Dietary omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and Alzheimer's disease: Interaction with apolipoprotein E genotype

Current Alzheimer Research

Volumn 8, Issue 5, 2011, Pages 479-491

  Barberger Gateau, P ^a,b   Samieri, C ^a,b   Feart C ^a,b   Plourde, M ^c  

^a INSERM   (France)

^b UNIVERSITÉ DE BORDEAUX   (France)

^c UNIVERSITÉ DE SHERBROOKE   (Canada)

Author keywords

Alzheimer's disease; Apolipoprotein e; Fatty acids; Nutrition; Omega 3

Indexed keywords

ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; AMYLOID BETA PROTEIN; APOLIPOPROTEIN; APOLIPOPROTEIN E; APOLIPOPROTEIN E4; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; CAROTENOID; CATALASE; CHOLESTEROL; DOCOSAHEXAENOIC ACID; FATTY ACID; FISH OIL; GLUCOSE; ICOSAPENTAENOIC ACID; INTERLEUKIN 6; KETONE; LIPOPROTEIN; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN RECEPTOR; OMEGA 3 FATTY ACID; PITTSBURGH COMPOUND B; REACTIVE NITROGEN SPECIES; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; SELENIUM; TRIACYLGLYCEROL; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; VERY LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN;

AFRICAN AMERICAN; ALLELE; ALPHA TOCOPHEROL DEFICIENCY; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; ARTICLE; BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER; BRAIN; BRAIN ATROPHY; CAUCASIAN; CHOLESTEROL BLOOD LEVEL; CHOLESTEROL TRANSPORT; COGNITION; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DEMENTIA; DEPRESSION; DETERIORATION; DIETARY INTAKE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE COURSE; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG TRANSPORT; ENCEPHALITIS; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; ENZYME ACTIVITY; FAT INTAKE; FATTY ACID METABOLISM; FATTY ACID TRANSPORT; GENE FREQUENCY; GENETIC RISK; GENOTYPE; GLUCOSE METABOLISM; GLUCOSE TRANSPORT; HOMEOSTASIS; HUMAN; HYPERHOMOCYSTEINEMIA; INTERVENTION STUDY; LEARNING; LIPID BLOOD LEVEL; LIPID METABOLISM; LIPID PEROXIDATION; LIPID TRANSPORT; MEMORY; MOOD; MYELINATION; NERVE CELL PLASTICITY; NEUROTRANSMISSION; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; OBESITY; ONSET AGE; OXIDATIVE STRESS; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN BINDING; PROTEIN BLOOD LEVEL; PROTEIN POLYMORPHISM; RISK FACTOR; SMALL INTESTINE; SYNAPTOGENESIS; SYNAPTOSOME; TRIACYLGLYCEROL BLOOD LEVEL; VITAMIN BLOOD LEVEL; VITAMIN SUPPLEMENTATION;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; ANIMALS; APOLIPOPROTEINS E; DIET; FATTY ACIDS, OMEGA-3; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; GENOTYPE; HUMANS;

EID: 79959924129     PISSN: 15672050     EISSN: 18755828     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/156720511796391926     Document Type: Article

References (156)

1. Fotuhi M, Hachinski V, Whitehouse PJ. Changing perspectives regarding late-life dementia. Nat Rev Neurol 5: 649-58 (2009).
2. Rapoport SI. Arachidonic acid and the brain. J Nutr 138: 2515-2520 (2008).
3. Lukiw WJ, Bazan NG. Docosahexaenoic acid and the aging brain. J Nutr 138: 2510-2514 (2008).
4. Schmitz G, Ecker J. The opposing effects of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids. Prog Lipid Res 47: 147 (2008).
5. Plourde M, Cunnane S. Extremely limited conversion of long chain omega 3 polyunsaturates in adults: implications for their dietary essentiality and use as supplements. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 32: 619-634 (2007).
6. Bourre JM, Paquotte P. Contributions (in 2005) of marine and fresh water products (finfish and shellfish, seafood, wild and farmed) to the French dietary intakes of vitamins D and B12, selenium, iodine and docosahexaenoic acid: impact on public health. Int J Food Sci Nutr 59: 491-501 (2008).
7. Kalmijn S, Launer LJ, Ott A, Witteman JCM, Hofman A, Breteler MMB. Dietary fat intake and the risk of incident dementia in the Rotterdam study. Ann Neurol 42: 776-782 (1997).
8. Barberger-Gateau P, Letenneur L, Deschamps V, Peres K, Dartigues J-F, Renaud S. Fish, meat, and risk of dementia: cohort study. BMJ 325: 932-933 (2002).
9. Morris MC, Evans DA, Bienias JL, Tangney CC, Bennett DA, Wilson RS, et al. Consumption of fish and n-3 fatty acids and risk of incident Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 60: 940-946 (2003).
10. Barberger-Gateau P, Raffaitin C, Letenneur L, Berr C, Tzourio C, Dartigues JF, et al. Dietary patterns and risk of dementia: the Three-City cohort study. Neurology 69: 1921-1930 (2007).
11. Albanese E, Dangour AD, Uauy R, Acosta D, Guerra M, Guerra SSG, et al. Dietary fish and meat intake and dementia in Latin America, China, and India: a 10/66 Dementia Research Group population-based study. Am J Clin Nutr 90: 392-400 (2009).
12. Engelhart MJ, Geerlings MI, Ruitenberg A, van Swieten JC, Hofman A, Witteman JCM, et al. Diet and risk of dementia: Does fat matter? The Rotterdam Study. Neurology 59: 1915-1921 (2002).
13. Devore EE, Grodstein F, van Rooij FJA, Hofman A, Rosner B, Stampfer MJ, et al. Dietary intake of fish and omega-3 fatty acids in relation to long-term dementia risk. Am J Clin Nutr 90: 170-176 (2009).
14. Kroger E, Verreault R, Carmichael P-H, Lindsay J, Julien P, Dewailly E, et al. Omega-3 fatty acids and risk of dementia: the Canadian Study of Health and Aging. Am J Clin Nutr 90: 184-192 (2009).
15. van de Rest O, Spiro A, III, Krall-Kaye E, Geleijnse JM, de Groot LCPGM, Tucker KL. Intakes of (n-3) Fatty Acids and Fatty Fish Are Not Associated with Cognitive Performance and 6-Year Cognitive Change in Men Participating in the Veterans Affairs Normative Aging Study. J Nutr 139: 2329-2336 (2009).
16. Kotani S, Sakaguchi E, Warashina S, Matsukawa N, Ishikura Y, Kiso Y, et al. Dietary supplementation of arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids improves cognitive dysfunction. Neurosci Res 56: 159-64 (2006).
17. Chiu C-C, Su K-P, Cheng T-C, Liu H-C, Chang C-J, Dewey ME, et al. The effects of omega-3 fatty acids monotherapy in Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment: A preliminary randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study. Prog Neuropsychopharma-col Biol Psychiatry 32: 1538 (2008).
18. van de Rest OM, Geleijnse JMP, Kok FJP, van Staveren WAP, Dullemeijer CM, Olde Rikkert MGMMDP, et al. Effect of fish oil on cognitive performance in older subjects: A randomized, controlled trial. Neurology 71: 430-438 (2008).
19. Rogers PJ, Appleton KM, Kessler D, Peters TJ, Gunnell D, Hayward RC, et al. No effect of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (EPA and DHA) supplementation on depressed mood and cognitive function: a randomised controlled trial. Br J Nutr 99: 421-31 (2008).
20. Dangour AD, Allen E, Elbourne D, Fasey N, Fletcher AE, Hardy P, et al. Effect of 2-y n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on cognitive function in older people: a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 91: 1725-1732 (2010).
21. Freund-Levi Y, Eriksdotter-Jonhagen M, Cederholm T, Basun H, Faxen-Irving G, Garlind A, et al. Omega-3 Fatty Acid Treatment in 174 Patients With Mild to Moderate Alzheimer Disease: OmegAD Study: A Randomized Double-blind Trial. Arch Neurol 63: 1402-1408 (2006).
22. Yurko-Mauro K, McCarthy D, Rom D, Nelson EB, Ryan AS, Blackwell A, et al. Beneficial effects of docosahexaenoic acid on cognition in age-related cognitive decline. Alzheimers Dement 6: 456-464 (2010).
23. Cunnane SC, Plourde M, Pifferi F, Bégin M, Féart C, Barberger-Gateau P. Fish, docosahexaenoic acid and Alzheimer's disease. Prog Lipid Res 48: 239-256 (2009).
24. Blennow K, de Leon MJ, Zetterberg H. Alzheimer's disease. Lancet 368: 387-403 (2006).
25. Solfrizzi V, D'Introno A, Colacicco AM, Capurso C, Todarello O, Pellicani V, et al. Circulating biomarkers of cognitive decline and dementia. Clin Chim Acta 364: 91 (2006).
26. Lambert J-C, Heath S, Even G, Campion D, Sleegers K, Hiltunen M, et al. Genome-wide association study identifies variants at CLU and CR1 associated with Alzheimer's disease. Nat Genet 41: 1094-U68 (2009).
27. Cedazo-Mínguez A. Apolipoprotein E and Alzheimer's disease: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic opportunities. J Cell Mol Med 11: 1227-1238 (2007).
28. Panza F, Solfrizzi V, Torres F, Mastroianni F, DelParigi A, Colacicco AM, et al. Decreased frequency of apolipoprotein E epsilon 4 allele from Northern to Southern Europe in Alzheimer's disease patients and centenarians. Neurosci Lett 277: 53-56 (1999).
29. Farrer LAP, Cupples LAP, Haines JLP, Hyman BMDP, Kukull WAP, Mayeux RMD, et al. Effects of age, sex, and ethnicity on the association between apolipoprotein E genotype and Alzheimer disease: a meta-analysis. Jama 278: 1349-1356 (1997).
30. Mahley RW, Weisgraber KH, Huang Y. Apolipoprotein E4: a causative factor and therapeutic target in neuropathology, including Alzheimer's disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103: 5644-51 (2006).
31. Drzezga A, Grimmer T, Henriksen G, Muhlau M, Perneczky R, Miederer I, et al. Effect of APOE genotype on amyloid plaque load and gray matter volume in Alzheimer disease. Neurology 72: 1487-1494 (2009).
32. Kok E, Haikonen S, Luoto T, Huhtala H, Goebeler S, Haapasalo H, et al. Apolipoprotein E-dependent accumulation of Alzheimer disease-related lesions begins in middle age. Ann Neurol 65: 650-657 (2009).
33. Jofre-Monseny L, Minihane A-M, Rimbach G. Impact of apoE genotype on oxidative stress, inflammation and disease risk. Mol Nutr Food Res 52: 131-145 (2008).
34. Querfurth HW, LaFerla FM. Alzheimer's Disease. N Engl J Med 362: 329-344 (2010).
35. Montine TJ, Neely MD, Quinn JF, Beal MF, Markesbery WR, Roberts LJ, et al. Lipid peroxidation in aging brain and Alzheimer's disease. Free Radic Biol Med 33: 620-6 (2002).
36. Markesbery WR, Kryscio RJ, Lovell MA, Morrow JD. Lipid peroxidation is an early event in the brain in amnestic mild cognitive impairment. Ann Neurol 58: 730-5 (2005).
37. Lauderback CM, Kanski J, Hackett JM, Maeda N, Kindy MS, Butterfield DA. Apolipoprotein E modulates Alzheimer's A[beta](1-42)-induced oxidative damage to synaptosomes in an allele-specific manner. Brain Research 924: 90-97 (2002).
38. Miyata M, Smith JD. Apolipoprotein E allele-specific antioxidant activity and effects on cytotoxicity by oxidative insults and beta-amyloid peptides. Nat Genet 14: 55-61 (1996).
39. Ortega H, Castilla P, Gomez-Coronado D, Garces C, Benavente M, Rodriguez-Artalejo F, et al. Influence of apolipoprotein E genotype on fat-soluble plasma antioxidants in Spanish children. Am J Clin Nutr 81: 624-632 (2005).
40. Mas E, Dupuy AM, Artero S, Portet F, Cristol JP, Ritchie K, et al. Functional vitamin E deficiency in ApoE4 patients with Alzheimer's disease. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 21 (3): 198-204 (2006).
41. Morris MC, Evans DA, Bienias JL, Tangney CC, Bennett DA, Aggarwal N, et al. Dietary intake of antioxidant nutrients and the risk of incident Alzheimer disease on a biracial community study. Jama 287: 3230-3237 (2002).
42. Hu P, Bretsky P, Crimmins EM, Guralnik JM, Reuben DB, Seeman TE. Association between serum beta-carotene levels and decline of cognitive function in high-functioning older persons with or without apolipoprotein E 4 alleles: MacArthur studies of successful aging. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 61: 616-20 (2006).
43. Gao S, Jin Y, Hall KS, Liang C, Unverzagt FW, Ma F, et al. Selenium level is associated with apoE epsilon4 in rural elderly Chinese. Public Health Nutr 12: 2371-6 (2009).
44. Kharrazi H, Vaisi-Raygani A, Rahimi Z, Tavilani H, Aminian M, Pourmotabbed T. Association between enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant defense mechanism with apolipoprotein E genotypes in Alzheimer disease. Clin Biochem 41: 932-936 (2008).
45. Holmes C, Cunningham C, Zotova E, Woolford J, Dean C, Kerr S, et al. Systemic inflammation and disease progression in Alzheimer disease. Neurology 73: 768-774 (2009).
46. Finch CE, Morgan TE. Systemic inflammation, infection, ApoE alleles, and Alzheimer disease: a position paper. Curr Alzheimer Res 4: 185-9 (2007).
47. Belinson H, Michaelson DM. ApoE4-dependent Abeta-mediated neurodegeneration is associated with inflammatory activation in the hippocampus but not the septum. J Neural Transm 116: 1427-34 (2009).
48. Chasman DI, Kozlowski P, Zee RY, Kwiatkowski DJ, Ridker PM. Qualitative and quantitative effects of APOE genetic variation on plasma C-reactive protein, LDL-cholesterol, and apoE protein. Genes Immun 7: 211-219 (2006).
49. Ravaglia G, Forti P, Maioli F, Chiappelli M, Montesi F, Bianchin M, et al. Apolipoprotein E e4 allele affects risk of hyperhomo-cysteinemia in the elderly. Am J Clin Nutr 84: 1473-80 (2006).
50. Rontu R, Ojala P, Hervonen A, Goebeler S, Karhunen PJ, Nikkilä M, et al. Apolipoprotein E genotype is related to plasma levels of C-reactive protein and lipids and to longevity in nonagenarians. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 64: 265-270 (2006).
51. Noble JM, Manly JJ, Schupf N, Tang MX, Mayeux R, Luchsinger JA. Association of C-reactive protein with cognitive impairment. Arch Neurol 67: 87-92 (2010).
52. Mu H, Hoy CE. The digestion of dietary triacylglycerols. Prog Lipid Res 43: 105-33 (2004).
53. Hooijmans CR, Kiliaan AJ. Fatty acids, lipid metabolism and Alzheimer pathology. Eur J Pharmacol 585: 176-196 (2008).
54. Mahley RW, Rall SC. Apoliprotein E: far more than a lipid transport protein. Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet 1: 507-537 (2000).
55. Shobab LA, Hsiung G-YR, Feldman HH. Cholesterol in Alzheimer's disease. Lancet Neurol 4: 841-852 (2005).
56. Lane RM, Farlow MR. Lipid homeostasis and apolipoprotein E in the development and progression of Alzheimer's disease. J Lipid Res 46: 949-68 (2005).
57. Garry PJ, Baumgartner RN, Brodie SG, Montoya GD, Liang HC, Lindeman RD, et al. Estrogen replacement therapy, serum lipids, and polymorphism of the apolipoprotein E gene. Clin Chem 45: 1214-1223 (1999).
58. Staehelin HB, PerrigChiello P, Mitrache C, Miserez AR, Perrig WJ. Apolipoprotein E genotypes and cognitive functions in healthy elderly persons. Acta Neurol Scand 100: 53-60 (1999).
59. Wehr H, Parnowski T, Puzynski S, BednarskaMakaruk M, Bisko M, KotapkaMinc S, et al. Apolipoprotein E genotype and lipid and lipoprotein levels in dementia. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 11: 70-73 (2000).
60. Giltay EJ, van Reedt Dortland AKB, Nissinen A, Giampaoli S, van Veen T, Zitman FG, et al. Serum cholesterol, apolipoprotein E genotype and depressive symptoms in elderly European men: The FINE study. J Affect Disord 115: 471-477 (2009).
61. Kuo YM, Emmerling MR, Bisgaier CL, Essenburg AD, Lampert HC, Drumm D, et al. Elevated low-density lipoprotein in Alzheimer's disease correlates with brain A beta 1-42 levels. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 252: 711-715 (1998).
62. Kivipelto M, Helkala E-L, Laakso MP, Hanninen T, Hallikainen M, Alhainen K, et al. Apolipoprotein E epsilon 4 allele, elevated midlife total cholesterol level, and high midlife systolic blood pressure are independent risk factors for late-life Alzheimer disease. Ann Intern Med 137: 149-155 (2002).
63. Solomon A, Kivipelto M, Wolozin B, Zhou J, Whitmer RA. Midlife serum cholesterol and increased risk of Alzheimer's and vascular dementia three decades later. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 28: 75-80 (2009).
64. Solomon A, Kareholt I, Ngandu T, Winblad B, Nissinen A, Tuomilehto J, et al. Serum cholesterol changes after midlife and late-life cognition - Twenty-one-year follow-up study. Neurology 68: 751-756 (2007).
65. Stewart R, White LR, Xue QL, Launer LJ. Twenty-six-year change in total cholesterol levels and incident dementia - The Honolulu-Asia Aging Study. Arch Neurol 64: 103-107 (2007).
66. Evans RM, Emsley CL, Gao S, Sahota A, Hall KS, Farlow MR, et al. Serum cholesterol, APOE genotype, and the risk of Alzheimer's disease: A population-based study of African Americans. Neurology 54: 240-242 (2000).
67. Hall K, Murrell J, Ogunniyi A, Deeg M, Baiyewu O, Gao S, et al. Cholesterol, APOE genotype, and Alzheimer disease: An epide-miologic study of Nigerian Yoruba. Neurology 66: 223-227 (2006).
68. Dufouil C, Richard F, Fievet N, Dartigues JF, Ritchie K, Tzourio C, et al. APOE genotype, cholesterol level, lipid-lowering treatment, and dementia: the Three-City Study. Neurology 64: 1531-8 (2005).
69. West R, Beeri MS, Schmeidler J, Hannigan CM, Angelo G, Grossman HT, et al. Better memory functioning associated with higher total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in very elderly subjects without the apolipoprotein e4 allele. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 16: 781-785 (2008).
70. van den Kommer TN, Dik MG, Comijs HC, Fassbender K, Lutjohann D, Jonker C. Total cholesterol and oxysterols: Early markers for cognitive decline in elderly? Neurobiol Aging 30: 534-545 (2009).
71. Minihane AM, Jofre-Monseny L, Olano-Martin E, Rimbach G. ApoE genotype, cardiovascular risk and responsiveness to dietary fat manipulation. Proc Nutr Soc 66: 183-97 (2007).
72. Plourde M, Fortier M, Vandal M, Tremblay-Mercier J, Freemantle E, Bégin M, et al. Unresolved issues in the link between docosahexaenoic acid and Alzheimer's disease. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 77: 301 (2007).
73. Kim J, Basak JM, Holtzman DM. The role of apolipoprotein E in Alzheimer's disease. Neuron 63: 287-303 (2009).
74. Fraser T, Tayler H, Love S. Fatty acid composition of frontal, temporal and parietal neocortex in the normal human brain and in Alzheimer's disease. Neurochem Res 35: 503-13 (2010).
75. Huang TL, Zandi PP, Tucker KL, Fitzpatrick AL, Kuller LH, Fried LP, et al. Benefits of fatty fish on dementia risk are stronger for those without APOE epsilon4. Neurology 65: 1409-1414 (2005).
76. Beydoun MA, Kaufman JS, Satia JA, Rosamond W, Folsom AR. Plasma n-3 fatty acids and the risk of cognitive decline in older adults: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Am J Clin Nutr 85: 1103-1111 (2007).
77. Whalley LJ, Deary IJ, Starr JM, Wahle KW, Rance KA, Bourne VJ, et al. n-3 Fatty acid erythrocyte membrane content, APOE epsilon4, and cognitive variation: an observational follow-up study in late adulthood. Am J Clin Nutr 87: 449-454 (2008).
78. Samieri C, Feart C, Proust-Lima C, Peuchant E, Dartigues JF, Amieva H, et al. Omega-3 fatty acids and cognitive decline: modulation by ApoE epsilon4 allele and depression. Neurobiol Aging: (in press)
79. Laitinen MH, Ngandu T, Rovio S, Helkala EL, Uusitalo U, Viitanen M, et al. Fat intake at midlife and risk of dementia and Alzheimer's disease: a population-based study. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 22: 99-107 (2006).
80. Kivipelto M, Rovio S, Ngandu T, Kåreholt I, Eskelinen M, Winblad B, et al. Apolipoprotein epsilon4 magnifies lifestyle risks for dementia: a population-based study. J Cell Mol Med 12: 2762-2771 (2008).
81. Samieri C, Feart C, Letenneur L, Dartigues J-F, Peres K, Auriacombe S, et al. Low plasma eicosapentaenoic acid and depressive symptomatology are independent predictors of dementia risk. Am J Clin Nutr 88: 714-721 (2008).
82. Quinn JF, Raman R, Thomas RG, Yurko-Mauro K, Nelson EB, van Dyck C, et al. Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation and cognitive decline in Alzheimer Disease: A randomized trial. JAMA 304: 1903-1911 (2010).
83. Joseph J, Cole G, Head E, Ingram D. Nutrition, Brain Aging, and Neurodegeneration. J Neurosci 29: 12795-12801 (2009).
84. Cole GM, Frautschy SA. DHA May Prevent Age-Related Dementia. J Nutr 140: 869-874 (2010).
85. Polozova A, Salem N. Role of liver and plasma lipoproteins in selective transport of n-3 fatty acids to tissues: a comparative study of 14C-DHA and 3H-oleic acid tracers. J Mol Neurosci 33: 56-66 (2007).
86. Edmond J. Essential polyunsaturated fatty acids and the barrier to the brain: the components of a model for transport. J Mol Neurosci 16: 181-93; discussion 215-21 (2001).
87. Hamilton JA, Brunaldi K. A model for fatty acid transport into the brain. J Mol Neurosci 33: 12-7 (2007).
88. Spector AA. Plasma free fatty acid and lipoproteins as sources of polyunsaturated fatty acid for the brain. J Mol Neurosci 16: 159-65; discussion 215-21 (2001).
89. Hamilton JA, Hillard CJ, Spector AA, Watkins PA. Brain uptake and utilization of fatty acids, lipids and lipoproteins: application to neurological disorders. J Mol Neurosci 33: 2-11 (2007).
90. Plourde M, Vohl M-C, Vandal M, Couture P, Lemieux S, Cunnane SC. Plasma n-3 fatty acid response to an n-3 fatty acid supplement is modulated by apoE 4 but not by the common PPAR-alpha L162V polymorphism in men. Br J Nutr 102: 1121-1124 (2009).
91. Sadou H, Leger CL, Descomps B, Barjon JN, Monnier L, Crastes de Paulet A. Differential incorporation of fish-oil eicosapentaenoate and docosahexaenoate into lipids of lipoprotein fractions as related to their glyceryl esterification: a short-term (postprandial) and long-term study in healthy humans. Am J Clin Nutr 62: 1193-200 (1995).
92. Gibney MJ, Daly E. The incorporation of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids into plasma lipid and lipoprotein fractions in the postprandial phase in healthy volunteers. Eur J Clin Nutr 48: 866-72 (1994).
93. Heath RB, Karpe F, Milne RW, Burdge GC, Wootton SA, Frayn KN. Selective partitioning of dietary fatty acids into the VLDL TG pool in the early postprandial period. J Lipid Res 44: 2065-72 (2003).
94. Motoyama KR, Curb JD, Kadowaki T, El-Saed A, Abbott RD, Okamura T, et al. Association of serum n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids with lipids in 3 populations of middle-aged men. Am J Clin Nutr 90: 49-55 (2009).
95. Anil E. The impact of EPA and DHA on blood lipids and lipoprotein metabolism: influence of apoE genotype. Proc Nutr Soc 66: 60-8 (2007).
96. Masson LF, McNeill G, Avenell A. Genetic variation and the lipid response to dietary intervention: a systematic review. Am J Clin Nutr 77: 1098-1111 (2003).
97. Olano-Martin E, Anil E, Caslake MJ, Packard CJ, Bedford D, Stewart G, et al. Contribution of apolipoprotein E genotype and docosahexaenoic acid to the LDL-cholesterol response to fish oil. Atherosclerosis 209: 104-10 (2010).
98. Nagao K, Yanagita T. Bioactive lipids in metabolic syndrome. Prog Lipid Res 47: 127 (2008).
99. Paula R, Souza V, Benedet A, Souza E, Toledo J, Moraes C, et al. Dietary fat and apolipoprotein genotypes modulate plasma lipoprotein levels in Brazilian elderly women. Mol Cell Biochem 337: 307-315 (2010).
100. Caslake MJ, Miles EA, Kofler BM, Lietz G, Curtis P, Armah CK, et al. Effect of sex and genotype on cardiovascular biomarker response to fish oils: the FINGEN Study. Am J Clin Nutr 88: 618-629 (2008).
101. Farr SA, Yamada KA, Butterfield DA, Abdul HM, Xu L, Miller NE, et al. Obesity and hypertriglyceridemia produce cognitive impairment. Endocrinology 149: 2628-36 (2008).
102. Raffaitin C, Gin H, Empana JP, Helmer C, Berr C, Tzourio C, et al. Metabolic syndrome and risk for incident Alzheimer's disease or vascular dementia: the Three - City study. Diabetes Care 32: 169-174 (2009).
103. Cooper JL. Dietary lipids in the aetiology of Alzheimer's disease: implications for therapy. Drugs Aging 20: 399-418 (2003).
104. GomezRamos A, DiazNido J, Smith MA, Perry G, Avila J. Effect of the lipid peroxidation product acrolein on tau phosphorylation in neural cells. J Neurosci Res 71: 863-870 (2003).
105. Szekely CA, Breitner JCS, Fitzpatrick AL, Rea TD, Psaty BM, Kuller LH, et al. NSAID use and dementia risk in the cardiovascular health study - Role of APOE and NSAID type. Neurology 70: 17-24 (2008).
106. Freund-Levi Y, Hjorth E, Lindberg C, Cederholm T, Faxen-Irving G, Vedin I, et al. Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Inflammatory Markers in Cerebrospinal Fluid and Plasma in Alzheimer's Disease: The OmegAD Study. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 27: 481-490 (2009).
107. Kalpouzos G, Chetelat G, Baron JC, Landeau B, Mevel K, Godeau C, et al. Voxel-based mapping of brain gray matter volume and glucose metabolism profiles in normal aging. Neurobiol Aging 30: 112-24 (2009).
108. Kalpouzos G, Eustache F, de la Sayette V, Viader F, Chetelat G, Desgranges B. Working memory and FDG-PET dissociate early and late onset Alzheimer disease patients. J Neurol 252: 548-58 (2005).
109. Reiman EM, Chen K, Alexander GE, Caselli RJ, Bandy D, Osborne D, et al. Functional brain abnormalities in young adults at genetic risk for late-onset Alzheimer's dementia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101: 284-9 (2004).
110. Owen OE, Morgan AP, Kemp HG, Sullivan JM, Herrera MG, Cahill GF, Jr. Brain metabolism during fasting. J Clin Invest 46: 1589-95 (1967).
111. Freemantle E, Vandal M, Tremblay-Mercier J, Plourde M, Poirier J, Cunnane S. Metabolic response to a ketogenic breakfast in the healthy elderly. J Nutr Health Aging 13: 293 (2009).
112. Reger MA, Henderson ST, Hale C, Cholerton B, Baker LD, Watson GS, et al. Effects of [beta]-hydroxybutyrate on cognition in memory-impaired adults. Neurobiol Aging 25: 311-314 (2004).
113. Henderson ST, Vogel JL, Barr LJ, Garvin F, Jones JJ, Costantini LC. Study of the ketogenic agent AC-1202 in mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial. Nutr Metab (Lond) 6: 31 (2009).
114. Tucker KL, Qiao N, Scott T, Rosenberg I, Spiro A. High homocysteine and low B vitamins predict cognitive decline in aging men: the Veterans Affairs Normative Aging Study. Am J Clin Nutr 82: 627-35 (2005).
115. Clarke R, Birks J, Nexo E, Ueland PM, Schneede J, Scott J, et al. Low vitamin B-12 status and risk of cognitive decline in older adults. Am J Clin Nutr 86: 1384-1391 (2007).
116. Haan MN, Miller JW, Aiello AE, Whitmer RA, Jagust WJ, Mungas DM, et al. Homocysteine, B vitamins, and the incidence of dementia and cognitive impairment: results from the Sacramento Area Latino Study on Aging. Am J Clin Nutr 85: 511-7 (2007).
117. Seshadri S, Beiser A, Selhub J, Jacques PF, Rosenberg IH, D'Agostino RB, et al. Plasma homocysteine as a risk factor for dementia and Alzheimer's disease. N Engl J Med 346: 476-83 (2002).
118. Ravaglia G, Forti P, Maioli F, Martelli M, Servadei L, Brunetti N, et al. Homocysteine and folate as risk factors for dementia and Alzheimer disease. Am J Clin Nutr 82: 636-43 (2005).
119. Ravaglia G, Forti P, Maioli F, Chiappelli M, Montesi F, Tumini E, et al. Blood inflammatory markers and risk of dementia: The conselice study of brain aging. Neurobiol Aging 28: 1810-1820 (2007).
120. Elias MF, Robbins MA, Budge MM, Elias PK, Dore GA, Brennan SL, et al. Homocysteine and cognitive performance: Modification by the ApoE genotype. Neurosci Lett 430: 64-69 (2008).
121. Li D, Yu XM, Xie HB, Zhang YH, Wang Q, Zhou XQ, et al. Platelet phospholipid n-3 PUFA negatively associated with plasma homocysteine in middle-aged and geriatric hyperlipaemia patients. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 76: 293-297 (2007).
122. Huang T, Wahlqvist ML, Li D. Docosahexaenoic acid decreases plasma homocysteine via regulating enzyme activity and mRNA expression involved in methionine metabolism. Nutrition 26: 112-9 (2010).
123. Olszewski AJ, McCully KS. Fish oil decreases serum homocy-steine in hyperlipemic men. Coron Artery Dis 4: 53-60 (1993).
124. Selley ML. A metabolic link between S-adenosylhomocysteine and polyunsaturated fatty acid metabolism in Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 28: 1834-9 (2007).
125. Kanaya AM, Lindquist K, Harris TB, Launer L, Rosano C, Satterfield S, et al. Total and regional adiposity and cognitive change in older adults: The Health, Aging and Body Composition (ABC) study. Arch Neurol 66: 329-35 (2009).
126. Sabia S, Kivimaki M, Shipley MJ, Marmot MG, Singh-Manoux A. Body mass index over the adult life course and cognition in late midlife: the Whitehall II Cohort Study. Am J Clin Nutr 89: 601-607 (2009).
127. Beydoun MA, Lhotsky A, Wang Y, Forno GD, An Y, Metter EJ, et al. Association of Adiposity Status and Changes in Early to Mid-Adulthood With Incidence of Alzheimer's Disease. Am J Epidemiol 168: 1179-1189 (2008).
128. Whitmer RA, Gustafson DR, Barrett-Connor E, Haan MN, Gunderson EP, Yaffe K. Central obesity and increased risk of dementia more than three decades later. Neurology 71: 1057-1064 (2008).
129. Fitzpatrick AL, Kuller LH, Lopez OL, Diehr P, O'Meara ES, Longstreth WT, et al. Midlife and late-life obesity and the risk of dementia: cardiovascular health study. Arch Neurol 66: 336-42 (2009).
130. Kivipelto M, Ngandu T, Fratiglioni L, Viitanen M, Kareholt I, Winblad B, et al. Obesity and vascular risk factors at midlife and the risk of dementia and Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 62: 1556-60 (2005).
131. Kim H-K, Della-Fera M, Lin J, Baile CA. Docosahexaenoic Acid Inhibits Adipocyte Differentiation and Induces Apoptosis in 3T3-L1 Preadipocytes. J Nutr 136: 2965-2969 (2006).
132. Micallef M, Munro I, Phang M, Garg M. Plasma n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids are negatively associated with obesity. Br J Nutr 102: 1370-4 (2009).
133. Kypreos KE, Karagiannides I, Fotiadou EH, Karavia EA, Brinkmeier MS, Giakoumi SM, et al. Mechanisms of obesity and related pathologies: Role of apolipoprotein E in the development of obesity. FEBS J 276: 5720-5728 (2009).
134. Luchsinger JA, Tang MX, Shea S, Mayeux R. Caloric intake and the risk of Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 59: 1258-1263 (2002).
135. Beydoun MA, Beydoun HA, Wang Y. Obesity and central obesity as risk factors for incident dementia and its subtypes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obes Rev 9: 204-18 (2008).
136. Nourhashemi F, Deschamps V, Larrieu S, Letenneur L, Dartigues JF, Barberger-Gateau P. Body mass index and incidence of dementia: the PAQUID study. Neurology 60: 117-119 (2003).
137. Atti AR, Palmer K, Volpato S, Winblad B, de Ronchi D, Fratiglioni L. Late-life body mass index and dementia incidence: Nine-year follow-up data from the kungsholmen project. J Am Geriatr Soc 56: 111-116 (2008).
138. Wengreen HJ, Neilson C, Munger R, Corcoran C. Diet Quality Is Associated with Better Cognitive Test Performance among Aging Men and Women. J Nutr 139: 1944-1949 (2009).
139. Vanhanen M, Kivipelto M, Koivisto K, Kuusisto J, Mykkänen L, Helkala EL, et al. APOE-e4 is associated with weight loss in women with AD. A population-based study. Neurology 56: 655-659 (2001).
140. Faxen Irving G, Freund-Levi Y, Eriksdotter-Jonhagen M, Basun H, Brismar K, Hjorth E, et al. Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation Effects on Weight and Appetite in Patients with Alzheimer's Disease: The Omega-3 Alzheimer's Disease Study. J Am Geriatr Soc: (2008).
141. Jorm AF. Is depression a risk factor for dementia or cognitive decline? A review. Gerontology 46: 219-227 (2000).
142. Luchsinger JA, Honig LS, Tang MX, Devanand DP. Depressive symptoms, vascular risk factors, and Alzheimer's disease. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 23: 922-928 (2008).
143. Modrego PJ, Ferrandez J. Depression in patients with mild cognitive impairment increases the risk of developing dementia of Alzheimer type - A prospective cohort study. Arch Neurol 61: 1290-1293 (2004).
144. Slifer MA, Martin ER, Gilbert JR, Haines JL, Pericak-Vance MA. Resolving the relationship between Apolipoprotein E and depression. Neurosci Lett 455: 116-119 (2009).
145. Tiemeier H, van Tuijl HR, Hofman A, Kiliaan AJ, Breteler MM. Plasma fatty acid composition and depression are associated in the elderly: the Rotterdam Study. Am J Clin Nutr 78: 40-46 (2003).
146. Bourre JM. Dietary Omega-3 fatty acids and psychiatry: mood, behaviour, stress, depression, dementia and aging. J Nutr Health Aging 9: 31-38 (2005).
147. Astorg P, Couthouis A, Bertrais S, Arnault N, Meneton P, Guesnet P, et al. Association of fish and long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intakes with the occurrence of depressive episodes in middle-aged French men and women. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 78: 171 (2008).
148. Feart C, Peuchant E, Letenneur L, Samieri C, Montagnier D, Fourrier-Reglat A, et al. Plasma eicosapentaenoic acid is inversely associated with severity of depressive symptomatology in the elderly: data from the Bordeaux sample of the Three-City Study. Am J Clin Nutr 87: 1156-1162 (2008).
149. Hibbeln JR. Fish consumption and major depression. Lancet 351: 1213 (1998).
150. Tanskanen A, Hibbeln JR, Tuomilehto J, Uutela A, Haukkala A, Viinamaki H, et al. Fish consumption and depressive symptoms in the general population in Finland. Psychiatr Serv 52: 529-531 (2001).
151. Lin PY, Su KP. A meta-analytic review of double-blind, placebo-controlled trials of antidepressant efficacy of omega-3 fatty acids. J Clin Psychiatry 68: 1056-61 (2007).
152. van de Rest O, Geleijnse JM, Kok FJ, van Staveren WA, Hoefnagels WH, Beekman ATF, et al. Effect of fish-oil supplementation on mental well-being in older subjects: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 88: 706-713 (2008).
153. Lucas M, Asselin G, Merette C, Poulin M-J, Dodin S. Ethyl-eicosapentaenoic acid for the treatment of psychological distress and depressive symptoms in middle-aged women: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial. Am J Clin Nutr 89: 641-651 (2009).
154. Freund-Levi Y, Basun H, Cederholm T, Faxén-Irving G, Mikaela AG, Vedin GI, et al. Omega-3 supplementation in mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease: effects on neuropsychiatric symptoms. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 23: 161-169 (2008).
155. Corder EH, Caskey J. Early intervention in Alzheimer disease: The importance of APOE4 plus family history. Neurology 73: 2054-2055 (2009).
156. Stern Y. Cognitive reserve and Alzheimer disease. Alz Dis Assoc Disorder 20: 112-117 (2006).