Biodegradation of ochratoxin a for food and feed decontamination

Toxins

Volumn 2, Issue 5, 2010, Pages 1078-1099

  Abrunhosa, Luís ^a   Paterson, Robert R M ^a   Venâncio, Armando ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MINHO   (Portugal)

Author keywords

Biodegradation; Decontamination; Detoxification; Ochratoxin A

Indexed keywords

OCHRATOXIN;

ASPERGILLUS; BIODEGRADATION; BIOSYNTHESIS; CARCINOGENICITY; DETOXIFICATION; FOOD CONTAMINATION; FOOD CONTROL; FOOD QUALITY; FOOD SAFETY; FUNGUS GROWTH; HALF LIFE TIME; HYDROLYSIS; LACTIC ACID BACTERIUM; MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE DOSE; MICROBIAL DEGRADATION; NEPHROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; PENICILLIUM; PLANT CELL CULTURE; REVIEW; SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE;

ANIMAL FEED; ASPERGILLUS; BIODEGRADATION, ENVIRONMENTAL; CROPS, AGRICULTURAL; DECONTAMINATION; FOOD CONTAMINATION; FOOD HANDLING; FOOD MICROBIOLOGY; LACTOBACILLACEAE; OCHRATOXINS; PENICILLIUM; PROBIOTICS; SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE;

ANIMALIA; ASPERGILLUS; PENICILLIUM;

EID: 79952048376     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20726651     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/toxins2051078     Document Type: Review

References (143)

1. Sargeant, K.; Sheridan, A.; Okelly, J. Toxicity associated with certain samples of groundnuts. Nature 1961, 192, 1096-1097.
2. van der Merwe, K.J.; Steyn, P.S.; Fourie, L. Mycotoxins. Part II. The constitution of ochratoxins A, B, and C, metabolites of Aspergillus ochraceus Wilh. J. Chem. Soc. 1965, 7083-7088.
3. van der Merwe, K.J.; Steyn, P.S.; Fourie, L.; Scott, D.B.; Theron, J.J. Ochratoxin A, a toxic metabolite produced by Aspergillus ochraceus Wilh. Nature 1965, 205, 1112-1113.
4. Scott, D.B. Toxigenic fungi isolated from cereal and legume products. Mycopathol. Mycol. Appl. 1965, 25, 213.
5. Hutchison, R.D.; Steyn, P.S.; Thompson, D.L. The isolation and structure of 4-hydroxyochratoxin A and 7-carboxy-3,4-dihydro-8-hydroxy-3-methylisocoumarin from Penicillium viridicatum. Tetrahedron Lett. 1971, 12, 4033-4036.
6. Xiao, H.; Marquardt, R.R.; Abramson, D.; Frohlich, A.A. Metabolites of ochratoxins in rat urine and in a culture of Aspergillus ochraceus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1996, 62, 648-655.
7. Ringot, D.; Chango, A.; Schneider, Y.J.; Larondelle, Y. Toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of ochratoxin A, an update. Chem. Biol. Interact. 2006, 159, 18-46.
8. Cole, R.J.; Jarvis, B.B.; Schweikert, M.A. Ochratoxins and related metabolites. In Handbook of Secondary Fungal Metabolites; Academic Press: San Diego, CA, USA, 2003; Volume 3, pp. 615-624.
9. Betina, V. Ochratoxins and related dihydroisocoumarins. In Mycotoxins: Chemical, Biological and Environmental Aspects; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherland, 1989; Volume 9, pp. 151-173.
10. Betina, V. Thin-layer chromatography of mycotoxins. In Chromatography of Mycotoxins: Techniques and Applications; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1993; Volume 54, pp. 141-251.
11. Li, S.Z.; Marquardt, R.R.; Frohlich, A.A. Confirmation of ochratoxins in biological samples by conversion into methyl esters in acidified methanol. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1998, 46, 4307-4312.
12. Pitt, J.I. Penicillium viridicatum, Penicillium verrucosum, and production of ochratoxin A. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1987, 53, 266-269.
13. Paterson, R.R.; Venâncio, A.; Lima, N. Solutions to Penicillium taxonomy crucial to mycotoxin research and health. Res. Microbiol. 2004, 155, 507-513.
14. Vega, F.E.; Posada, F.; Peterson, S.W.; Gianfagna, T.J.; Chaves, F. Penicillium species endophytic in coffee plants and ochratoxin A production. Mycologia 2006, 98, 31-42.
15. Frisvad, J.C.; Thrane, U.; Samson, R.A.; Pitt, J.I. Important mycotoxins and the fungi which produce them. Adv. Food Mycol. 2006, 571, 3-31.
16. Frisvad, J.C.; Frank, J.M.; Houbraken, J.A.M.P.; Kuijpers, A.F.A.; Samson, R.A. New ochratoxin A producing species of Aspergillus section Circumdati. Stud. Mycol. 2004, 50, 23-43.
17. Hesseltine, C.W.; Vandegraft, E.E.; Fennell, D.I.; Smith, M.L.; Shotwell, O.L. Aspergilli as ochratoxin producers. Mycologia 1972, 64, 539-550.
18. Ciegler, A. Bioproduction of ochratoxin A and penicillic acid by members of the Aspergillus ochraceus group. Can. J. Microbiol. 1972, 18, 631-636.
19. Varga, J.; Kevei, E.; Rinyu, E.; Téren, J.; Kozakiewicz, Z. Ochratoxin production by Aspergillus species. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1996, 62, 4461-4464.
20. Bayman, P.; Baker, J.L.; Doster, M.A.; Michailides, T.J.; Mahoney, N.E. Ochratoxin production by the Aspergillus ochraceus group and Aspergillus alliaceus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2002, 68, 2326-2329.
21. Horie, Y. Productivity of ochratoxin A of Aspergillus carbonarius in Aspergillus section Nigri. Nippon Kingakkai Kaiho 1995, 36, 73-76.
22. Téren, J.; Varga, J.; Hamari, Z.; Rinyu, E.; Kevei, F. Immunochemical detection of ochratoxin A in black Aspergillus strains. Mycopathologia 1996, 134, 171-176.
23. Samson, R.A.; Houbraken, J.A.M.P.; Kuijpers, A.F.A.; Frank, J.M.; Frisvad, J.C. New ochratoxin A or sclerotium producing species in Aspergillus section Nigri. Stud. Mycol. 2004, 50, 45-61.
24. Abarca, M.L.; Bragulat, M.R.; Castellá, G.; Cabañes, F.J. Ochratoxin A production by strains of Aspergillus niger var. niger. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1994, 60, 2650-2652.
25. Larsen, T.O.; Svendsen, A.; Smedsgaard, J. Biochemical characterization of ochratoxin A-producing strains of the genus Penicillium. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2001, 67, 3630-3635.
26. van Walbeek, W.; Scott, P.M.; Harwig, J.; Lawrence, J.W. Penicillium viridicatum Westling: A new source of ochratoxin A. Can. J. Microbiol. 1969, 15, 1281-1285.
27. Ciegler, A.; Fennell, D.I.; Sansing, G.A.; Detroy, R.W.; Bennett, G.A. Mycotoxin-producing strains of Penicillium viridicatum: Classification into subgroups. Appl. Microbiol. 1973, 26, 271-278.
28. Serra, R.; Mendonca, C.; Venâncio, A. Fungi and ochratoxin A detected in healthy grapes for wine production. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 2006, 42, 42-47.
29. Pitt, J.I.; Taniwaki, M.H.; Teixeira, A.A.; Iamanaka, B.T. Distribution of Aspergillus ochraceus, A. niger and A. carbonarius in coffee in four regions of Brazil. In Proceedings of the 19th Colloquium: Moisture Management for Mould Prevention in Coffee, Trieste, Italy, 2001.
30. Esteban, A.; Abarca, M.L.; Bragulat, M.R.; Cabañes, F.J. Effects of temperature and incubation time on production of ochratoxin A by black aspergilli. Res. Microbiol. 2004, 155, 861-866.
31. Ferreira, N.P.; Pitout, M.J. Biogenesis of Ochratoxin. J. S. Afr. Chem. I 1969, 22, S1.
32. Searcy, J.W.; Davis, N.D.; Diener, U.L. Biosynthesis of Ochratoxin A. Appl. Microbiol. 1969, 18, 622-627.
33. Steyn, P.S.; Holzapfel, C.W.; Ferreira, N.P. The biosynthesis of the ochratoxins, metabolites of Aspergillus ochraceus. Phytochemistry 1970, 9, 1977-1983.
34. Wei, R.D.; Strong, F.M.; Smalley, E.B. Incorporation of chlorine-36 into ochratoxin A. Appl. Microbiol. 1971, 22, 276-277.
35. Karolewiez, A.; Geisen, R. Cloning a part of the ochratoxin A biosynthetic gene cluster of Penicillium nordicum and characterization of the ochratoxin polyketide synthase gene. Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 2005, 28, 588-595.
36. O'Callaghan, J.; Caddick, M.X.; Dobson, A.D.W. A polyketide synthase gene required for ochratoxin A biosynthesis in Aspergillus ochraceus. Microbiology 2003, 149, 3485-3491.
37. Atoui, A.; Dao, H.P.; Mathieu, F.; Lebrihi, A. Amplification and diversity analysis of ketosynthase domains of putative polyketide synthase genes in Aspergillus ochraceus and Aspergillus carbonarius producers of ochratoxin A. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2006, 50, 488-493.
38. Mitchell, D.; Parra, R.; Aldred, D.; Magan, N. Water and temperature relations of growth and ochratoxin A production by Aspergillus carbonarius strains from grapes in Europe and Israel. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2004, 97, 439-445.
39. Ramos, A.J.; Labernia, N.; Marin, S.; Sanchís, V.; Magan, N. Effect of water activity and temperature on growth and ochratoxin production by three strains of Aspergillus ochraceus on a barley extract medium and on barley grains. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 1998, 44, 133-140.
40. Northolt, M.D.; Vanegmond, H.P.; Paulsch, W.E. Ochratoxin A production by some fungal species in relation to water activity and temperature. J. Food Prot. 1979, 42, 485-490.
41. Pitt, J.I.; Hocking, A.D. Fungi and Food Spoilage; Blackie Academic & Professional: London, UK, 1997.
42. Baxter, E.D.; Slaiding, I.R.; Kelly, B. Behavior of ochratoxin A in brewing. J. Am. Soc. Brew. Chem. 2001, 59, 98-100.
43. Scott, P.M.; Kanhere, S.R.; Lawrence, G.A.; Daley, E.F.; Farber, J.M. Fermentation of wort containing added ochratoxin A and fumonisins B1 and B2. Food Addit. Contam. 1995, 12, 31-40.
44. Scudamore, K.A.; Banks, J.; MacDonald, S.J. Fate of ochratoxin A in the processing of whole wheat grains during milling and bread production. Food Addit. Contam. 2003, 20, 1153-1163.
45. Suarez-Quiroz, M.; De Louise, B.; Gonzalez-Rios, O.; Barel, M.; Guyot, B.; Schorr-Galindo, S.; Guiraud, J.P. The impact of roasting on the ochratoxin A content of coffee. Int. J. Food Sci. Tech. 2005, 40, 605-611.
46. Fernandes, A.; Ratola, N.; Cerdeira, A.; Alves, A.; Venancio, A. Changes in ochratoxin A concentration during winemaking. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 2007, 58, 92-96.
47. Domijan, A.-M.; Peraica, M.; Zlender, V.; Cvjetkovic, B.; Jurjevic, Z.; Topolovec-Pintaric, S.; Ivic, D. Seed-borne fungi and ochratoxin A contamination of dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in the Republic of Croatia. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2005, 43, 427-432.
48. Amezqueta, S.; González-Peñas, E.; Murillo, M.; De Cerain, A.L. Validation of a high-performance liquid chromatography analytical method for ochratoxin A quantification in cocoa beans. Food Addit. Contam. 2004, 21, 1096-1106.
49. Shotwell, O.L.; Hesseltine, C.W.; Goulden, M.L. Ochratoxin A: Occurrence as natural contaminant of a corn sample. Appl. Microbiol. 1969, 17, 765-766.
50. Senyuva, H.Z.; Gilbert, J.; Ozcan, S.; Ulken, U. Survey for co-occurrence of ochratoxin A and aflatoxin B1, in dried figs in Turkey by using a single laboratory-validated alkaline extraction method for ochratoxin A. J. Food Prot. 2005, 68, 1512-1515.
51. Iamanaka, B.T.; Taniwaki, M.H.; Menezes, H.C.; Vicente, E.; Fungaro, M.H.P. Incidence of toxigenic fungi and ochratoxin A in dried fruits sold in Brazil. Food Addit. Contam. 2005, 22, 1258-1263.
52. Serra, R.; Mendonca, C.; Venancio, A. Ochratoxin A occurrence and formation in Portuguese wine grapes at various stages of maturation. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2006, 111, S35-S39.
53. Romani, S.; Sacchetti, G.; Chaves Lopez, C.; Pinnavaia, G.G.; Dalla Rosa, M. Screening on the occurrence of ochratoxin A in green coffee beans of different origins and types. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2000, 48, 3616-3619.
54. Skaug, M.A. Analysis of Norwegian milk and infant formulas for ochratoxin A. Food Addit. Contam. 1999, 16, 75-78.
55. Jørgensen, K.; Petersen, A. Content of ochratoxin A in paired kidney and meat samples from healthy Danish slaughter pigs. Food Addit. Contam. 2002, 19, 562-567.
56. MacDonald, S.; Wilson, P.; Barnes, K.; Damant, A.; Massey, R.; Mortby, E.; Shepherd, M.J. Ochratoxin A in dried vine fruit: Method development and survey. Food Addit. Contam. 1999, 16, 253-260.
57. Gonzalez, L.; Juan, C.; Soriano, J.M.; Molto, J.C.; Manes, J. Occurrence and daily intake of ochratoxin A of organic and non-organic rice and rice products. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2006, 107, 223-227.
58. Thirumala-Devi, K.; Mayo, M.A.; Reddy, G.; Emmanuel, K.E.; Larondelle, Y.; Reddy, D.V. Occurrence of ochratoxin A in black pepper, coriander, ginger and turmeric in India. Food Addit. Contam. 2001, 18, 830-835.
59. Scudamore, K.A.; Patel, S.; Breeze, V. Surveillance of stored grain from the 1997 harvest in the United Kingdom for ochratoxin A. Food Addit. Contam. 1999, 16, 281-290.
60. Scott, P.M.; van Walbeek, W.; Kennedy, B.; Anyeti, D. Mycotoxins (ochratoxin A, citrinin, and sterigmatocystin) and toxigenic fungi in grains and other agricultural products. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1972, 20, 1103-1109.
61. Lombaert, G.A.; Pellaers, P.; Roscoe, V.; Mankotia, M.; Neil, R.; Scott, P.M. Mycotoxins in infant cereal foods from the Canadian retail market. Food Addit. Contam. 2003, 20, 494-504.
62. Visconti, A.; Pascale, M.; Centonze, G. Determination of ochratoxin A in domestic and imported beers in Italy by immunoaffinity clean-up and liquid chromatography. J. Chromatogr. A 2000, 888, 321-326.
63. Molinié, A.; Faucet, V.; Castegnaro, M.; Pfohl-Leszkowicz, A. Analysis of some breakfast cereals on the French market for their contents of ochratoxin A, citrinin and fumonisin B1: development of a method for simultaneous extraction of ochratoxin A and citrinin. Food Chem. 2005, 92, 391-400.
64. Tafuri, A.; Ferracane, R.; Ritieni, A. Ochratoxin A in Italian marketed cocoa products. Food Chem. 2004, 88, 487-494.
65. Zimmerli, B.; Dick, R. Ochratoxin A in table wine and grape-juice: Occurrence and risk assessment. Food Addit. Contam. 1996, 13, 655-668.
66. Pietri, A.; Bertuzzi, T.; Gualla, A.; Piva, G. Occurrence of ochratoxin A in raw ham muscles and in pork products from northern Italy. Ital. J. Food Sci. 2006, 18, 99-106.
67. Tsubouchi, H.; Terada, H.; Yamamoto, K.; Hisada, K.; Sakabe, Y. Ochratoxin A found in commercial roast coffee. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1988, 36, 540-542.
68. Monaci, L.; Palmisano, F.; Matrella, R.; Tantillo, G. Determination of ochratoxin A at part-per-trillion level in Italian salami by immunoaffinity clean-up and high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. J. Chromatogr. A 2005, 1090, 184-187.
69. Scudamore, K.A.; Banks, J.N.; Guy, R.C.E. Fate of ochratoxin A in the processing of whole wheat grain during extrusion. Food Addit. Contam. 2004, 21, 488-497.
70. Scudamore, K.A. Prevention of ochratoxin A in commodities and likely effects of processing fractionation and animal feeds. Food Addit. Contam. 2005, 22, 17-25.
71. Jaimez, J.; Fente, C.A.; Franco, C.M.; Cepeda, A.; Vazquez, B.I. A survey of the fungal contamination and presence of ochratoxin A and zearalenone on Spanish feed and raw materials. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2004, 84, 832-840.
72. Dalcero, A.; Magnoli, C.; Hallak, C.; Chiacchiera, S.M.; Palacio, G.; Rosa, C.A.d.R. Detection of ochratoxin A in animal feeds and capacity to produce this mycotoxin by Aspergillus section Nigri in Argentina. Food Addit. Contam. 2002, 19, 1065-1072.
73. Thirumala-Devi, K.; Mayo, M.A.; Reddy, G.; Reddy, D.V.R. Occurrence of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in Indian poultry feeds. J. Food Prot. 2002, 65, 1338-1340.
74. Xiao, H.; Madhyastha, S.; Marquardt, R.R.; Li, S.; Vodela, J.K.; Frohlich, A.A.; Kemppainen, B.W. Toxicity of ochratoxin A, Its opened lactone form and several of its analogs: Structureactivity relationships. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1996, 137, 182-192.
75. Muller, G.; Rosner, H.; Rohrmann, B.; Erler, W.; Geschwend, G.; Grafe, U.; Burkert, B.; Moller, U.; Diller, R.; Sachse, K.; Kohler, H. Effects of the mycotoxin ochratoxin A and some of its metabolites on the human cell line THP-1. Toxicology 2003, 184, 69-82.
76. Fuchs, R.; Hult, K.; Peraica, M.; Radic, B.; Plestina, R. Conversion of ochratoxin C into ochratoxin A in vivo. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1984, 48, 41-42.
77. Li, S.; Marquardt, R.R.; Frohlich, A.A.; Vitti, T.G.; Crow, G. Pharmacokinetics of ochratoxin A and its metabolites in rats. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1997, 145, 82-90.
78. Krogh, P. Role of ochratoxin in disease causation. Food Chem. Toxicol. 1992, 30, 213-224.
79. Pfohl-Leszkowicz, A.; Petkova-Bocharova, T.; Chernozemsky, I.N.; Castegnaro, M. Balkan endemic nephropathy and associated urinary tract tumours: a review on aetiological causes and the potential role of mycotoxins. Food Addit. Contam. 2002, 19, 282-302.
80. Pfohl-Leszkowicz, A.; Manderville, R.A. Ochratoxin A: An overview on toxicity and carcinogenicity in animals and humans. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2007, 51, 61-99.
81. Pfohl-Leszkowicz, A. Ochratoxin A and Aristolochic Acid Involvement in Nephropathies and Associated Urothelial Tract Tumours. Arhiv za Higijenu Rada i Toksikologiju 2009, 60, 465-483.
82. IARC. Some naturally occurring substances: Food items and constituents, heterocyclic aromatic amines and mycotoxins. In IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans; World Health Organization: Lyon, France, 1993; Volume 56, pp. 489-521.
83. O'Brien, E.; Dietrich, D.R. Ochratoxin A: The continuing enigma. Crit. Rev. Microbiol. 2005, 35, 33-60.
84. Chu, F.S. A comparative study of the interaction of ochratoxins with bovine serum albumin. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1974, 23, 1105-1113.
85. Perry, J.L.; Christensen, T.; Goldsmith, M.R.; Toone, E.J.; Beratan, D.N.; Simon, J.D. Binding of ochratoxin A to human serum albumin stabilized by a protein-ligand ion pair. J. Phys. Chem. B 2003, 107, 7884-7888.
86. Kumagai, S. Ochratoxin A: Plasma concentration and excretion into bile and urine in albumin-deficient rats. Food Chem. Toxicol. 1985, 23, 941-943.
87. Creppy, E.E.; Stormer, F.C.; Roschenthaler, R.; Dirheimer, G. Effects of two metabolites of ochratoxin A, (4R)-4-hydroxyochratoxin A and ochratoxin α, on immune response in mice. Infect. Immun. 1983, 39, 1015-1018.
88. Bruinink, A.; Rasonyi, T.; Sidler, C. Differences in neurotoxic effects of ochratoxin A, ochracin and ochratoxin-α in vitro. Nat. Toxins 1998, 6, 173-177.
89. Zimmerli, B.; Dick, R. Determination of ochratoxin A at the ppt level in human blood, serum, milk and some foodstuffs by high-performance liquid chromatography with enhanced fluorescence detection and immunoaffinity column cleanup: methodology and Swiss data. J. Chromatogr. B 1995, 666, 85-99.
90. Ueno, Y.; Maki, S.; Lin, J.; Furuya, M.; Sugiura, Y.; Kawamura, O. A 4-year study of plasma ochratoxin A in a selected population in Tokyo by immunoassay and immunoaffinity columnlinked HPLC. Food Chem. Toxicol. 1998, 36, 445-449.
91. Sangare-Tigori, B.; Moukha, S.; Kouadio, J.H.; Dano-Djedje, S.; Betbeder, A.-M.; Achour, A.; Creppy, E.E. Ochratoxin A in human blood in Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire. Toxicon 2006, 47, 894-900.
92. Skaug, M.A.; Helland, I.; Solvoll, K.; Saugstad, O.D. Presence of ochratoxin A in human milk in relation to dietary intake. Food Addit. Contam. 2001, 18, 321-327.
93. Turconi, G.; Guarcello, M.; Livieri, C.; Comizzoli, S.; Maccarini, L.; Castellazzi, A.; Pietri, A.; Piva, G.; Roggi, C. Evaluation of xenobiotics in human milk and ingestion by the newborn: An epidemiological survey in Lombardy (Northern Italy). Eur. J. Nutr. 2004, 43, 191-197.
94. Micco, C.; Miraglia, M.; Brera, C.; Corneli, S.; Ambruzzi, A. Evaluation of ochratoxin A level in human milk in Italy. Food Addit. Contam. 1995, 12, 351-354.
95. Amezqueta, S.; Gonzalez-Penas, E.; Murillo-Arbizu, M.; De Cerain, A.L. Ochratoxin A decontamination: A review. Food Control 2009, 20, 326-333.
96. Riley, R.T.; Norred, W.P. Mycotoxin prevention and decontamination-A case study on maize. Food Nutr. Agric. 1999, 23, 25-32.
97. Karlovsky, P. Biological detoxification of fungal toxins and its use in plant breeding, feed and food production. Nat. Toxins 1999, 7, 1-23.
98. Shimizu, S.; Kataoka, M.; Honda, K.; Sakamoto, K. Lactone-ring-cleaving enzymes of microorganisms: their diversity and applications. J. Biotechnol. 2001, 92, 187-194.
99. Hult, K.; Teiling, A.; Gatenbeck, S. Degradation of ochratoxin A by a ruminant. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1976, 32, 443-444.
100. Kiessling, K.H.; Pettersson, H.; Sandholm, K.; Olsen, M. Metabolism of aflatoxin, ochratoxin, zearalenone, and three trichothecenes by intact rumen fluid, rumen protozoa, and rumen bacteria. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1984, 47, 1070-1073.
101. Özpinar, H.; Bilal, T.; Abas, I.; Kutay, C. Degradation of ochratoxin A in rumen fluid in vitro. Med. Biol. 2002, 9, 66-69.
102. Hohler, D.; Sudekum, K.H.; Wolffram, S.; Frohlich, A.A.; Marquardt, R.R. Metabolism and excretion of ochratoxin A fed to sheep. J. Anim. Sci. 1999, 77, 1217-1223.
103. Wegst, W.; Lingens, F. Bacterial degradation of ochratoxin A. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 1983, 17, 341-344.
104. Hwang, C.A.; Draughon, F.A. Degradation of ochratoxin A by Acinetobacter calcoaceticus. J. Food Prot. 1994, 57, 410-414.
105. Petchkongkaew, A.; Taillandier, P.; Gasaluck, P.; Lebrihi, A. Isolation of Bacillus spp. from Thai fermented soybean (Thuanao): Screening for aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A detoxification. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2008, 104, 1495-1502.
106. Skrinjar, M.; Rasic, J.L.; Stojicic, V. Lowering of ochratoxin A level in milk by yoghurt bacteria and bifidobacteria. Folia Microbiol. (Praha) 1996, 41, 26-28.
107. Böhm, J.; Grajewski, J.; Asperger, H.; Rabus, B.; Razzazi, E. Study on biodegradation of some trichothecenes (NIV, DON, DAS, T-2) and ochratoxin A by use of probiotic microorganisms. Mycot. Res. 2000, 16, 70-74.
108. Piotrowska, M.; Zakowska, Z. The biodegradation of ochratoxin A in food products by lactic acid bacteria and baker's yeast. In Progress in Biotechnology (Food Biotechnology); Bielecki, S., Tramper, J., Polak, J., Eds; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2000; Volume 17, pp. 307-310.
109. Turbic, A.; Ahokas, J.T.; Haskard, C.A. Selective in vitro binding of dietary mutagens, individually or in combination, by lactic acid bacteria. Food Addit. Contam. 2002, 19, 144-152.
110. Piotrowska, M.; Zakowska, Z. The elimination of ochratoxin A by lactic acid bacteria strains. Pol. J. Microbiol. 2005, 54, 279-286.
111. Del Prete, V.; Rodriguez, H.; Carrascosa, A.V.; Rivas, B.D.L.; Garcia-Moruno, E.; Munoz, R. In vitro removal of ochratoxin A by wine lactic acid bacteria. J. Food Prot. 2007, 70, 2155-2160.
112. Fuchs, S.; Sontag, G.; Stidl, R.; Ehrlich, V.; Kundi, M.; Knasmuller, S. Detoxification of patulin and ochratoxin A, two abundant mycotoxins, by lactic acid bacteria. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2008, 46, 1398-1407.
113. Shetty, P.H.; Jespersen, L. Saccharomyces cerevisiae and lactic acid bacteria as potential mycotoxin decontaminating agents. Trends Food Sci. Tech. 2006, 17, 48-55.
114. Bejaoui, H.; Mathieu, F.; Lebrihi, A.; Taillandier, P. Ochratoxin A removal in synthetic and natural grape juices by selected oenological Saccharomyces strains. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2004, 97, 1038-1044.
115. Bizaj, E.; Mavri, J.; Cus, F.; Raspor, A. Removal of ochratoxin A in Saccharomyces cerevisiae liquid cultures. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 2009, 30, 151-155.
116. Cecchini, F.; Morassut, M.; Garcia Moruno, E.; Di Stefano, R. Influence of yeast strain on ochratoxin A content during fermentation of white and red must. Food Microbiol. 2006, 23, 411-417.
117. Moruno, E.G.; Sanlorenzo, C.; Boccaccino, B.; Di Stefano, R. Treatment with yeast to reduce the concentration of ochratoxin A in red wine. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 2005, 56, 73-76.
118. Ringot, D.; Lerzy, B.; Bonhoure, J.P.; Auclair, E.; Oriol, E.; Larondelle, Y. Effect of temperature on in vitro ochratoxin A biosorption onto yeast cell wall derivatives. Process Biochem. 2005, 40, 3008-3016.
119. Yiannikouris, A.; Andre, G.; Poughon, L.; Francois, J.; Dussap, C.G.; Jeminet, G.; Bertin, G.; Jouany, J.P. Chemical and conformational study of the interactions involved in mycotoxin complexation with α-D-glucans. Biomacromolecules 2006, 7, 1147-1155.
120. Raju, M.V.L.N.; Devegowda, G. Esterified-glucomannan in broiler chicken diets-contaminated with aflatoxin, ochratoxin and T-2 toxin: Evaluation of its binding ability (in vitro) and efficacy as immunomodulator. Asian Australas. J. Anim. Sci. 2002, 15, 1051-1056.
121. Oguz, H.; Parlat, S.S. Effects of dietary mannanoligosaccharide on performance of Japanese quail affected by aflatoxicosis. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci. 2004, 34, 144-148.
122. Schatzmayr, G.; Heidler, D.; Fuchs, E.; Mohnl, M.; Täubel, M.; Loibner, A.P.; Braun, R.; Binder, E.M. Investigation of different yeast strains for the detoxification of ochratoxin A. Mycot. Res. 2003, 19, 124-128.
123. Molnar, O.; Schatzmayr, G.; Fuchs, E.; Prillinger, H. Trichosporon mycotoxinivorans sp nov., a new yeast species useful in biological detoxification of various mycotoxins. Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 2004, 27, 661-671.
124. Politis, I.; Fegeros, K.; Nitsch, S.; Schatzmayr, G.; Kantas, D. Use of Trichosporon mycotoxinivorans to suppress the effects of ochratoxicosis on the immune system of broiler chicks. Br. Poult. Sci. 2005, 46, 58-65.
125. Hofstetter, U.; Schatzmayr, D.; Schatzmayr, G.; Binder, E.M. Successful detoxification of ochratoxin A in weaning piglets. J. Anim. Sci. 2006, 84, 308.
126. Hickey, P.W.; Sutton, D.A.; Fothergill, A.W.; Rinaldi, M.G.; Wickes, B.L.; Schmidt, H.J.; Walsh, T.J. Trichosporon mycotoxinivorans: A novel respiratory pathogen in patients with cystic fibrosis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2009, 47, 3091-3097.
127. Peteri, Z.; Teren, J.; Vagvolgyi, C.; Varga, J. Ochratoxin degradation and adsorption caused by astaxanthin-producing yeasts. Food Microbiol. 2007, 24, 205-210.
128. de Felice, D.V.; Solfrizzo, M.; De Curtis, F.; Lima, G.; Visconti, A.; Castoria, R. Strains of Aureobasidium pullulans can lower ochratoxin A contamination in wine grapes. Phytopathology 2008, 98, 1261-1270.
129. Hawkes, M.; Rennie, R.; Sand, C.; Vaudry, W. Aureobasidium pullulans infection: Fungemia in an infant and a review of human cases. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2005, 51, 209-213.
130. Varga, J.; Rigó, K.; Téren, J. Degradation of ochratoxin A by Aspergillus species. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2000, 59, 1-7.
131. Abrunhosa, L.; Serra, R.; Venâncio, A. Biodegradation of ochratoxin A by fungi isolated from grapes. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2002, 50, 7493-7496.
132. Varga, J.; Peteri, Z.; Tabori, K.; Teren, J.; Vagvolgyi, C. Degradation of ochratoxin A and other mycotoxins by Rhizopus isolates. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2005, 99, 321-328.
133. Bejaoui, H.; Mathieu, F.; Taillandier, P.; Lebrihi, A. Biodegradation of ochratoxin A by Aspergillus section Nigri species isolated from French grapes: A potential means of ochratoxin A decontamination in grape juices and musts. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 2006, 255, 203-208.
134. Valero, A.; Sanchis, V.; Ramos, A.J.; Marin, S. Brief in vitro study on Botrytis cinerea and Aspergillus carbonarius regarding growth and ochratoxin A. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 2008, 47, 327-332.
135. Engelhardt, G. Degradation of ochratoxin A and B by the white rot fungus Pleurotus ostreatus. Mycot. Res. 2002, 18, 37-43.
136. Ruhland, M.; Engelhardt, G.; Wallnofer, P.R. Transformation of the mycotoxin ochratoxin A in plants. 2. Time course and rates of degradation and metabolite production in cell-suspension cultures of different crop plants. Mycopathologia 1996, 134, 97-102.
137. Pitout, M.J. The hydrolysis of ochratoxin A by some proteolytic enzymes. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1969, 18, 485-491.
138. Stander, M.A.; Bornscheuer, U.T.; Henke, E.; Steyn, P.S. Screening of commercial hydrolases for the degradation of ochratoxin A. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2000, 48, 5736-5739.
139. Abrunhosa, L.; Santos, L.; Venâncio, A. Degradation of ochratoxin A by proteases and by a crude enzyme of Aspergillus niger. Food Biotechnol. 2006, 20, 231-242.
140. Abrunhosa, L.; Venâncio, A. Isolation and purification of an enzyme hydrolyzing ochratoxin A from Aspergillus niger. Biotechnol. Lett. 2007, 29, 1909-1914.
141. Abrunhosa, L.; Venâncio, A. University of Minho, Braga, Portugal. Unpublished work, 2008.
142. Stander, M.A.; Steyn, P.S.; van der Westhuizen, F.H.; Payne, B.E. A kinetic study into the hydrolysis of the ochratoxins and analogues by carboxypeptidase A. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 2001, 14, 302-304.
143. Schatzmayr, G.; Binder, J.; Thimm, N.; Heidler, D.; Fuchs, E.; Braun, R.; Binder, E.M. Enzymatic degradation of ochratoxin A. In Proceedings of the X. Intern. IUPAC Symposium on Mycotoxins and Phytotoxins, Guaruja, Brazil, 2000.