Neurogenetics of dopaminergic receptor supersensitivity in activation of brain reward circuitry and relapse: Proposing "Deprivation-Amplification Relapse Therapy" (DART)

Postgraduate Medicine

Volumn 121, Issue 6, 2009, Pages 176-196

  Blum, Kenneth ^a,b,c   Chen, Thomas J H ^d   Downs, B William ^b,c   Bowirrat, Abdalla ^e   Waite, Roger L ^b,c   Braverman, Eric R ^f   Madigan, Margaret ^b,c   Oscar Berman, Marlene ^f   DiNubile, Nicholas ^g   Stice, Eric ^h   Giordano, John ^c   Morse, Siobhan ^c   Gold, Mark ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b LifeGen Inc   (United States)

^c Chang Jung Christian University ^*  (United States)

^d Clinical Neuroscience and Population Genetics   (Israel)

^e WEILL CORNELL MEDICAL COLLEGE   (United States)

^f BOSTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^g OREGON RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (United States)

^h Holistic Addiction Treatment Center   (United States)

Author keywords

Addiction; Deprivation amplification relapse therapy; Dopamine; Neurogenetics; Reward circuitry

Indexed keywords

11BETA,17BETA DIHYDROXY 6 METHYL 17ALPHA (1 PROPYNYL)ANDROSTA 1,4,6 TRIEN 3 ONE; 8 CHLORO 2,3,4,5 TETRAHYDRO 3 METHYL 5 PHENYL 1H 3 BENZAZEPIN 7 OL HYDROGEN MALEATE; ALPHA CONOTOXIN MII; AMINO ACID DECARBOXYLASE; BROMOCRIPTINE; CATECHOL METHYLTRANSFERASE; CLONIDINE; COCAINE; CORTICOTROPIN RELEASING FACTOR; DESIPRAMINE; DOPAMINE 2 RECEPTOR; DOPAMINE 2 RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; DOPAMINE RECEPTOR; GUANABENZ; HALOPERIDOL; KB 220; MEMBRANE METALLOENDOPEPTIDASE; MIFEPRISTONE; NALTREXONE; NICOTINIC RECEPTOR; OPIATE; OXIDOPAMINE; RACLOPRIDE; RESERPINE; SYNAPTAMINE; SYNAPTAMINE COMPLEX; TYROSINE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG; UROCORTIN I; UROCORTIN II; UROCORTIN III; VARENICLINE; DOPAMINE RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT;

ALLELE; BRAIN FUNCTION; BRAIN REWARD CIRCUITRY; CLINICAL TRIAL; DEPRIVATION AMPLIFICATION RELAPSE THERAPY; DOPAMINE METABOLISM; DRUG DEPENDENCE TREATMENT; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; ENZYME ACTIVATION; ENZYME INHIBITION; GENETIC POLYMORPHISM; HETEROZYGOTE; HUMAN; HYPOTHESIS; NEOSTRIATUM; NONHUMAN; RECEPTOR DENSITY; RECEPTOR SENSITIVITY; RECEPTOR UPREGULATION; RELAPSE; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SUBSTANCE ABUSE; ADDICTION; ANIMAL; DRUG POTENTIATION; GENETICS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; RAT; RECURRENT DISEASE; REWARD; THEORETICAL MODEL;

ANIMALS; BEHAVIOR, ADDICTIVE; DOPAMINE AGONISTS; HUMANS; MODELS, THEORETICAL; POLYMORPHISM, GENETIC; RATS; RECEPTORS, DOPAMINE D2; RECURRENCE; REWARD; SUBSTANCE-RELATED DISORDERS;

EID: 73949141972     PISSN: 00325481     EISSN: 19419260     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3810/pgm.2009.11.2087     Document Type: Review

References (265)

1. Blum K, Cull JG, Braverman ER, Comings DE. Reward deficiency syndrome. The American Scientist. 1996;84(2):132-145.
2. Blum K, Braverman ER, Holder JM, et al. Reward deficiency syndrome: a biogenetic model for the diagnosis and treatment of impulsive, addictive and compulsive behaviors. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2000;32(suppl i-iv):1-112.
3. Blum K, Sheridan PJ, Wood RC, et al. The D2 dopamine receptor gene as a determinant of reward deficiency syndrome. J R Soc Med. 1996;89(7):396-400.
4. Comings DE, Blum K. Reward deficiency syndrome: genetic aspects of behavioral disorders. Prog Brain Res. 2000;126:3250-3341.
5. Comings DE, Wu S, Chiu C, et al. Polygenic inheritance of Tourette syndrome, stuttering, attention deficit hyperactivity, conduct, and oppositional defiant disorder: the additive and subtractive effect of the three dopaminergic genes DRD2, D beta H, and DAT1. Am J Med Genet. 1996;67(3):264-288.
6. Chen TJ, Blum K, Mathews D, et al. Preliminary association of both the Dopamine D2 Receptor (DRD2) [Taq1 A1 Allele] and the Dopamine Transporter (DAT1) [1480 bp Allele] genes with pathological aggressive behavior, a clinical subtype of reward deficiency syndrome (RDS) in adolescents. Gene Ther Mol Biol. 2007;11:93-112.
7. Eisenberg DT, Campbell B, Mackillop J, Lum JK, Wilson DS. Season of birth and dopamine receptor gene associations with impulsivity, sensation seeking and reproductive behaviors. PLoS One. 2007;2(11):e1216.
8. Noble EP. The D2 dopamine receptor gene: a review of association studies in alcoholism and phenotypes. Alcohol. 1998;16(1):33-45.
9. Noble EP. The DRD2 gene in psychiatric and neurological disorder and its phenotypes. Pharmacogenomics. 2000;1(3):309-333.
10. Noble EP. D2 dopamine receptor gene in psychiatric and neurologic disorders and its phenotypes. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2003;116B(1):103-125.
11. Volkow ND, Fowler JS, Wang GJ. Role of dopamine in drug reinforcement and addiction in humans: results from imaging studies. Behav Pharmacol. 2002;13(5-6):355-366.
12. Downs BW, Chen AL, Chen TJ, et al. Nutrigenomic targeting of carbohydrate craving behavior: can we manage obesity and aberrant craving behaviors with neurochemical pathway manipulation by immunological compatible substances (nutrients) using a genetic positioning system (GPS) map. Med Hyp. 2009;73(3):427-434.
13. Vandenbergh DJ, O'Connor RJ, Grant MD, et al. Dopamine receptor genes (DRD2, DRD3 and DRD4) and gene-gene interactions associated with smoking-related behaviors. Addict Biol. 2007;12:106-116.
14. Wang TJ, Huang SY, Lin WW, et al. Possible interaction between MAOA and DRD2 genes associated with antisocial alcoholism among Han Chinese men in Taiwan. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2007;31(1):108-114.
15. Arinami T, Itokawa M, Aoki J, et al; Further association study on dopamine D2 receptor S311C in schizophrenia and affective disorders. Am J Med Genet. 1996;67(2):133-138.
16. Blum K, Noble EP, Sheridan PJ, et al. Allelic association of human dopamine D2 receptor gene in alcoholism. JAMA. 1990;263(15):2055-2060.
17. Cohen MX, Young J, Baek JM, Kessler C, Ranganath C. Individual differences in extraversion and dopamine genetics predict neural reward responses. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res. 2005;25(3):851-861.
18. Preuss UW, Zill P, Koller G, Bondy B, Sokya M. D2 dopamine receptor gene haplotypes and their influence on alcohol and tobacco consumption magnitude in alcohol-dependent individuals. Alcohol Alcohol. 2007;42(3):258-266.
19. Reuter M, Roth S, Holve K, Hennig J. Identification of first candidate genes for creativity: a pilot study. Brain Res. 2006;1069(1):190-197.
20. Ponce G, Jimenez-Arriero MA, Rubio G, et al. The A1 allele of the DRD2 gene (Taq1 A polymorphisms) is associated with antisocial personality in a sample of alcohol - dependent patients. European Psychiatry. 2003;18(7):356-360.
21. Noble EP, Ozkaragoz TZ, Ritchie TL, Zhang X, Belin TR, Sparkes RS. D2 and D4 dopamine receptor polymorphisms and personality. Am J Med Genet. 1998;81(3):257-267.
22. Han DH, Yoon SJ, Sung YH, et al. A preliminary study: novelty seeking, frontal executive function, and dopamine receptor (D2) TaqI A gene polymorphism in patients with methamphetamine dependence. Compr Psychiatry. 2008;49(4):387-392.
23. Ratsma JE, van der Stelt O, Schoffelmeer AN, Westerveld A, Ginning WB. P3 event-related potential, dopamine D2 A1 allele, and sensation-seeking in adult children of alcoholics. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2001;25(7):960-967.
24. Hill SY, Zezza N, Wipprecht G, Xu J, Neiswanger K. Linkage studies of D2 and D4 receptor genes and alcoholism. Am J Med Genet. 1999;88(6):676-685.
25. Merlo LJ, Gold MS. Special Report - Frontiers in psychiatric research: addiction research: the state of the art in 2008. Psychiatric Times. 2008;25(7):52-57.
26. Paczynski RP, Gold MS. Cocaine and crack. In: Pedro Ruiz and Eric Strain, eds. Lowinson and Ruiz's Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook. 5th ed. Baltimore. MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2009.
27. Volkow ND, Chang L, Wang GJ, et al. Association of dopamine transporter reduction with psychomotor impairment in methamphetamine abusers. Am J Psychiat. 2001;158(3):377-382.
28. Perez de los Cobos J, Baiget M, Trujols J, et al. Allelic and genotypic associations of DRD2 TaqI A polymorphism with heroin dependence in Spanish subjects: a case control study. Behav Brain Funct. 2007;3:25.
29. Schindler KM, Pato MT, Dourado A, et al. Association and linkage disequilibrium between a functional polymorphism of the dopamine-2 receptor gene and schizophrenia in a genetically homogeneous Portuguese population. Mol Psychiat. 2002;7(9):1002-1005.
30. Oscar-Berman M. Neuropsychological vulnerabilities in chronic alcoholism. In: Noronha A, Eckardt M, Warren K, eds. Review of NIAAA's Neuroscience and Behavioral Research Portfolio. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Research Monograph-34. Bethesda, MD: The Institute; 2000:149-158.
31. Dackis CA, Gold MS, Davies RK, Sweeney DR. Bromocriptine treatment for cocaine abuse: the dopamine depletion hypothesis. Int J Psychiatry Med. 1985-1986;15(2):125-135.
32. Gold MS, Graham NA, Cocores JA. Editorial: food addiction? J Addict Med. 2009;3(1):42-45.
33. Althaus M, Groen Y, Wijers AA, et al. Differential effects of 5-HTTLPR and DRD2/ANKKI1 polymorphisms on electrocortical measures of error and feedback processing in children. Clin Neurophysiol. 2009;120(1):93-107.
34. Rothman RB, Blough BE, Baumann MH. Duel dopamine/serotonin releasers as potential medications for stimulant and alcohol addictions. AAPS J. 2007;9(1):E1-E10.
35. Doehring A, Hentig N, Graff J, et al. Pharmacogenet Genomics. 2009;19(6):407-414.
36. Blum K, Braverman ER, Wood RC, et al. Increased prevalence of the TaqI A1 allele of the dopamine receptor gene (DRD2) in obesity with comorbid substance use disorder: a preliminary report. Pharmacogenetics. 1996;6(4):297-305.
37. Comings DE, Gade-Andavolu R, Gonzalez N, et al. Multivariate analysis of associations of 42 genes in ADHD, ODD and conduct disorder. Clin Genet. 2000;58(1):31-40.
38. Romstad A, Dupont E, Krag-Olsen B, Østergaard K, Guldberg P, Güttler F. Dopa-responsive dystonia and Tourette syndrome in a large Danish family. Arch Neurol. 2003;60(4):618-622.
39. Singer HS, Szymanski S, Giuliano J, et al. Elevated intrasynaptic dopamine release in Tourette's syndrome measured by PET. Am J Psychiatry. 2002;159(8):1329-1336.
40. Comings DE, MacMurray J, Johnson P, Dietz G, Muhleman D. Dopamine D2 receptor gene (DRD2) haplotypes and the defense style questionnaire in substance abuse, Tourette syndrome and controls. Biol Psychiatry. 1995;37(11):798-805.
41. Lee CC, Chou IC, Tsai CH, Wang TR, Li TC, Tsai FJ. Dopamine receptor D2 gene polymorphisms are associated in Taiwanese children with Tourette's Syndrome. Pediatr Neurol. 2005;33(4):272-276.
42. Waldman ID. Gene-environment interactions reexamined: does mother's marital stability interact with the dopamine receptor D2 gene in the etiology of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? Dev Psychopathol. 2007;19(4):1117-1128
43. Serý O, Drtílková I, Theiner P, et al. Polymorphism of DRD2 gene and ADHD. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2006;27(1-2):236-240.
44. Nyman ES, Ogdie MN, Loukola A, et al. ADHD candidate gene study in a population-based birth cohort: association with DBH and DRD2. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46(12):1614-1621.
45. Ballon N, Leroy S, Roy C, et al. Polymorphisms TaqI A of the DRD2, BalI of the DRD3, exon III repeat of the DRD4, and 3′ UTR VNTR of the DAT: association with childhood ADHD in male African-Caribbean cocaine dependents? Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2007;144B(8):1034-1041.
46. Chen CK, Chen SL, Mill J, et al. The dopamine transporter gene is associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in a Taiwanese sample. Mol Psychiat. 2003;8(4):393-396.
47. Rowe DC. Genetic and environmental components of antisocial behavior: a study of 265 twin pairs. Criminology. 1986;24:513-532.
48. Blum K, Kozlowski GP. Ethanol and neuromodulator interactions: a cascade model of reward. In: Ollat H, Parvez S, Parvez H, eds. Alcohol and Behavior. Utrecht, The Netherlands: VSP Press; 1990:131-149.
49. Cools AR, Gingras MA. High and low responders to novelty: a new tool in the search after the neurobiology of drug abuse liability. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1998;60(1):151-159.
50. Miller WB, Pasta DJ, MacMurray J, Chiu C, Wu H, Comings DE. Dopamine receptor genes are associated with age at first sexual intercourse. J Biosoc Sci. 1999;31(1):43-54.
51. Davis C, Levitan RD, Kaplan AS, et al. Reward sensitivity and the D2 dopamine receptor gene: a case-control study of binge eating disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2008;32(3):620-628.
52. Comings DE, Gade-Andavolu R, Gonzalez N, et al. The additive effect of neurotransmitter genes in pathological gambling. Clin Genet. 2001;60(2):107-116.
53. Ibáñez A, Blanco C, Donahue E, et al. Psychiatric comorbidity in pathological gamblers seeking treatment. Am J Psychiat. 2001;158(10):1733-1735.
54. Reuter J, Raedler R, Rose M, Hand I, Gläscher J, Büchel C. Pathological gambling is linked to reduced activation of the mesolimbic system. Nature Neuroscience. 2005;8(2):147-148.
55. Koepp MJ, Gunn RN, Lawrence AD, et al. Evidence for striatal dopamine release during a video game. Nature. 1998;393(6682):266-268.
56. Noble EP, Syndulko K, Fitch RJ, et al. D2 dopamine receptor Taq1 A alleles in medically ill alcoholic and nonalcoholic patients. Alcohol Alcohol. 1994;29(6):729-744.
57. Li Y, Shao C, Zhang D, et al. The effect of dopamine D2, D5 receptor and transporter (SLC6A3) polymorphisms on the cue-elicited heroin craving in Chinese. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2006;141B(3):269-273.
58. Little KY, Zhang L, Desmond T, Frey KA, Dalack GW, Cassin BJ. Striatal dopaminergic abnormalities in human cocaine users. Am J Psychiat. 1999;156(2):238-245.
59. Hutchison KE, McGeary J, Smolen A, Bryan A, Swift RM. The DRD4 VNTR polymorphism moderates craving after alcohol consumption. Health Psychol. 2002;21(2):139-146.
60. Adler CM, Elman I, Weisenfield N, Kestler L, Pickar D, Breier A. Effects of acute metabolic stress on striatal dopamine release in healthy volunteers. Neuropsychopharmacolgy. 2000;22(5):545-550.
61. Blum K, Payne J. Alcohol and the Addictive Brain. New York, NY: The Free Press (Simon and Schuster): 1991.
62. Blum K, Noble EP, Sheridan PJ, et al. Association of the A1 allele of the D2 dopamine receptor gene with severe alcoholism. Alcohol. 1991;8(5):409-416.
63. Carboni E, Silvagni A, Rolando MT, Di Chiara G. Stimulation of in vivo dopamine transmission in the bed nucleus of stria terminalis by reinforcing drugs. J Neurosci. 2000;20(20):RC102.
64. Di Chiara G. Drug addiction as dopamine-dependent associative learning disorder. Eur J Pharmacol. 1999;375(1-3):13-30.
65. Di Chiara G. Nucleus accumbens shell and core dopamine: differential role in behavior and addiction. Behav Brain Res. 2002;137(1-2):75-114.
66. Di Chiara G, Tanda G, Bassareo V, et al. Drug addiction as a disorder of associative learning. Role of nucleus accumbens shell/extended amygdala dopamine. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1999;877:461-485.
67. Di Chiara G, Impereto A. Drugs abused by humans preferentially increase synaptic dopamine concentrations in the mesolimbic systems of freely moving rats. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1988;84:1413-1416.
68. Gessa G, Mutoni F, Coller M, Vargin L, Mercer G . Low doses of ethanol activate dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area. Brain Res. 1985:348(1):201-203.
69. Eshleman AJ, Henningsen RA, Neve KA, Janowsky A. Release of dopamine via the human transporter. Mol Pharmacol. 1994;45(2):312-316.
70. Hållbus M, Magnusson T, Magnusson O. Influence of 5-HT1B/1D receptors on dopamine release in the guinea pig nucleus accumbens: a microdialysis study. Neurosci Lett. 1997;225(1):57-60.
71. Koob GF. Alcoholism: allostasis and beyond. Alcohol Clin Exp Rex. 2003;27(2):232-243.
72. Koob GF, Le Moal M. Drug addiction, dysregulation of reward, and allostasis. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2001;24(2):97-129.
73. Dick DM, Edenberg HJ, Xuei X, et al. Association of GABAG3 with alcohol dependence. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2004;28(1):4-9.
74. Goldman D, Dean M, Brown GL, et al. D2 dopamine receptor genotype and cerebrospinal fluid homovanillic acid, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid and 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol in alcoholisms in Finland and the United States. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1992;86(5):351-357.
75. Comings DE, Dietz C, Johnson JP, MacMurray JP. Association of the enkephalinase gene with low amplitude P300 waves. Neuroreport. 1999;10(110:2283-2285.
76. Rommelspacher H, Raeder C, Kaulen P, Brüning G. Adaptive changes of doparnine-D2 receptors in rat brain following ethanol withdrawal: a quantitative autoradiographic investigation. Alcohol. 1992;9(5):355-362.
77. Kelley AE, Berridge KC. The neuroscience of natural rewards: relevance to addictive drugs. J Neurosci. 2002;22(9):3306-3311.
78. Gordon AS, Yao L, Jiang Z, Fishburn CS, Fuchs S, Diamond I. Ethanol acts synergistically with a D2 dopamine agonist to cause translocation of protein kinase C. Mol Pharmacol. 2001;59(1):153-160.
79. Connor JP, Young RM, Lawford BR, Ritchie TL, Noble EP. D2 dopamine receptor (DRD2) polymorphism is associated with severity of alcohol dependence. Eur Psychiatry. 2002;17(1):17-23.
80. Arinami T, Itokawa M, Komiyama T, et al. Association between severity of alcoholism and the A1 allele of the dopamine D2 receptor gene TaqI A RFLP in Japanese. Biol Psychiatry. 1993;33(2):108-114.
81. Bau CH, Almeida S, Hutz MH. The TaqI A1 allele of the dopamine D2 receptor gene and alcoholism in Brazil: association and interaction with stress and harm avoidance on severity prediction. Am J Med Genet. 2000;96(3):302-306.
82. Chen WJ, Loh EW, Hsu YP, Chen CC, Yu JM, Cheng AT. Dopamine D2 receptor gene and alcoholism among four aboriginal groups and Han in Taiwan. Am J Med Genet. 1997;74(2):129-136.
83. Goldman D, Urbanek M, Guenther D, Robin R, Long JC. Linkage and association of a functional DRD2 variant [Ser311Cys] and DRD2 markers to alcoholism, substance abuse and schizophrenia in Southwestern American Indians. Am J Med Genet. 1997;74(4):386-394.
84. Dick DM, Wang JC, Plunkett J, et al. Family-based association analyses of alcohol dependence phenotypes across DRD2 and neighboring gene ANKK1. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2007;31(10):1645-1653.
85. Goldman D, Brown GL, Albaugh B, et al. DRD2 dopamine receptor genotype, linkage diseqilibrium and alcoholism in American Indians and other populations. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1993;17(2):199-204.
86. Hietata J, West C, Syvälahti E, et al. Striatal D2 dopamine receptor binding characteristics in vivo in patients with alcohol dependence. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1994;116(3):285-290.
87. Kono Y, Yoneda H, Sakai T, et al. Association between early-onset alcoholism and the dopamine D2 receptor gene. Am J Med Genet. 1997;74(2):179-182.
88. Laine TP, Ahonen A, Torniainen P, et al. Dopamine transporters increase in human brain after alcohol withdrawal. Mol Psychiat. 1999;4(2):189-191.
89. Laine TP, Ahonen A, Räsänen P, Tiihonen J. Dopamine transporter availability and depressive symptoms during alcohol withdrawal. Psychiatry Res. 1999;90(3):153-157.
90. Lawford BR, Young RM, Rowell JA, et al. Association of the D2 dopamine receptor A1 allele with alcoholism: medical severity of alcoholism and type of controls. Biol Psychiatry. 1997;41(1):386-393.
91. Lawford BR, Young RM, Rowell JA, et al. Bromocriptine in the treatment of alcoholics with the D2 dopamine receptor A1 allele. Nat Med. 1995;1(4):337-341.
92. Comings DE, Muhleman D, Ahn C, Gysin R, Flanagan SD. The dopamine D2 receptor gene: a genetic risk factor in substance abuse. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1994;34(3):175-180.
93. Neiswanger K, Kaplan BB, Hill SY. What can the DRD2/alcoholism story teach us about association studies in psychiatric genetics? Am J Med Genet. 1995;60(4):272-275.
94. Noble EP. DRD2 gene and alcoholism. Science. 1998;281(5381):1287- 1288.
95. Noble EP, Blum K, Ritchie T, Montgomery A, Sheridan P, Allelic association of the D2 dopamine receptor gene with receptor-binding characteristics in alcoholism. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1991;48(7):648-654.
96. Noble EP, Zhang X, Ritchie T, et al. D2 doparnine receptor and GABA (A) receptor beta3 subunit gene alcoholism. Psychiatry Res. 1998;81(2):133-147.
97. O'Hara BF, Smith SS, Bird G, et al. Dopamine D2 receptor RFLPs, haplotypes and their association with substance use in black and Caucasian research volunteers. Hum Hered. 1993;43(4):209-218.
98. Smith L, Watson M, Gates S, Ball D, Foxcroft D. Meta-analysis of the association of the Taq1A polymorphism with the risk of alcohol dependency: a HuGE gene-disease association review. Am J Epidemiol. 2008;167(2):125-138.
99. Xu K, Lichterman D, Kipsky RH, et al. Association of specific haplotypes of D2 dopamine receptor gene with vulnerability to heroin dependence in distinct populations. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2004;61(6):597-606.
100. Pinto E, Reggers J, Gorwood P, et al. The Taq1 A DRD2 polymorphism in type 11 alcohol dependence: a marker of age at onset or of familial disease? Alcohol. 2009;43(4):271-275.
101. Hoenicka J, Ponce G, Jiménez-Arriero MA, et al. Association in alcoholic patients between psychopathic traits and the additive effect of allelic forms of the CNR1 and FAAH endocannabinoid genes, and the 3′ region of the drd2 gene. Neurotox Res. 2007;11(1):51-60.
102. Samochowiec J, Kucharska-Mazur J, Grzywacz A, et al. Family-based and case control study of DRD2, DAT,5HTT, COMT gene polymorphisms in alcohol dependence. Neurosci Lett. 2006;410(1):1-5.
103. Johann M, Putzhammer A, Eichhammer P, Wodarz N. Association of the - 141C Del variant of the dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) with positive family history and suicidality in German alcoholics. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2005;132B(1):46-49.
104. Huang W, Payne TJ, Ma JZ, et al. Significant association of ANKKI and detection of afunctional polymorphism with nicotine dependence in an African-American sample. Neuropychopharmacology. 2009;34(2):319-330.
105. Parsian A, Cloninger CR, Zhang ZH. Functional variant in the DRD2 receptor promoter region and subtypes of alcoholism. Am J Med Genet. 2000;96(3):407-411.
106. Bolos AM, Dean M, Lucas-Derse S, et al. Population and pedigree studies reveal a lack of association between the dopamine D2 receptor gene and alcoholism. JAMA. 1990;264(24):3156-3160.
107. Chen CH, Chien SH, Hwu HG. Lack of association between TaqI A1 allele of dopamine D2 receptor gene and alcohol-use disorders in Atayal Natives of Taiwan. Am J Med Genet. 1996;67(5):488-490.
108. Cook BL. Wang ZW. Crowe RR, Hauser R. Freimer M. Alcoholism and the D2 receptor gene. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1992;16(4):806-809.
109. Cruz C, Camarena B, Mejia JM, et al. The dopamine D2 receptor gene TaqI A1 polymorphism and alcoholism in a Mexican population. Arch Med Res. 1995;26(4):421-426.
110. Edenberg HJ, Foroud T, Koller DL, et al. A family-based analysis of the association of the dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) with alcoholism. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1998;22(2):505-512.
111. Gejman PV, Gelernter RJ, Friedman E, et al. No structural mutation in the dopamine D2 receptor gene in alcoholism or schizophrenia. Analysis using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis. JAMA. 1994;271:204-209.
112. Gelernter J, Goldman D, Risch N. The A1 allele at the D2 dopamine receptor gene and alcoholism. A reappraisal. JAMA. 1993;269:1673-1677.
113. Gelernter J, O'Malley S, Risch N, et al. No association between an allele at the D2 dopamine receptor gene (DRD2) and alcoholism. JAMA. 1991;266:1801-1907.
114. Lobos EA, Todd RD. Association analysis in an evolutionary context: cladistic analysis of the DRD2 locus to test for association with alcoholism. Am J Med Genet. 1998;81(5):411-419.
115. Lu RB, Ko HC, Chang FM, et al. No association between alcoholism and multiple polymorphism at the dopamine D2 receptor gene (DRD2) in three distinct Taiwanese populations. Biol Psychiatry. 1996;39(6):419-429.
116. Suarez BK, Parsian A, Hampe CL, et al. Linkage disequilibria at the D2 dopamine receptor locus (DRD2) in alcoholics and controls. Genomics. 1994;19(1):12-20.
117. Gebhardt C, Leisch F, Schüssler P, et al. Non-association of dopamine D4 and D2 receptor genes with personality in healthy individuals. Psychiatr Genet. 2000;10(3):131-137.
118. Pickens RW, Svikis DS, McGue M, et al. Heterogeneity in the inheritance of alcoholism. A study of male and female twins. Arch Gen Psychiat. 1991;48(1):19-28.
119. Barr CL, Kidd KK. Population frequencies of the A1 allele at the dopamine D2 receptor locus. Biol Psychiat. 1993;34(4):204-209.
120. Bouchard TJ Jr. Genes, environment, and personality. Science. 1994;264(5166):1700-1701.
121. Cadoret RJ, Troughton E, Bagford J, Woodworth G. Genetic and environmental factors in adoptee antisocial personality. Eur Arch Psychiatr Neurol Sci. 1990;239(4):231-240.
122. Carey G. Genetic association study in psychiatry: Analytical evaluation and a recommendation. Am J Med Genet (Neuropsychiatr Genet). 1994;54(4):311-317.
123. Crowe RR. Candidate genes in psychiatry: an epidemiological perspective. Am J Med Genet (Neuropsychiatr Genet). 1993;48(2):74-77.
124. Gelernter J, Grandy DK, Bunzon J. D2 dopamine receptor locus (probe Hd2G1) maps close to D11S29 (probe L7) and is also linked to PBGD (probe PBGD0.0) and D11S84 (probe p-2-7-ID6) on 11q. Cytogenet Cell Genet. 1989;51:1002.
125. Gorsvood P. Contribution of genetics to the concept of risk status for alcohol dependence. J Soc Biol. 2000;194(1):43-49.
126. Grandy DK, Eubanks JH, Evans GA, Civelli O, Litt M. Detection and characterization of additional DNA polymorphisms in the dopamine D2 receptor gene. Genomics. 1991;10(3):527-530.
127. Grandy DK, Litt M, Allen L, et al. The human dopamine D2 receptor gene is located chromosome 11 at q22-q23 identified a TaqI RFLP. Am J Hum Genet. 1989;45(5):778-785.
128. Greenberg DA. Linkage analysis of "necessary" disease loci versus "susceptibility" loci. Am J Hum Genet. 1993;52(1):135-143.
129. Hodge SE. What association analysis can and cannot tell us about the genetics of complex disease. Am J Med Genet (Neuropsychiatr Genet). 1994;54(4):318-323.
130. Merikangas KR. The genetic epidemiology of alcoholism. Psychol Med. 1990;20(1):11-22.
131. Oakley NR, Hayes AG, Sheehan MJ. Effect of typical and atypical neuroleptics on the behavioural consequences of activation by muscimol of mesolimbic and nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathways in the rat. Neuropharmacol (Berl). 1991;105(2):204-208.
132. Pato CN, Macciardi F, Pato MT, Verga M, Kennedy JL. Review of the putative association of dopamine D2 receptor and alcoholism. Am J Med Genet. 1993;48(2):78-82.
133. Plomin R, Owen MJ, McGuffin P. The genetic basis of complex human behaviors. Science. 1994;264(5166):1733-1739.
134. Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Fowler JS, et al. Decreases in dopamine receptors but not in dopamine transporters in alcoholics. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1996;20(9):1594-1598.
135. Kuikka JT, Repo E, Bergstrom KA, Tupala E, Tiihonen J. Specific binding and laterality of human extrastriatal dopamine D2/D3 receptors in the late onset type 1 alcoholic patients. Neurosci Lett. 2000;292(1):57-59.
136. Kuikka JT, Baulieu JL, Hiltunen J, et al. Pharmacokinetics and dosimetry of iodine-123 labeled PE2I in humans, a radioligand for dopamine transporter imaging. Eur J Nucl Med. 1998;25(5):531-534.
137. Little KY, McLaughlin DP, Zang L, et al. Brain dopamine transporter messenger RNA and binding sites in cocaine users. Arch Gen Psychiat. 55(9):793-799.
138. Tiihonen J, Kuikka J, Bergstrom K, et al. Altered striatal dopamine re-uptake site densities in habitually violent and non-violent alcoholics. Nature Med. 1995,1(7):654-657.
139. Repo E, Kuikka JT, Bergstrom KA, et al. Dopamine transporter and D2-receptor density in late-onset alcoholism. Psychopharmacol. 1999;147(3):314-318.
140. Jonsson EG, Cichon S, Gustavsson P, et al. Association between a promoter dopamine D2 receptor gene variant and the personality trait detachment. Biol Psychiat. 2003;53(7):577-584.
141. Comings DE, Muhleman D, Gysin R. Dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) gene and susceptibility to posttraumatic stress disorder: A study and replication. Biol Psychiat. 1996;40(5):368-372.
142. Kreek MJ, Koob GF. Drug dependence: Stress and dysregulation of brain reward pathways. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1998;51(1-2):23-47.
143. Hranilovic D, Bucan M, Wang Y. Emotional response in dopamine D2L receptor-deficient mice. Behav Brain Res. 2008;195(2):246-250.
144. Voisey J, Swagell CD, Hughes IP, et al. The Drd2gene 957c > t polymorphism is associated with posttraumatic stress disorder in war veterans. Depress Anxiety. 2009;26(1):28-33.
145. Henry C, Guegant G, Cador M, et al. Prenatal stress in rats facilitates amphetamine - induced sensitization and induces long-lasting changes in dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens. Brain Res. 1995;685(1-2):179-186.
146. Johnson K. The dopamine D2 receptor as a candidate gene for alcoholism. A thesis submitted in partial requirement for the degree of Bachelor of Science (Hons). School of Community Medicine, University of New South Wales, Australia. February, 1996.
147. Blum K, Noble EP, Sheridan PJ, et al. Genetic predisposition in alcoholism: association of the D2 dopamine receptor TaqI B1 RFLP with severe alcoholics. Alcohol. 1993;10(1):59-67.
148. Neville MJ, Johnstone EC, Walton RT. Identification and Characterization of ANKK1: A novel kinase gene closely linked to DRD2 on chromosome band 11q23.1. Human Mutation. 2004;23(6):540-545.
149. Perkins KA, Lerman C, Grottenthaler A, et al. Dopamine and opioid gene variants are associated with increased smoking reward and reinforcement owing to negative mood. Behav Pharmacol. 2008;19(5-6):641-649.
150. Fossella J, Green AE, Fan J. Evaluation of a structural polymorphism in the ankyrin repeat and kinase domain containing 1 (ANKK1) gene and the activation of executive attention networks. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci. 2006;6(1):71-78.
151. Rodriguez-Jimenez R, Hoenicka J, Jimenez-Arriero MA, Ponce G, Bagney A, Aragues M, Palomo T. Performance in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and the C957T polymorphism of the DRD2 gene in healthy volunteers. Neuropsychobiology. 2006;54(3):166-170.
152. Robbins TW, Everitt BJ. Neurobiobehavioural mechanisms of reward and motivation. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 1996;6(2):228-236.
153. Cooper M, Frone M, Russell M, Mudar P. Drinking to regulate positive and negative emotions: A motivational model of alcohol use. J Personality Social Psychol. 1995;69(5):990-1005.
154. Epping-Jordan MP, Markou A, Koob GF. The dopamine D-1 receptor antagonist SCH 23390 injected into the dorsolateral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis decreased cocaine reinforcement in the rat. Brain Res. 1998;784(1-2):105-115.
155. Wightman RM, Robinson DL. Transient changes in mesolimbic dopamine and their association with "reward." J Neurochen. 2002;82(4):721-735.
156. Suhara T, Yasuno F, Sudo Y, et al. Dopamine D2 receptors in the insular cortex and the personality trait of novelty seeking. Neuroimage. 2001;13(5):891-895.
157. Hodge CW, Chappelle AM, Samson HH. Dopamine receptors in the medial prefrontal cortex influence ethanol and sucrose-reinforced responding. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1996;20(9):1631-1638.
158. Hodge CW, Cox AA. The discriminative stimulus effects of ethanol are mediated by NMDA and GABA (A) receptors in specific limbic brain regions. Psychopharmacol (Berl). 1998;139(1-2):95-107.
159. Grant KA. Emerging neurochemical concepts in the actions of ethanol at ligand-gated ion channels. Behav Pharmacol. 1994;5(4-5):383-404.
160. Comings DE, Gade R, MacMurray JP, et al. Genetic variants of the human obesity (OB) gene: association with body mass index in young women psychiatric symptoms, and interaction with the dopamine D2 receptor gene. Molecular Psychiatry. 1996:1(4):325-335.
161. Comings DE, Rosenthal RJ, Lesieur HR, et al. A study of the dopamine D2 receptor gene in pathological gambling. Pharmacogenet. 1996;6(2):223-234.
162. Koob GF. Neurobiology of addiction. Toward the development of new therapies. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2000;909:170-185.
163. Kotter R, Stephan KE. Useless or helpful? The "limbic system" concept. Rev Neurosci. 1997;8(2):139-145.
164. Blum K, Chen AL, Chen TJ, et al. Genes and happiness. Gen Ther Mol Biol. 2009;13:92-129.
165. Berridge KC. The debate over dopamine's role in reward: the case for incentive silence. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2007;191:391-431.
166. Kirsch P, Reuter M, Mier D, et al. Imaging gene-substance interactions: the effect of the DRD2 TaqIA polymorphism and the dopamine agonist bromocriptine on the brain activation during the anticipation of reward. Neurosci Lett. 2006;405(3):196-201.
167. Kostrzewa RM, Kostrzewa JP, Brown RW, Nowak P, Brus R. Dopamine receptor supersensitivity: development, mechanisms, presentation, and clinical applicability. Neurotox Res. 2008;14(2-3):121-128.
168. Westfall DP. Nonspecific supersensitivity of the guinea-pig vas deferens produced by decentralization and reserpine treatment. Br J Pharmacol. 1970;39(1):110-120.
169. Blum K, Dalterio S, Briggs AH, Delallo LJ, Hall CW. Supersensitivity to norepinephrine induced by prenatal exposure to ethanol. Eur J Pharmacol. 1984;106(2):415-417.
170. Blum K, Briggs AH, DeLallo L, Elston SF, Hirst M. Naloxone antagonizes the action of low ethanol concentrations on mouse vas deferens. Subst Alcohol Actions Misuse. 1980:1(4):327-334.
171. Dalterio S, Blum K, DeLallo L, Sweeney C, Briggs A, Bartke A. Perinatal exposure to delta 9-THC in mice: altered enkephalin and norepinephrine
172. Self DW. Neural substrates of drug craving and relapse in drug addiction. Ann Med. 1998;30(4):379-389.
173. Blum K, Chen AL, Chen TJ, et al. Activation instead of blocking mesolimbic dopaminergic reward circuitry is a preferred modality in the long term treatment of reward deficiency syndrome (RDS): a commentary. Theor Biol Med Model. 2008;5:24.
174. Li Y, Shao C, Zhang D, et al. The effect of dopamine D2, D5 receptor and transporter (SLC6A3) polymorphisms on the cue-elicited heroin craving in Chinese. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2006;141B(3):269-273.
175. Ujike H. Potential genetic predictors for individual vulnerability to substance dependence. Nihon Shinkei Seishin Yakurigaku Zasshi. 2008;28:11-17.
176. Perkins KA, Lerman C, Grottenthaler A, et al. Doparnine and opioid gene variants are associated with increased smoking reward and reinforcement owing to negative mood. Behav Pharmacol. 2008;19(5-6):641-649.
177. Bachtell RK, Choi KH, Simmons DL, et al. Role of GluR1 expression in nucleus accumbens neurons in cocaine sensitization and cocaine-seeking behavior. Eur J Neurosci. 2008;27:2229-2240.
178. Schmidt LG, Dettling M, Graef KJ, et al. Reduced dopaminergic function in alcoholics is related to severe dependence. Biol Psychiatry. 1996;39(3):193-198.
179. Abercrombie ED, Keefe KA, DiFrischia DS, Zigmond MJ. Differential effects of stress on in vivo dopamine release in striatum, nucleus accumbens. and medial prefrontal cortex. J Neurochem. 1989;52(5):1655-1658.
180. Deutch AY, Clark WA, Roth RH. Prefrontal cortical dopamine depletion enhances the responsiveness of mesolimbic dopamine neurons to stress. Brain Res. 1990;521(1-2):311-315.
181. Doherty MD, Gratton A. Medial prefrontal cortical D1 receptor modulation of the meso-accumbens dopamine response to stress: an electrochemical study in freely-behaving rats. Brain Res. 1996;715(1-2):86-97.
182. Vezina P, Blanc G, Glowinski J, Tassin JP. Opposed behavioral outputs of increased dopamine transmission in prefrontocortical and subcortical areas: a role for cortical D1 receptor. Eur J Neurosci. 1991;3(10):1001-1007.
183. Carr DB, Sesack SR. Projections from the rat prefrontal cortex to the ventral tegmental area: target specificity in the synaptic associations with mesocortical and mesoaccumbens neurons. J Neurosci. 2000;20(10):3864- 3873.
184. Carr DB, O'Donnell PJP, Card JP, et al. Dopamine terminals in the rat prefrontal cortex synapse on pyramidal cells that project to the nucleus accumbens. J Neurosci. 1999;19(24):11049-11060.
185. Sesack SR, Pickel VM. Prefrontal cortical efferents in the rat synapse on unlabeled neuronal targets of catecholamine terminals in the nucleus accumbens septi and on dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area. J Comp Neurol. 1992;320(2):145-160.
186. Moghaddam B. Stress preferentially increases extraneuronal levels of excitatory amino acids in the prefrontal cortex: comparison to hippocampus and basal ganglia. J Neurochem. 1993;60(5):1650-1657.
187. Keefe KA, Zved AF, Zigmond MJ, Abercrombie ED. Stress-induced dopamine release in the neostriatum: evaluation of the role of action potentials in nigrostriatal dopamine neurons or local initiation by endogenous excitatory amino acids. J Neurochem. 1993;61(5):1943-1952.
188. Saulskaya N, Marsden CA. Conditioned dopamine release: dependence upon N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors. Neuroscience. 1995;67(1):57-63.
189. Wheeler D, Boutelle MD, Fillenz M. The role of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors in the regulation of physiologically released dopamine. Neuroscience. 1995;65(3):767-774.
190. Doherty MD, Gratton A. NMDA receptors in nucleus accumbens modulate stress-induced dopamine release in nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area. Synapse. 1997;26(3):225-234.
191. Kalivas PW, Churchill L, Klitenick MA. GABA and enkephalin projection from the nucleus accumbens and ventral pallidum to the ventral tegmental area. Neuroscience. 1993;57(4):1047-1060.
192. Walaas I, Fonnum F. Biochemical evidence for gamma-aminobutyrate containing fibers from the nucleus accumbens to the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area in the rat. Neuroscience. 1980;5(1):63-72.
193. Yim CY, Mogenson GJ. Effect of picrotoxin and nipecotic acid on inhibitory response of dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area to stimulation of the nucleus accumbens. Brain Res. 1980;199(2):466-472.
194. Chen Y, Phillips K, Minton G, Sher E. GABAB receptor modulators potentiate baclofen-induced depression of dopamine neuron activity in the rat ventral tegmental area. Br J Pharmacol. 2005;144(7):926-932.
195. Erhardt S, Mathé JM, Cergui K, Engberg G, Svensson TH. GABAB receptor-mediated modulation of the firing pattern of ventral tegmental area dopamine neurons in vivo. Naunyn Schmiedehergs Arch Pharmacol. 2002;365(3):173-180.
196. Churchill L, Dilts RP, Kalivas PW. Autoradiographic localization of gamma-aminobutyric acid-A receptors within the ventral tegmental area. Neurochem Res. 1992;17(1):101-106.
197. Johnson SW, North RA. Two types of neurones in the rat ventral tegmental area and their synaptic inputs. J Physiol (London). 1992;450:455-468.
198. Kalivas PW, Duffy P, Eberhardt H. Modulation of A10 dopamine neurons by gamma-aminobutyric acid agonists. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1990;253(2):858-866.
199. Klitenick MA, DeWitte P, Kalivas PW. Regulation of somatodendritic dopamine release in the ventral tegmental area by opioids and GABA: an in vivo microdialysis study. J Neurosci. 1992;12(7):2623-2632.
200. O'Brien PD, White FJ. Inhibition on non-dopamine cells in the ventral tegmental area by benzodiazepines: relationship to dopamine cell activity. Eur J Pharmacol. 1987;142(3):343-354.
201. Sugita S, Johnson SW, North RA. Synaptic inputs to GABAA and GABAB receptors originate from discrete afferent neurons. Neurosci Lett. 1992;134(2):207-211.
202. Westerink BH, Kwint HF, deVries JV. The pharmacology of mesolimbic dopamine neurons: a dual-probe microdialysis study in the ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens of the rat brain. J Neurosci. 1996;16(8):2605- 2611.
203. Blum K, Chen A, Chen T, et al. Putative targeting of Dopamine D2 receptor function in Reward Deficiency Syndrome (RDS) by Synaptamine Complex Variant (KB220): Clinical trial showing anti-anxiety effects. Gene Ther Mol Biol. 2009;13:214-230.
204. Xi ZX, Stein EA. Nucleus accumbens dopamine release modulation by mesolimbic GABAA receptors-an in vivo electrochemical study. Brain Res. 1998;798(1-2):156-165.
205. Barr CS, Newman TK, Schwandt M, et al. Sexual dichotomy of an interaction between early adversity and the serotonin transporter gene promoter variant in rhesus macaques. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004;101(33):12358-12363.
206. Freire MT, Marques FZ, Hutz MH, Bau CH. Polymorphisms in the DBH and DRD2 gene regions and smoking behavior. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2006;256(2):93-97.
207. Caspi A, Sugden K, Moffitt TE, et al. influence of life stress on depression: moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science. 2003;301(5631):386-389.
208. Gunzerath L, Goldman D. G x E: a NIAAA workshop on gene-environment interactions. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2003;27(3):540-562.
209. Madrid GA, MacMurray J, Lee JW, Anderson BA, Comings DE. Stress as a mediating factor in the association between the DRD2 TaqI polymorphism and alcoholism. Alcohol. 2001;23(2):117-122.
210. Morgan D, Grant KA, Gage HD, et al. Social dominance in monkeys: dopamine D2 receptors and cocaine self-administration. Na Neurosci. 2002;5(2):169-174.
211. Swann AC. Neuroreceptor mechanisms of aggression and its treatment. J Clin Psychiary. 2003;64(suppl 4):26-35.
212. Gilbert D, McClernon J, Rabinovich N, et al. Effects of quitting smoking on EEG activation and attention last for more than 31 days and are more severe with stress, dependence, DRD2 A1 allele, and depressive traits. Nicotine Tob Res. 2004;6(2):249-267.
213. Karlsgodt KH, Lukas SE, Elman I. Psychosocial stress and the duration of cocaine use in non-treatment seeking individuals with cocaine dependence. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2003;29(3):539-551.
214. Ota A, Yasuda N, Okamoto Y, et al. Relationship of job stress with nicotine dependence of smokers - a cross-sectional study of female nurses in a general hospital. J Occup Health. 2004;46(3):220-224.
215. Laudet AB, Magura S, Vogel HS, Knight EL. Perceived reasons for substance misuse among persons with a psychiatric disorder. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 2004;74(3):365-375.
216. Sinha R. How does stress increase risk of drug abuse and relapse? Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2001;158(4):343-359.
217. Söderpalm A, Nikolayev L, de Wit H. Effects of stress on responses to methamphetamine in humans. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2003;170(2):188-199.
218. Cadoni C, Solinas M, Valentini V, Di Chiara G. Selective psychostimulant sensitization by food restriction: differential changes in accumbens shell and core dopamine. Eur Neurosci. 2003;18(8):2326-2334.
219. Matuszewich L, Yamamoto BK. Chronic stress augments the long-term and acute effects of methamphetamine. Neuroscience. 2004;124(3):637-646.
220. Saal D, Dong Y, Bonci A, Malenka RC. Drugs of abuse and stress trigger a common synaptic adaptation in dopamine neurons. Neuron. 2003;37(4):577-582.
221. Tidey JW, Miczek KA. Acquisition of cocaine self-administration after social stress: role of accumbens dopamine. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1997;130(3):203-212.
222. Berman SM, Noble EP, Mohammadian P, Ritchie T, Mandelkern MA, London ED. Laterality of cortical response to ethanol is moderated by TaqIA A1 allele. Synapse. 2009;63(9):817-821.
223. Uhl GR, Drgon T, Johnson C, Liu QR. Addiction genetics and pleiotropic effects of common haplotypes that make polygenic contributions to vulnerability to substance dependence. J Neurogenet. 2009;23(3):272-282.
224. Hill SY, Hoffman EK, Zezza N, et al. Dopaminergic mutations: within-family association and linkage in multiplex alcohol dependence families. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2008;147B(4):517-526.
225. Comings DE, Muhleman D, Gysin R. Dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) gene and susceptibility to posttraumatic stress disorder: a study and replication. Biol Psychiatry. 1996;40(5):368-372.
226. Blum K, Chen A, Chen T, et al. Dopamine D2 Receptor Taq A1 allele predicts treatment compliance of LG839 in a subset analysis of a pilot study in the Netherlands. Gene Ther Mol Biol. 2008;12:129-140.
227. Chen TJH, Blum K, Kaats G. Chromium Picolinate (CrP) a putative anti-obesity nutrient induces changes in body composition as a function of Taq1 dopamine D2 receptor polymorphisms in a randomized double-blind placebo controlled study. Gene Ther Mol Biol. 2007;11:161-170.
228. Suemaru S, Hashimoto K, Ota Z. Brain corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and catecholamine responses in acutely stressed rats. Endocninol Jpn. 1985;32(5):709-718.
229. Bruijnzeel AW, Gold MS. The role of corticotropin-releasing factor-like peptides in cannabis, nicotine, and alcohol dependence. Brain Res Brain Res Rev. 2005;49(3):505-528.
230. Fox HC, Jackson ED, Sinha R. Elevated cortisol and learning and memory deficits in cocaine dependent individuals: Relationship to relapse outcomes. Psychoneuroendocninology. 2009;34(8):1198-1207.
231. Wang XY, Zhao M, Ghitza UE, Li YQ, Lu L. Stress impairs reconsolidation of drug memory via glucocorticoid receptors in the basolateral amygdala. J Neurosci. 2008;28(21):5602-5610.
232. Blum K, Allison D, Trachtenberg MC, Williams RW, Loeblich LA. Reduction of both drug hunger and withdrawal against advice rate of cocaine abusers in a 30 day inpatient treatment program with the neuronutrient ropamine. Curr Ther Res. 1998;43:1204-1214.
233. Blum K, Trachtenberg MC, Elliott CE, et al. Enkephalinase inhibition and precursor amino acid loading improves inpatient treatment of alcohol and polydrug abusers: double-blind placebo-controlled study of the nutritional adjunct SAAVE. Alcohol. 1988;5(6):481-493.
234. Gilbert DG, Zuo Y, Rabinovich NE, Riise H, Needham R, Huggenvik JI. Neurotransrnission-related genetic polymorphisms, negative affectivity traits, and gender predict tobacco abstinence symptoms across 44 days with and without nicotine patch. J Abnorm Psychol. 2009;118(2):322-334.
235. Koob GF. Neurobiological substrates for the dark side of compulsivity in addiction. Neuropharmacology. 2009;56(suppl 1):18-31.
236. Ujike H, Katsu T, Okahisa Y, et al. Genetic variants of D2 but not D3 or D4 dopamine receptor gene are associated with rapid onset and poor prognosis of methamphetamine psychosis. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2009;33(4):625-629.
237. Lerman C, Jepson C, Wileyto EP, et al. Role of functional genetic variation in the dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) in response to bupropion and nicotine replacement therapy for tobacco dependence: results of two randomized clinical trials. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2006;311(1):231-242.
238. Brown RJ, Blum K, Trachtenberg MC. Neurodynamics of relapse prevention: a neuronutrient approach to outpatient DUI offenders. J Psychoactive Drugs. 1990;22(2):173-187.
239. Chen TJ, Blum K, Waite RL, et al. Gene\Narcotic Attenuation Program attenuates substance use disorder, a clinical subtype of reward deficiency syndrome. Adv Ther. 2007;24(2):402-414.
240. Blum K, Trachtenberg MC, Ramsay JC. Improvement of inpatient treatment of the alcoholic as a function of neurotransmitter restoration: a pilot study. Int J Addict. 1988;23(9):991-998.
241. Chen TJ, Blum K, Payte JT, et al. Narcotic antagonists in drug dependence: pilot study showing enhancement of compliance with SYN-10, amino-acid precursors and enkephalinase inhibition therapy. Med Hypotheses. 2005;63:538-348.
242. Stice E, Spoor S, Bohon C, Small DM. Relation between obesity and blunted striatal response to food is moderated by TaqIA A1 allele. Science. 2008;322(5900):449-452.
243. Boundy VA, Lu L, Molinoff PB. Differential coupling of rat D2 dopamine receptor isoforms expressed in Spodoptera frugiperda insect cells. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1996;276(2):784-794.
244. Boundy VA, Pacheco MA, Guan W, Molinoff PB. Agonists and antagonists differentially regulate the high affinity state of the D2L receptor in human embryonic kidney 293 cells. Mol Pharmacol. 1995;48(5):956-964.
245. Tom SM, Fox CR, Trepel C, Poldrack RA. The neural basis of loss aversion in decision-making under risk. Science. 2007;315(5811):515-518.
246. Davis CA, Levitan RD, Reid C, et al. Dopamine for "wanting" and opioids for "liking": a comparison of obese adults with and without binge eating. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2009;17(6):1220-1225.
247. Rouillard C, Bédard PJ, Falardeau P, Dipaolo T. Behavioral and biochemical evidence for a different effect of repeated administration of L-dopa and bromocriptine on denervated versus non-denervated striatal dopamine receptors. Neuropharmacology. 1987;26(11):1601-1606.
248. Volkow ND, Chang L, Wang GJ, et al. Loss of dopamine transporters in methamphetamine abusers recovers with protracted abstinence. J Neurosci. 2001;21(23):9414-9418.
249. Fan X, Hess EJ. D2-like dopamine receptors mediate the response to amphetamine in a mouse model of ADHD. Neurobiol Dis. 2007;26(1):201-211.
250. Herridge P, Gold MS. Pharmacological adjuncts in the treatment of opioid and cocaine addicts. J Psychoactive Drugs. 1988;20(3):233-242.
251. Dackis CA, Gold MS. New concepts in cocaine addiction: the dopamine depletion hypothesis. Neurosci Bio Rev. 1985;9(3):469-477.
252. Gold MS, Verebey K. The psychopharmacology of cocaine. Psychiatric Annals. 1984;14:714-723.
253. Gold MS. Drugs of Abuse: A Comprehensive Series for Clinicians. Vol 3. Cocaine. New York, NY: Plenum Medical Book Company; 1993.
254. Gold MS, Kobeissy FH, Wang KK, et al. Methamphetamine- and trauma-induced brain injuries: comparative cellular and molecular neurobiological substrates. Biol Psychiatry. 2009;66(2):118-127.
255. Liu J, Pan H, Gold MS, Derendorf H, Bruijnzeel AW. Effects of fentanyl dose and exposure duration on the affective and somatic signs of fentanyl withdrawal in rats. Neuropharmacology. 2008;55(5):812-818.
256. Bruijnzeel AW, Prado M, Isaac S. Corticotropin-releasing factor-1 receptor activation mediates nicotine withdrawal-induced deficit in brain reward function and stress-induced relapse. Biol Psychiatry. 2009;66(2):110-117.
257. Marcinkiewcz CA, Prado MM, Isaac SK, Marshall A, Rylkova D, Bruijnzeel AW. Corticotropin-releasing factor within the central nucleus of the amygdala and the nucleus accumbens shell mediates the negative affective state of nicotine withdrawal in rats. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2009;34(7):1743-1752.
258. Epstein LH, Temple JL, Neaderhiser BJ, Salis RJ, Erbe RW, Leddy JJ. Food reinforcement, the dopamine D2 receptor genotype, and energy intake in obese and nonobese humans. Behav Neurosci. 2007;121(5):877-886.
259. Rylkova D, Shah HP, Small E, Bruijnzeel AW. Deficit in brain reward function and acute and protracted anxiety-like behavior after discontinuation of a chronic alcohol liquid diet in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2009;203(3):629-640.
260. DuPont RL, McLellan AT, White WL, Merlo LJ, Gold MS. Setting the standard for recovery: Physicians' Health Programs. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2009;36(2):159-171.
261. Kostrzewa RM. Dopamine receptor supersensitivity. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 1995;19(1):1-17.
262. Salminen O, Murphy KL, McIntosh JM, et al. Subunit composition and pharmacology of two classes of striatal presynaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptors mediating dopamine release in mice. Mol Pharmacol. 2004;65(6):1526-1535.
263. Nader MA, Czoty PW. PET imaging of dopamine D2 receptors in monkey models of cocaine abuse: genetic predisposition versus environmental modulation. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162(8):1473-1482.
264. Mandel RJ, Hartgraves SL, Severson JA, Woodward JJ, Wilcox RE, Randall PK. A quantitative estimate of the role of striatal D2 receptor proliferation in dopaminergic behavioral supersensitivity: the contribution of mesolimbic dopamine to the magnitude of 6-OHDA lesion-induced agonist sensitivity in the rat. Behav Brain Res. 1993;59(1-2):53-64.
265. Prieto GA, Perez-Burgos A, Fiordelisio T, et al. Dopamine D(2)-class receptor supersensitivity as reflected in Ca2+ current modulation in neostriatal neurons. Neuroscience. 2009;164(2):345-350.