pressure lowering, vasoprotective, and antiplatelet properties of dietary nitrate via bioconversion to nitrite. Hypertension 2008;51:784-90. (Pubitemid 351301536)
33. Coles LT, Clifton PM. Effect of beetroot juice on lowering blood pressure in free-living, disease-free adults: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Nutr J 2012;11:106.
34. Lansley KE, Winyard PG, Bailey SJ, Vanhatalo A, Wilkerson DP, Blackwell JR, et al. Acute dietary nitrate supplementation improves cycling time trial performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2011;43: 1125-31.
35. Simpson TS, Savage GP, Sherlock R, Vanhanen LP. Oxalate content of silver beet leaves (Beta vulgaris var. cicla) at different stages of maturation and the effect of cooking with different milk sources. J Agric Food Chem 2009;57:10804-8.
36. Bacchiocca M, Biagiotti E, Ninfali P. Nutritional and technological motives for evaluating the antioxidant capacity of vegetable products. Ital J Food Sci 2006;18:209-17. (Pubitemid 44220203)
37. Lu G, Edwards CG, Fellman JK, Mattinson DS, Navazio J. Biosynthetic origin of geosmin in red beets (Beta vulgaris L.). J Agric Food Chem 2003;51:1026-9.
38. European Institute of Oncology. Food composition database for epidemiological studies in Italy. http://www.ieo.it/bda2008/uk/index. aspx; 2008.
39. Escribano J, Pedreno MA, Garcìa-Carmona F, Munoz R. Characterization of the antiradical activity of betalains from Beta vulgaris L. roots. Phytochem Anal 1998;9:124-7. (Pubitemid 28234063)
40. Kapadia GJ, Azuine MA, Sridhar R, Okuda Y, Tsuruta A, Ichiishi E, et al. Chemoprevention of DMBA-induced UV-B promoted, NOR-1-induced TPA promoted skin carcinogenesis, and DEN-induced phenobarbital promoted liver tumors in mice by extract of beetroot. Pharmacol Res 2003;47:141-8. (Pubitemid 36263449)
41. Winkler C, Wirleitner B, Schroecksnadel K, Schennach H, Fuchs D. In vitro effects of beet root juice on stimulated and unstimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Am J Biochem Biotechnol 2005;1:180-5.
42. Patkai G, Barta J, Varsanyi I. Decomposition of anticarcinogen factors of the beetroot during juice and nectar production. Cancer Lett 1997;114:105-6. (Pubitemid 27140086)
43. Yanardag R, Colak H. Effect of chard (Beta vulgaris L. var. cicla) on blood glucose levels in normal and alloxan-induced diabetic rabbits. Pharm Pharmacol Commun 1998;4:309-11. (Pubitemid 28297124)
44. Bolkent S, Yanardag R, Tabakoglu-Oguz A, Ozsoy-Sacan O. Effects of chard (Beta vulgaris L. var. Cicla) extract on pancreatic B cells in streptozotocin-diabetic rats: a morphological and biochemical study. J Ethnopharmacol 2000;73:251-9.
45. Ozsoy-Sacan O, Karabulut-Bulan O, Bolkent S, Yanardag R, Ozgey M. Effects of chard (Beta vulgaris L. var cicla) on the liver of the diabetic rats: a morphological and biochemical study. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2004;68:1640-8. (Pubitemid 39260293)
46. Massiot G, Dijoux MG, Lavaud C, le Men-Olivier L, Connolly JD, Sheeley DM. Seco-glycosides of oleanolic acid from Beta vulgaris. Phytochem-istry 1994;37:1667-70.
47. Song J, Kwon O, Chen S, Daruwala R, Eck P, Park JB, et al. Flavonoid inhibition of sodium-dependent vitamin C transporter 1 (SVCT1) and glucose transporter isoform 2 (GLUT2), intestinal transporters for vitamin C and Glucose. J Biol Chem 2002;277:15252-60. (Pubitemid 34967785)
48. Yilmazer-Musa M, Griffith AM, Michels AJ, Schneider E, Frei B. Grape seed and tea extracts and catechin 3-gallates are potent inhibitors of alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase activity. J Agric Food Chem 2012;60:8924-9.
49. Tundis R, Loizzo MR, Statti GA, Menichini F. Inhibitory effects on the digestive enzyme alpha-amylase of three Salsola species (Chenopodiaceae) in vitro. Pharmazie 2007;62:473-5. (Pubitemid 46975275)
50. Bischoff H. The mechanism of alpha-glucosidase inhibition in the management of diabetes. Clin Invest Med 1995;18:303-11. (Pubitemid 26004877)
51. Li H, Song F, Xing J, Tsao R, Liu Z, Liu S. Screening and structural characterization of alpha-glucosidase inhibitors from hawthorn leaf flavonoids extract by ultrafiltration LC-DAD-MS(n) and SORI-CID FTICR MS. J Am Soc Mass Spectrom 2009;20:1496-503.
52. Reddy MK, exander-Lindo RL, Nair MG. Relative inhibition of lipid peroxidation, cyclooxygenase enzymes, and human tumor cell proliferation by natural food colors. J Agric Food Chem 2005;53:9268-73. (Pubitemid 41735701)
53. Atta AH, Alkofahi A. Anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of some Jordanian medicinal plant extracts. J Ethnopharmacol 1998;60: 117-24. (Pubitemid 28143721)
54. Kujawska M, Ignatowicz E, Murias M, Ewertowska M, Mikolajczyk K, Jodynis-Liebert J. Protective effect of red beetroot against carbon tetrachloride-and N-nitrosodiethylamine-induced oxidative stress in rats. J Agric Food Chem 2009;57:2570-5.
55. Pavlov A, Kovatcheva P, Tuneva D, Ilieva M, Bley T. Radical scavenging activity and stability of betalains from Beta vulgaris hairy root culture in simulated conditions of human gastrointestinal tract. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 2005;60:43-7. (Pubitemid 40968359)
56. Vinson JA, Hao Y, Su X, Zubik L. Phenol antioxidant quantity and quality in foods: vegetables. J Agric Food Chem 1998;46:3630-4. (Pubitemid 128488175)
57. Wettasinghe M, Bolling B, Plhak L, Xiao H, Parkin K. Phase II enzyme-inducing and antioxidant activities of beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) extracts from phenotypes of different pigmentation. J Agric Food Chem 2002;50:6704-9. (Pubitemid 35253161)
58. Onyeike EN, Ihugba ACGC. Influence of heat processing on the nutrient composition of vegetable leaves consumed in Nigeria. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 2003;58:1-11. (Pubitemid 40660211)
59. Singh G, Kawatra A, Sehgal S. Nutritional composition of selected green leafy vegetables, herbs and carrots. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 2001;56: 359-64. (Pubitemid 32956305)
60. Ninfali P, Mea G, Giorgini S, Rocchi M, Bacchiocca M. Antioxidant capacity of vegetables, spices and dressings relevant to nutrition. Br J Nutr 2005;93:257-66.
61. Gil MI, Ferreres F, Tomas-Barberan FA. Effect of postharvest storage and processing on the antioxidant constituents (flavonoids and vitamin C) of fresh-cut spinach. J Agric Food Chem 1999;47:2213-7. (Pubitemid 29325100)
62. Kuti JO, Konuru HB. Antioxidant capacity and phenolic content in leaf extracts of tree spinach (Cnidoscolus spp.). J Agric Food Chem 2004;52:117-21.
63. Tesoriere L, Butera D, Allegra M, Fazzari M, Livrea MA. Distribution of betalain pigments in red blood cells after consumption of cactus pear fruits and increased resistance of the cells to ex vivo induced oxidative hemolysis in humans. J Agric Food Chem 2005;53:1266-70. (Pubitemid 40270426)
64. Gentile C, Tesoriere L, Allegra M, Livrea MA, D'Alessio P. Antioxidant betalains from cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) inhibit endothelial ICAM-1 expression. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2004;1028:481-6. (Pubitemid 40361850)
65. Kanner J, Harel S, Granit R. Betalains-a new class of dietary cationized antioxidants. J Agric Food Chem 2001;49:5178-85. (Pubitemid 33089650)
66. Tesoriere L, Butera D, D'Arpa D, Di GF, Allegra M, Gentile C, et al. Increased resistance to oxidation of betalain-enriched human low density lipoproteins. Free Radic Res 2003;37:689-96. (Pubitemid 36603679)
67. Allegra M, Furtmuller PG, Jantschko W, Zederbauer M, Tesoriere L, Livrea MA, et al. Mechanism of interaction of betanin and indicaxanthin with human myeloperoxidase and hypochlorous acid. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2005;332:837-44. (Pubitemid 40745189)
68. Vulic JJ, Cebovic TN, Canadanovic VM, Cetkovic GS, Djilas SM, Canadanovic-Brunet JM, et al. Antiradical, antimicrobial and cyto-toxic activities of commercial beetroot pomace. Food Funct 2013;4: 713-21.
69. Sreekanth D, Arunasree MK, Roy KR, Chandramohan RT, Reddy GV, Reddanna P. Betanin a betacyanin pigment purified from fruits of Opuntia ficus-indica induces apoptosis in human chronic myeloid leukemia Cell line-K562. Phytomedicine 2007;14:739-46. (Pubitemid 47539100)
70. Plaumann B, Fritsche M, Rimpler H, Brandner G, Hess RD. Flavonoids activate wild-type p53. Oncogene 1996;13:1605-14. (Pubitemid 26377491)
71. Sato F, Matsukawa Y, Matsumoto K, Nishino H, Sakai T. Apigenin induces morphological differentiation and G2-M arrest in rat neuronal cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1994;204:578-84. (Pubitemid 24343959)
72. Lepley DM, Pelling JC. Induction of p21/WAF1 and G1 cell-cycle arrest by the chemopreventive agent apigenin. Mol Carcinog 1997;19: 74-82. (Pubitemid 27296738)
73. Engelmann C, Blot E, Panis Y, Bauer S, Trochon V, Nagy HJ, et al. Apigenin-strong cytostatic and anti-angiogenic action in vitro contrasted by lack of efficacy in vivo. Phytomedicine 2002;9:489-95.
74. Gupta S, Afaq F, Mukhtar H. Selective growth-inhibitory, cell-cycle deregulatory and apoptotic response of apigenin in normal versus human prostate carcinoma cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2001;287:914-20. (Pubitemid 32953563)
75. McVean M, Xiao H, Isobe K, Pelling JC. Increase in wild-type p53 stability and transactivational activity by the chemopreventive agent apigenin in keratinocytes. Carcinogenesis 2000;21:633-9. (Pubitemid 30214018)
76. Yin F, Giuliano AE, Law RE, Van Herle AJ. Apigenin inhibits growth and induces G2/M arrest by modulating cyclin-CDK regulators and ERK MAP kinase activation in breast carcinoma cells. Anticancer Res 2001;21:413-20. (Pubitemid 32267675)
77. Zhu F, Liu XG, Liang NC. Effect of emodin and apigenin on invasion of human ovarian carcinoma HO-8910 PM cells in vitro. Ai Zheng 2003;22:358-62.
78. Gupta S, Afaq F, Mukhtar H. Involvement of nuclear factor-kappa B, Bax and Bcl-2 in induction of cell cycle arrest and apoptosis by apigenin in human prostate carcinoma cells. Oncogene 2002;21:3727-38. (Pubitemid 34620536)
79. Kobayashi T, Nakata T, Kuzumaki T. Effect of flavonoids on cell cycle progression in prostate cancer cells. Cancer Lett 2002;176:17-23. (Pubitemid 34085065)
80. Lindenmeyer F, Li H, Menashi S, Soria C, Lu H. Apigenin acts on the tumor cell invasion process and regulates protease production. Nutr Cancer 2001;39:139-47. (Pubitemid 32880959)
81. Segaert S, Courtois S, Garmyn M, Degreef H, Bouillon R. The flavonoid apigenin suppresses vitamin D receptor expression and vitamin D responsiveness in normal human keratinocytes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2000;268:237-41. (Pubitemid 30116639)
82. Shukla S, Gupta S. Apigenin-induced prostate cancer cell death is initiated by reactive oxygen species and p53 activation. Free Radic Biol Med 2008;44:1833-45.
83. Takagaki N, Sowa Y, Oki T, Nakanishi R, Yogosawa S, Sakai T. Apigenin induces cell cycle arrest and p21/WAF1 expression in a p53-independent pathway. Int J Oncol 2005;26:185-9.
84. Zheng PW, Chiang LC, Lin CC. Apigenin induced apoptosis through p53-dependent pathway in human cervical carcinoma cells. Life Sci 2005;76:1367-79.
85. Yang SH, Liao PH, Pan YF, Chen SL, Chou SS, Chou MY. The novel p53-dependent metastatic and apoptotic pathway induced by vitexin in human oral cancer OC2 cells. Phytother Res 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ptr.4841.
86. Ninfali P, Bacchiocca M, Antonelli A, Biagiotti E, Di Gioacchino AM, Piccoli G, et al. Characterization and biological activity of the main flavonoids from Swiss Chard (Beta vulgaris subspecies cycla). Phytomedicine 2007;14:216-21. (Pubitemid 46157100)
87. Papi A, Farabegoli F, Iori R, Orlandi M, De Nicola GR, Bagatta M, et al. Vitexin-2-O-xyloside, raphasatin and (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate synergistically affect cell growth and apoptosis of colon cancer cells. Food Chem 2013;138:1521-30.
88. Horvathova K, Chalupa I, Sebova L, Tothova D, Vachalkova A. Protective effect of quercetin and luteolin in human melanoma HMB-2 cells. Mutat Res 2005;565:105-12. (Pubitemid 40127572)
89. Vanhees K, de Bock L, Godschalk RW, van Schooten FJ, van Waalwijk van Doorn-Khosrovani SB. Prenatal exposure to flavonoids: implication for cancer risk. Toxicol Sci 2011;120:59-67.
90. The European Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal Products. Note for guidance on the investigation of bioavailability and bioequiva-lence; 2010, 1-18.
91. Toutain PL, Bousquet-Melou A. Bioavailability and its assessment. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 2004;27:455-66. (Pubitemid 39665132)
92. Netzel M, Stintzing FC, Quaas D, Straß G, Carle R, Bitsch R, et al. Renal excretion of antioxidative constituents from red beet in humans. Food Res Int 2005;38:1051-8. (Pubitemid 41080556)
93. Frank T, Stintzing FC, Carle R, Bitsch I, Quaas D, Strass G, et al. Urinary pharmacokinetics of betalains following consumption of red beet juice in healthy humans. Pharmacol Res 2005;52:290-7. (Pubitemid 41175987)
94. Tesoriere L, Fazzari M, Angileri F, Gentile C, Livrea MA. In vitro digestion of betalainic foods. Stability and bioaccessibility of betaxanthins and betacyanins and antioxidative potential of food digesta. J Agric Food Chem 2008;56:10487-92.
95. Rechner AR, Smith MA, Kuhnle G, Gibson GR, Debnam ES, Srai SK, et al. Colonic metabolism of dietary polyphenols: influence of structure on microbial fermentation products. Free Radic Biol Med 2004;36:212-25. (Pubitemid 38117239)
96. Tesoriere L, Gentile C, Angileri F, Attanzio A, Tutone M, Allegra M, et al. Trans-epithelial transport of the betalain pigments indicaxanthin and betanin across Caco-2 cell monolayers and influence of food matrix. Eur J Nutr 2013;52:1077-87.
97. Leathers RR, Davis C, Zrÿd JP. Betalain producing cell cultures of Beta vulgaris L. var. bikores monogerm (red beet). In vitro-Plant 1992;28: 39-45.
98. Ma LY, Liu RH, Xu XD, Yu MQ, Zhang Q, Liu HL. The pharmacokinetics of C-glycosyl flavones of Hawthorn leaf flavonoids in rat after single dose oral administration. Phytomedicine 2010;17:640-5.
99. Xu YA, Fan G, Gao S, Hong Z. Assessment of intestinal absorption of vitexin-2″-o-rhamnoside in hawthorn leaves flavonoids in rat using in situ and in vitro absorption models. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 2008;34:164-70. (Pubitemid 351317141)
100. Blasa M, Angelino D, Gennari L, Ninfali P. The cellular antioxidant activity in red blood cells (CAA-RBC): a new approach to bioavailabil-ity and synergy of phytochemicals and botanical extracts. Food Chem 2011;125:685-91.
101. Cai H, Boocock DJ, Steward WP, Gescher AJ. Tissue distribution in mice and metabolism in murine and human liver of apigenin and tricin, flavones with putative cancer chemopreventive properties. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 2007;60:257-66. (Pubitemid 46742541)
102. Meyer H, Bolarinwa A, Wolfram G, Linseisen J. Bioavailability of apigenin from apiin-rich parsley in humans. Ann Nutr Metab 2006;50:167-72. (Pubitemid 43829804)
103. Molyneux RJ, Waiss Jr AC, Haddon WF. Oxidative coupling of apigenin. Tetrahedron 2011;26:1409-16.
104. Ninfali P, Dominic S, Angelino D, Gennari L, Buondelmonte C, Giorgi L. An ELISA test for the measurement of plasma flavonoids in apigenin-C-glycoside fed mice. J Sci Food Agric 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.6143.
105. Braune A, Blaut M. Deglycosylation of puerarin and other aromatic C-glucosides by a newly isolated human intestinal bacterium. Environ Microbiol 2011;13:482-94.
106. Braune A, Blaut M. Intestinal bacterium Eubacterium cellulosolvens deglycosylates flavonoid C-and O-glucosides. Appl Environ Microbiol 2012;78:8151-3.
107. Jackman RL, Smith JL. Anthocyanins and betalains. In: Hendry GAF, Houghton JD, editors. Natural food colorants. London: Chapman & Hal; 1996. p. 244-309.
108. Aune D, Lau R, Chan DS, Vieira R, Greenwood DC, Kampman E, et al. Nonlinear reduction in risk for colorectal cancer by fruit and vegetable intake based on meta-analysis of prospective studies. Gastroenterol-ogy 2011;141:106-18.
109. Singleton VL, Orthofer R, Lamuela-Raventos RM. Analysis of total phenols and other antioxidant substrates and antioxidant by mean of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent. Meth Enzymol 1999;299:152-78. (Pubitemid 28483890)
110. Eberhardt MV, Lee CY, Liu RH. Antioxidant activity of fresh apples. Nature 2000;405:903-4. (Pubitemid 30435037)