Biosynthesis and bioavailability of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

Progress in Lipid Research

Volumn 49, Issue 4, 2010, Pages 407-419

  Gormaz, Juan G ^a   Rodrigo, Ramón ^b   Videla, Luis A ^b   Beems, Megan ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CHILE   (Chile)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CHILE   (Chile)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

Author keywords

Antioxidants; Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids; Non alcoholic fatty liver disease; Oxidative stress

Indexed keywords

ACYL COENZYME A; ACYL COENZYME A DESATURASE 1; ALCOHOL; BINDING PROTEIN; CARBOHYDRATE RESPONSE ELEMENT BINDING PROTEIN; FATTY ACID; FATTY ACID BINDING PROTEIN; GAMMA INTERFERON; GLUCOSE; IMMUNOGLOBULIN ENHANCER BINDING PROTEIN; INDUCIBLE NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE; INSULIN; INTERCELLULAR ADHESION MOLECULE 1; INTERLEUKIN 1; LINOLEOYL COENZYME A DESATURASE; MONOCYTE CHEMOTACTIC PROTEIN 1; PEROXISOME PROLIFERATOR ACTIVATED RECEPTOR ALPHA; POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACID; PROTEIN P53; STEROID; STEROL REGULATORY ELEMENT BINDING PROTEIN 1C; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR AP 1; TRIACYLGLYCEROL; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNCOUPLING PROTEIN;

BIOAVAILABILITY; CALORIC RESTRICTION; ENERGY BALANCE; ENZYME ACTIVATION; ENZYME ACTIVITY; FATTY ACID METABOLISM; FATTY ACID SYNTHESIS; FATTY ACID TRANSPORT; HUMAN; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPERINSULINEMIA; INSULIN RESISTANCE; NONALCOHOLIC FATTY LIVER; NONHUMAN; OBESITY; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PATHOGENESIS; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; WEIGHT REDUCTION;

BIOLOGICAL AVAILABILITY; FATTY ACID DESATURASES; FATTY ACIDS, UNSATURATED; FATTY LIVER; HUMANS; INSULIN RESISTANCE; OXIDATIVE STRESS;

EID: 77956394810     PISSN: 01637827     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2010.05.003     Document Type: Review

References (164)

1. M.T. Nakamura, and T.Y. Nara Structure, function, and dietary regulation of Δ6, Δ5, and Δ9 desaturases Annu Rev Nutr 24 2004 345 376
2. T.D. Dreesen, A.W. Adamson, and M. Tekle A newly discovered member of the fatty acid desaturase gene family: a non-coding, antisense RNA gene to delta5-desaturase Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 75 2006 97 106
3. A. Valenzuela, S. Nieto, and J. Sanhueza Tissue accretion and milk content of docosahexaenoic acid in female rats after supplementation with different docosahexaenoic acid sources Ann Nutr Metab 49 2005 325 332
4. B. Vessby Dietary fat and insulin action in humans Br J Nutr 83 2000 S91 S96
5. J.J. Li, C.J. Huang, and D. Xie Anti-obesity effects of conjugated linoleic acid, docosahexaenoic acid, and eicosapentaenoic acid Mol Nutr Food Res 52 2008 631 645
6. E. Warensjö, J. Sundström, and B. Vessby Markers of dietary fat quality and fatty acid desaturation as predictors of total and cardiovascular mortality: a population-based prospective study Am J Clin Nutr 88 2008 203 209
7. Y.E. Zhou, S. Kubow, and E. Dewailly Decreased activity of desaturase 5 in association with obesity and insulin resistance aggravates declining long-chain n-3 fatty acid status in Cree undergoing dietary transition Br J Nutr 102 2009 888 894
8. J. Delarue, C. LeFoll, and C. Corporeau N-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids: a nutritional tool to prevent insulin resistance associated to type 2 diabetes and obesity? Reprod Nutr Dev 44 2004 289 299
9. H. Truong, J.R. DiBello, and E. Ruiz-Narvaez Does genetic variation in the delta6-desaturase promoter modify the association between alpha-linolenic acid and the prevalence of metabolic syndrome? Am J Clin Nutr 89 2009 920 925
10. J. Araya, R. Rodrigo, and L.A. Videla Increase in long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid n-6/n-3 ratio in relation to hepatic steatosis in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease Clin Sci (London) 106 2004 635 643
11. J. Araya, R. Rodrigo, and P. Pettinelli Decreased liver fatty acid Δ-6 and Δ-5 desaturase activity in obese patients Obesity 2009 10.1038/oby.2009.379 [Epub ahead of print]
12. P. Delerive, J.C. Fruchart, and B. Staels Peroxisome proliferator- activated receptors in inflammation control J Endocrinol 169 2001 453 459
13. N. Martinelli, D. Girelli, and G. Malerba FADS genotypes and desaturase activity estimated by the ratio of arachidonic acid to linoleic acid are associated with inflammation and coronary artery disease Am J Clin Nutr 88 2008 941 949
14. R. Uauy, P. Mena, and C. Rojas Essential fatty acids in early life: structural and functional role Proc Nutr Soc 59 2000 3 15
15. R.R. Brenner Hormonal modulation of Δ6 and Δ5 desaturases: case of diabetes Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 68 2003 151 162
16. G.E. Hurtado de Catalfo, and I.N. De Gómez Dumm Lipid dismetabolism in Leydig and Sertoli cells isolated from streptozotocin-diabetic rats Int J Biochem Cell Biol 30 1998 1001 1010
17. H.P. Cho, M.T. Nakamura, and S.D. Clarke Cloning, expression and nutritional regulation of mammalian Δ6 desaturase J Biol Chem 274 1999 471 477
18. H.P. Cho, M.T. Nakamura, and S.D. Clarke Cloning, expression and regulation of human Δ5 desaturase J Biol Chem 274 1999 37335 37339
19. L.A. Videla, R. Rodrigo, and J. Araya Oxidative stress and depletion of hepatic long-chain poly-unsaturated fatty acids may contribute to nonalcoholic fatty liver disease Free Radic Biol Med 37 2004 1499 1507
20. N. Anderson, and J. Borlak Molecular mechanisms and therapeutic targets in steatosis and steatohepatitis Pharmacol Rev 60 2008 311 357
21. L.A. Videla, R. Rodrigo, and M. Orellana Oxidative stress-related parameters in the liver of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease patients Clin Sci (London) 106 2004 261 268
22. S.H. Caldwell, R.H. Swerdlow, and E.M. Khan Mitochondrial abnormalities in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis J Hepatol 31 1999 430 434
23. P. Angulo Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease N Engl J Med 346 16 2002 1221 1231
24. E.M. Brunt Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis Semin Liver Dis 24 2004 3 20
25. G. Marchesini, M. Brizi, and G. Bianchi Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a feature of the metabolic syndrome Diabetes 50 2001 1844 1850
26. J.D. Browning, L.S. Szczepaniak, and R. Dobbins Prevalence of hepatic steatosis in an urban population in the United States: impact of ethnicity Hepatology 40 2004 1387 1395
27. C.E. Ruhl, and J.E. Everhart Epidemiology of nonalcoholic fatty liver Clin Liver Dis 8 2004 501 519
28. G.C. Farrell, and C.Z. Larter Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: from steatosis to cirrhosis Hepatology 43 2006 S99 S112
29. S. Bellentani, C. Tiribelli, and G. Saccoccio Prevalence of chronic liver disease in the general population of northern Italy: the Dionysos Study Hepatology 20 1994 1442 1449
30. S. Jimba, T. Nakagami, and M. Takahashi Prevalence of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and its association with impaired glucose metabolism in Japanese adults Diabet Med 22 2005 1141 1145
31. P. Angulo Treatment of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease Ann Hepatol 1 2002 12 19
32. G.A. Abrams, S.S. Kunde, and A.J. Lazenby Portal fibrosis and hepatic steatosis in morbidly obese subjects: a spectrum of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease Hepatology 40 2004 475 483
33. S. Kajikawa, T. Harada, and A. Kawashima Highly purified eicosapentaenoic acid prevents the progression of hepatic steatosis by repressing monounsaturated fatty acid synthesis in high-fat/high-sucrose diet-fed mice Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 80 2009 229 238
34. K. Yamaguchi, L. Yang, and S. McCall Inhibiting triglyceride synthesis improves hepatic steatosis but exacerbates liver damage and fibrosis in obese mice with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis Hepatology 45 2007 1366 1374
35. J. Delarue, C. Couet, and R. Cohen Effects of fish oil on metabolic responses to oral fructose and glucose loads in healthy humans Am J Physiol 270 1996 E353 E362
36. P. Singer, and E. Richter-Heinrich Stress and fatty liver - possible indications for dietary long-chain n-3 fatty acids Med Hypotheses 36 1991 90 94
37. M. Capanni, F. Calella, and M.R. Biagini Prolonged n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation ameliorates hepatic steatosis in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: a pilot study Aliment Pharmacol Ther 23 2006 1143 1151
38. L. Spadaro, O. Magliocco, and D. Spampinato Effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in subjects with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease Dig Liver Dis 40 2008 194 199
39. G. Musso, R. Gambino, and M. Cassader Recent insights into hepatic lipid metabolism in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) Prog Lipid Res 48 2009 1 26
40. Bugianesi E, Moscatiello S, Ciaravella MF, et al. Insulin resistance in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Curr Pharm Des 2010 Apr 6 [Epub ahead of print].
41. A.C. Piguet, D. Stroka, and A. Zimmermann Hypoxia aggravates non-alcoholic steatohepatitis in mice lacking hepatocellular PTEN Clin Sci (London) 118 2010 401 410
42. K. Hellemans, K. Kerckhofs, and J.C. Hannaert Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha-retinoid X receptor agonists induce beta-cell protection against palmitate toxicity FEBS J 274 2007 6094 6105
43. N. Houstis, E.D. Rosen, and E.S. Lander Reactive oxygen species have a causal role in multiple forms of insulin resistance Nature 13 440 2006 944 948
44. M. Kanzaki, and J.E. Pessin Signal integration and the specificity of insulin action Cell Biochem Biophys 35 2001 191 209
45. O.P. McGuinness, and A.D. Cherrington Effects of fructose on hepatic glucose metabolism Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 6 2003 441 448
46. G. Van den Berghe The role of the liver in metabolic homeostasis: implications for inborn errors of metabolism J Inherit Metab Dis 14 1991 407 420
47. M. Haque, and A.J. Sanyal The metabolic abnormalities associated with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 16 2002 709 731
48. G. Sesti Apoptosis in the beta cells: cause or consequence of insulin secretion defect in diabetes? Ann Med 34 2002 444 450
49. Y. Le Marchand-Brustel, P. Gual, and T. Grémeaux Fatty acid-induced insulin resistance: role of insulin receptor substrate 1 serine phosphorylation in the retroregulation of insulin signaling Biochem Soc Trans 31 2003 1152 1156
50. T. Saito, K. Misawa, and S. Kawata Fatty liver and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis Intern Med 46 2007 101 103
51. R. Dentin, F. Benhamed, and J.P. Pégorier Polyunsaturated fatty acids suppress glycolytic and lipogenic genes through the inhibition of ChREBP nuclear protein translocation J Clin Invest 115 2005 2843 2854
52. J.D. Browning, and J.D. Horton Molecular mediators of hepatic steatosis and liver injury J Clin Invest 114 2004 147 152
53. J.D. Horton, J.L. Goldstein, and M.S. Brown SREBPs: activators of the complete program of cholesterol and fatty acid synthesis in the liver Clin Invest 109 2002 1125 1131
54. E.K. Lund, L.J. Harvey, and S. Ladha Effects of dietary fish oil supplementation on the phospholipid composition and fluidity of cell membranes from human volunteers Ann Nutr Metab 43 1999 290 300
55. N. Morgado, J. Sanhueza, and S. Nieto Effect of the degree of hydrogenation of fish oil on the enzymatic activity and on the fatty acid composition of hepatic microsomes from young and aged rats Ann Nutr Metab 47 2003 124 131
56. N. Morgado, A. Rigotti, and A. Valenzuela Comparative effect of fish oil feeding and other dietary fatty acids on plasma lipoproteins, biliary lipids, and hepatic expression of proteins involved in reverse cholesterol transport in the rat Ann Nutr Metab 49 2005 397 406
57. N. Salem Jr, B. Litman, and H.Y. Kim Mechanisms of action of docosahexaenoic acid in the nervous system Lipids 36 2001 945 959
58. K. Kandror A long search for GLUT4 activation Sci STKE 169 2003 1 3
59. M. Borkman, L.H. Storlien, and D.A. Pan The relationship between insulin sensitivity and the fatty acid composition of phospholipids of skeletal muscle N Engl J Med 328 1993 238 244
60. M. Manco, M. Calvani, and G. Mingrone Effects of dietary fatty acids on insulin sensitivity and secretion Diabetes Obes Metab 6 2004 402 413
61. J.S. Elmendorf Fluidity of insulin action Mol Biotechnol 27 2004 127 138
62. M. Ficková, P. Hubert, and I. Klimes Dietary fish oil and olive oil improve the liver insulin receptor tyrosine kinase activity in high sucrose fed rats Endocr Regul 28 1994 187 197
63. S. Shigematsu, R.T. Watson, and A.H. Khan The adipocyte plasma membrane caveolin functional/structural organization is necessary for the efficient endocytosis of GLUT4 J Biol Chem 278 2003 10683 10690
64. M.D. Girion, R. Salto, and P. Hortelano Increased diaphragm expression of GLUT 4 in control and streptozotocin-diabetic rats by fish oil supplemented diets Lipids 34 1999 801 807
65. V. Aas, M.H. Rokling-Andersen, and E.T. Kase Eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3) increases fatty acid and glucose uptake in cultured human skeletal muscle cells J Lipid Res 47 2006 366 374
66. R.J. Deckelbaum, T.S. Worgall, and T. Seo N-3 fatty acids and gene expression Am J Clin Nutr 83 2006 1520S 1525S
67. D.B. Jump N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid regulation of hepatic gene transcription Curr Opin Lipidol 19 2008 242 247
68. U. Risérus, W.C. Willett, and F.B. Hu Dietary fats and prevention of type 2 diabetes Prog Lipid Res 48 2009 44 51
69. P. Pettinelli, T. del Pozo, and J. Araya Enhancement in liver SREBP-1c/PPAR-α ratio and steatosis in obese patients: correlations with insulin resistance and n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid depletion Biochim Biophys Acta 1792 2009 1080 1086
70. P.S. Aguilar, and D. de Mendoza Control of fatty acid desaturation: a mechanism conserved from bacteria to humans Mol Microbiol 62 2006 1507 1514
71. M.A. Montanaro, M.S. González, and A.M. Bernasconi Role of liver X receptor, insulin and peroxisome proliferator activated receptor a on in vivo desaturase modulation of unsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis Lipids 42 2007 197 210
72. C.P. Day, and O.F. James Steatohepatitis: a tale of two "hits"? Gastroenterology 114 1998 842 845
73. M. Trauner, M. Arrese, and M. Wagner Fatty liver and lipotoxicity Biochim Biophys Acta 1801 2010 299 310
74. S. Romeo, J. Kozlitina, and C. Xing Genetic variation in PNPLA3 confers susceptibility to nonalcoholic fatty liver disease Nat Genet 40 2008 1461 1465
75. P. Newsholme, E.P. Haber, and S.M. Hirabara Diabetes associated cell stress and dysfunction: role of mitochondrial and non-mitochondrial ROS production and activity J Physiol 583 2007 9 24
76. P. Puri, R.A. Baillie, and M.M. Wiest A lipidomic analysis of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease Hepatology 46 2007 1081 1090
77. Z.Z. Li, M. Berk, and T.M. McIntyre Hepatic lipid partitioning and liver damage in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: role of stearoyl-CoA desaturase J Biol Chem 284 2009 5637 5644
78. M. Cnop, N. Welsh, and J.C. Jonas Mechanisms of pancreatic beta-cell death in type 1 and type 2 diabetes: many differences, few similarities Diabetes 54 2005 S97 107
79. J.G. Gormaz, and R. Rodrigo Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis R. Rodrigo, Oxidative stress and antioxidants: their role in human disease 2009 Nova Science Publishers Inc. New York 223 256
80. S. Seki, T. Kitada, and T. Yamada In situ detection of lipid peroxidation and oxidative DNA damage in non-alcoholic fatty liver diseases J Hepatol 37 2002 56 62
81. L.A. Videla, R. Rodrigo, and J. Araya Insulin resistance and oxidative stress interdependency in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease Trends Mol Med 12 2006 555 558
82. I.A. Leclercq Antioxidant defence mechanisms: new players in the pathogenesis of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis? Clin Sci (London) 106 2004 235 237
83. H. Jaeschke Reactive oxygen and inflammatory liver injury. Reactive oxygen and mechanisms of inflammatory liver injury J Gastroenterol Hepatol 15 2000 718 724
84. H. Tsukamoto Redox regulation of cytokine expression in Kupffer cells Antioxid Redox Signal 4 2002 741 748
85. B.M. Babior NADPH oxidase Curr Opin Immunol 16 2004 42 47
86. J. Crespo, A. Cayón, and P. Fernández-Gil Gene expression of tumor necrosis alpha and TNF receptors, p55 and p75, in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis patients Hepatology 34 2001 1158 1163
87. J.M. Hui, A. Hodge, and G.C. Farrell Beyond insulin resistance in NASH: TNF-alpha or adiponectin? Hepatology 40 2004 46 54
88. J. Poniachik, A. Csendes, and J.C. Díaz Increased production of IL-1alpha and TNF-alpha in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated blood from obese patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease Cytokine 33 2006 252 257
89. A.J. Sanyal, C. Campbell-Sargent, and F. Mirshahi Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: association with insulin resistance and mitochondrial abnormalities Gastroenterology 120 2001 1183 1192
90. H. Cortez-Pinto, J. Chatham, and V.P. Chacko Alterations in liver ATP homeostasis in human nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: a pilot study JAMA 282 1999 1659 1664
91. P. Angulo Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease Rev Gastroenterol Mex 70 2005 52 56
92. A.M. Zivkovic, J.B. German, and A.J. Sanyal Comparative review of diets for the metabolic syndrome: implications for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease Am J Clin Nutr 86 2007 285 300
93. K. Qureshi, and G.A. Abrams Metabolic liver disease of obesity and role of adipose tissue in the pathogenesis of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease World J Gastroenterol 13 2007 3540 3553
94. B. Antuna-Puente, B. Feve, and S. Fellahi Obesity, inflammation and insulin resistance: which role for adipokines Therapie 62 2007 285 292
95. A. Elizondo, J. Araya, and R. Rodrigo Polyunsaturated fatty acid pattern in liver and erythrocyte phospholipids from obese patients Obesity 15 2007 24 31
96. L. Zhou, and A. Nilsson Sources of eicosanoid precursor fatty acid pools in tissues J Lipid Res 42 2001 1521 1542
97. S.C. Cunnane Problems with essential fatty acids: time for a new paradigm? Prog Lipid Res 42 2003 544 568
98. G. Musso, R. Gambino, and F. De Michieli Dietary habits and their relations to insulin resistance and postprandial lipemia in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis Hepatology 37 2003 909 916
99. H. Cortez-Pinto, L. Jesus, and H. Barros How different is the dietary pattern in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis patients? Clin Nutr 25 2006 816 823
100. S. Zelber-Sagi, D. Nitzan-Kaluski, and R. Goldsmith Long term nutritional intake and the risk for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD): a population based study J Hepatol 47 2007 711 717
101. A. Sevanian, and P. Hochstein Mechanisms and consequences of lipid peroxidation in biological systems Annu Rev Nutr 5 1985 365 390
102. U.N. Das A defect in the activity of delta6 and delta5 desaturases may be a factor predisposing to the development of insulin resistance syndrome Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 72 2005 343 350
103. H. Malhi, and G.J. Gores Molecular mechanisms of lipotoxicity in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease Semin Liver Dis 28 2008 360 369
104. A. Kotronen, T. Seppänen-Laakso, and J. Westerbacka Hepatic stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD)-1 activity and diacylglycerol but not ceramide concentrations are increased in the nonalcoholic human fatty liver Diabetes 58 2009 203 208
105. Z. Li, M. Berk, and T.M. McIntyre The lysosomal-mitochondrial axis in free fatty acid-induced hepatic lipotoxicity Hepatology 47 2008 1495 1503
106. P. Perez-Martinez, F. Perez-Jimenez, and J. Lopez-Miranda n-3 PUFA and lipotoxicity Biochim Biophys Acta 180 2010 362 366
107. D.E. Williard, J.O. Nwankwo, and T.L. Kaduce Identification of a fatty acid delta6-desaturase deficiency in human skin fibroblasts J Lipid Res 42 2001 501 508
108. S.D. Clarke Polyunsaturated fatty acid regulation of gene transcription: a molecular mechanism to improve the metabolic syndrome J Nutr 131 2001 1129 1132
109. Y. Wang, D. Botolin, and J. Xu Regulation of hepatic fatty acid elongase and desaturase expression in diabetes and obesity J Lipids Res 47 2006 2028 2041
110. A.E. Leonard, S.L. Pereira, and H. Sprecher Elongation of long-chain fatty acids Prog Lipid Res 43 2004 36 54
111. H. Guillou, D. Zadravec, and P.G. Martin The key roles of elongases and desaturases in mammalian fatty acid metabolism: insights from transgenic mice Prog Lipid Res 49 2010 186 199
112. Y.A. Moon, and J.D. Horton Identification of two mammalian reductases involved in the two-carbon fatty acyl elongation cascade J Biol Chem 278 2003 7335 7343
113. Y. Wang, D. Botolin, and B. Christian Tissue-specific, nutritional, and developmental regulation of rat fatty acid elongases J Lipid Res 46 2005 706 715
114. C. Gostincar, M. Turk, and N. Gunde-Cimerman The evolution of fatty acid desaturases and cytochrome b5 in eukaryotes J Membr Biol 233 1-3 2010 63 72
115. P. Sperling, P. Ternes, and T.K. Zank The evolution of desaturases Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 68 2003 73 95
116. N. Hastings, M. Agaba, and D.R. Tocher A vertebrate fatty acid desaturase with delta5 and delta6 activities Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98 2001 14304 14309
117. P. Kurdrid, S. Subudhi, and A. Hongsthong Functional expression of Spirulina-delta6 desaturase gene in yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae Mol Biol Rep 32 2005 215 226
118. W.J. Park, K.S. Kothapalli, and H.T. Reardon Novel fatty acid desaturase 3 (FADS3) transcripts generated by alternative splicing Gene 446 2009 28 34
119. Pedrono F, Blanchard H, Kloereg M, et al. The fatty acid desaturase 3 (Fads3) gene encodes for different FADS3 protein isoforms in mammalian tissues. J Lipid Res 2009 Sep 14 [Epub ahead of print].
120. J. Skrzypski, S. Bellenger, and J. Bellenger Revisiting delta-6 desaturase regulation by C18 unsaturated fatty acids, depending on the nutritional status Biochimie 91 2009 1443 1449
121. P. Risé, S. Ghezzi, and R. Carissimi Δ5 desaturase mRNA levels are increased by simvastatin via SREBP-1 at early stages, not via PPARα, in THP-1 cells Eur J Pharmacol 571 2007 97 105
122. R.R. Brenner Endocrine control of fatty acid desaturation Biochem Soc Trans 18 1990 773 775
123. P. Grandjean, and P. Weihe Arachidonic acid status during pregnancy is associated with polychlorinated biphenyl exposure Am J Clin Nutr 77 2003 715 719
124. M. Roqueta-Rivera, C.K. Stroud, and W.M. Haschek Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation fully restores fertility and spermatogenesis in male delta-6 desaturase knockout mice J Lipid Res 51 2010 360 367
125. W. Stoffel, B. Holz, and B. Jenke Delta6-desaturase (FADS2) deficiency unveils the role of omega3- and omega6-polyunsaturated fatty acids EMBO J 27 2008 2281 2292
126. W.J. Park, K.S. Kothapalli, and P. Lawrence An alternate pathway to long-chain polyunsaturates: the FADS2 gene product delta8-desaturates 20:2n-6 and 20:3n-3 J Lipid Res 50 2009 1195 1202
127. M.L. Garg, E. Sebokova, and A.B. Thomson Delta 6-desaturase activity in liver microsomes of rats fed diets enriched with cholesterol and/or omega 3 fatty acids Biochem J 249 1988 351 356
128. M.T. Nakamura, A.B. Tang, and J. Villanueva Selective reduction of delta6 and delta5 desaturase activities but not delta9 desaturase in micropigs chronically fed ethanol J Clin Invest 93 1994 450 454
129. J.M. Bourre, and M. Piciotti Delta-6 desaturation of alpha-linolenic acid in brain and liver during development and aging in the mouse Neurosci Lett 141 1992 65 68
130. C. Maniongui, J.P. Blond, and L. Ulmann Age-related changes in delta6 and delta5 desaturase activities in rat liver microsomes Lipids 28 1993 291 297
131. T.K. Dinh, J.M. Bourre, and G. Durand Effect of age and alpha-linolenic acid deficiency on delta6 desaturase activity and liver lipids in rats Lipids 28 1993 517 523
132. M. Narce, and J.P. Poisson Age-related depletion of linoleic acid desaturation in liver microsomes from young spontaneously hypertensive rats Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 53 1995 59 63
133. E. Corpeleijn, E.J. Feskens, and E.H. Jansen Improvements in glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity after lifestyle intervention are related to changes in serum fatty acid profile and desaturase activities: the SLIM study Diabetologia 49 2006 2392 2401
134. E. Warensjö, M. Ohrvall, and B. Vessby Fatty acid composition and estimated desaturase activities are associated with obesity and lifestyle variables in men and women Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 16 2006 128 136
135. M.A. Montanaro, A.M. Bernasconi, and M.S. Gonzalez Effects of fenofibrate and insulin on the biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acids in streptozotocin diabetic rats Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 73 2005 369 378
136. T. Matsuzaka, H. Shimano, and N. Yahagi Dual regulation of mouse delta(5)- and delta(6)-desaturase gene expression by SREBP-1 and PPARalpha J Lipid Res 43 2002 107 114
137. J.C. Corton, U. Apte, and S.P. Anderson Mimetics of caloric restriction include agonists of lipid-activated nuclear receptors J Biol Chem 279 2004 46204 46212
138. O.J. Rimoldi, G.S. Finarelli, and R.R. Brenner Effects of diabetes and insulin on hepatic Δ6 desaturase gene expression Biochem Biophys Res Commun 283 2001 323 326
139. S. El Boustani, J.E. Causse, and B. Descomps Paulet, direct in vivo characterization of delta5 desaturase activity in humans by deuterium labeling: effect of insulin Metabolism 38 1989 315 321
140. P.C. Calder n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation, and inflammatory diseases Am J Clin Nutr 83 2006 1505S 1519S
141. F.J. Field, E. Born, and S. Murthy Regulation of sterol regulatory element-binding proteins by cholesterol flux in CaCo-2 cells J Lipid Res 42 2001 1687 1698
142. D.W. Crabb, A. Galli, and M. Fischer Molecular mechanisms of alcoholic fatty liver: role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha Alcohol 34 1 2004 35 38
143. A.M. Nervi, R.O. Peluffo, and R.R. Brenner Effect of ethanol administration on fatty acid desaturation Lipids 15 1980 263 268
144. D.L. Wang, and R.C. Reitz Ethanol ingestion and polyunsaturated fatty acids: effects on the acyl-CoA desaturases Alcohol Clin Exp Res 7 1983 220 226
145. S. Umeki, H. Shiojiri, and Y. Nozawa Chronic ethanol administration decreases fatty acyl-CoA desaturase activities in rat liver microsomes FEBS Lett 169 1984 274 278
146. V.U. Buko, and L.I. Sushko Role of microsomal ethanol-oxidizing system in regulation of linoleoyl-CoA desaturase activity after long-term ethanol administration Alcohol Alcohol 23 1988 69 71
147. K.S. Oh, M. Kim, and J. Lee Liver PPARalpha and UCP2 are involved in the regulation of obesity and lipid metabolism by swim training in genetically obese db/db mice Biochem Biophys Res Commun 345 2006 1232 1239
148. A. Petridou, M.G. Nikolaidis, and A. Matsakas Effect of exercise training on the fatty acid composition of lipid classes in rat liver, skeletal muscle, and adipose tissue Eur J Appl Physiol 94 1-2 2005 84 92
149. E. Lattka, T. Illig, and J. Heinrich FADS gene cluster polymorphisms: important modulators of fatty acid levels and their impact on atopic diseases J Nutrigenet Nutrigenomics 2 2009 119 128
150. E. Lattka, T. Illig, and B. Koletzko Genetic variants of the FADS1 FADS2 gene cluster as related to essential fatty acid metabolism Curr Opin Lipidol 21 2010 64 69
151. R.R. Brenner, O.J. Rimoldi, and Y.B. Lombardo Desaturase activities in rat model of insulin resistance induced by a sucrose-rich diet Lipids 38 2003 733 742
152. M.A. Montanaro, O.J. Rimoldi, and R.A. Igal Hepatic delta9, delta6, and delta5 desaturations in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus eSS rats Lipids 38 2003 827 832
153. T. Pelikánová, M. Kohout, and J. Base Effects of acute hyperinsulinemia on fatty acid composition of serum lipids in non-insulin-dependent diabetics and healthy men Clin Chim Acta 16 203 1991 329 337
154. G. Sartore, A. Lapolla, and R. Reitano Desaturase activities and metabolic control in type 2 diabetes Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 79 2008 55 58
155. Kotronen A, Seppänen-Laakso T, Westerbacka J, et al. Comparison of lipid and fatty acid composition of the liver, subcutaneous and intra-abdominal adipose tissue, and serum. Obesity 2009 Oct 1 [Epub ahead of print].
156. B. Vessby, I.B. Gustafsson, and S. Tengblad Desaturation and elongation of ftty acids and insulin action Ann N Y Acad Sci 967 2002 183 195
157. H.G. Enoch, A. Catalá, and P. Strittmatter Mechanism of rat liver microsomal stearyl-CoA desaturase. Studies of the substrate specificity, enzyme-substrate interactions, and the function of lipid J Biol Chem 251 1976 5095 5103
158. B.G. Fox, K.S. Lyle, and C.E. Rogge Reactions of the Diiron enzyme stearoyl-acyl carrier protein desaturase Acc Chem Res 37 2004 421 429
159. K.P. Whiting, C.J. Restall, and P.F. Brain Steroid hormone-induced effects on membrane fluidity and their potential roles in non-genomic mechanisms Life Sci 67 2000 743 757
160. M.L. Genova, C. Bianchi, and G. Lenaz Supercomplex organization of the mitochondrial respiratory chain and the role of the cenzyme Q pool: pathophysiological implications Biofactors 25 2005 5 20
161. S. Despret, L. Dinh, and M. Clément Alteration of delta-6 desaturase by vitamin E in rat brain and liver Neurosci Lett 145 1992 19 22
162. S. Ghezzi, S. Rise, and S. Ceruti Effects of cigarette smoke on cell viability, linoleic acid metabolism and cholesterol synthesis, in THP-1 cells Lipids 42 2007 629 636
163. F. Marangoni, C. Colombo, and L. De Angelisa Cigarette smoke negatively and dose-dependently affects the biosynthetic pathway of the n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid series in human mammary epithelial cells Lipids 39 2004 633 637
164. A. Elizondo, J. Araya, and R. Rodrigo Effects of weight loss on liver and erythrocyte polyunsaturated fatty acid pattern and oxidative stress status in obese patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease Biol Res 41 2008 59 68