Reward deficiency syndrome

American Scientist

Volumn 84, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 132-145

  Blum, Kenneth ^a,h   Cull, John G ^b,c,d   Braverman, Eric R ^e,f   Comings, David E ^g,h  

^a Univ of Texas Health Science Center ^*  (United States)

^b TEXAS TECH UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c Neurodevelopmental Institutes N A

^d Virginia State Dept of Rehab

^e NEW YORK UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^f City of Hope National Medical Center ^*

^g American Society of Human Genetics   (United States)

^h UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS HEALTH SCIENCE CENTER AT SAN ANTONIO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0030023896     PISSN: 00030996     EISSN: None     Source Type: Trade Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (73)

1. Alvaksinen, M. N., V. Saano, H. Juvonene, A. Huhtikangas and J. Gunther. 1984. Binding of beta-carbolines and tetrahydroisoquinolines by opiate receptors of the d-type. Acta Pharmacologica et Toxicologica 55:380-385.
2. Begleiter, H. B., Porjexa, B. Bihari and B. Kissin. 1984. Event-related brain potentials in boys at risk for alcoholism. Science 225:1493-1496.
3. Benjamin, J., L. Lin, C. Patterson, B. D. Greenberg, D. L. Murphy and D. H. Hamer. 1996. Population and familial association between, the D4 dopamine receptor gene and measures of novelty seeking. Nature Genetics 12:81-84
4. Berman, S. M., S. C. Whipple, R. J. Fitch and E. P. Noble. 1993. P300 in boys as a predictor of adolescent substance use. Alcohol 10:69-76.
5. Blum, K. 1989. A commentary on neurotrans-mitter restoration as a common mode of treatment for alcohol, cocaine and opiate abuse. Integrative Psychiatry 6:199-204.
6. Blum, K., E. R. Braverman, R. G. Wood, J. Gill, C. Li, T. J. H. Chen, M. Taub, S. T. Montgomery, J. G. Cull and P. J. Sheridan. 1996a. Increase prevalence of the Taq1 allele of the dopamine receptor gene (DRD2) in obesity with comorbid substance use disorder: preliminary findings. Pharmacogenetics (in press).
7. Blum, K., A. H. Briggs and M. C. Trachtenberg. 1989. Ethanol ingestive behavior as a function of central neurotransmission. Experientia 46:444-452.
8. Blum, K., and G. P. Kozlowski. 1990. Ethanol and neuromodulator interactions: a cascade model of reward. Progress in Alcohol Research 2:131-149.
9. Blum, K., and E. P. Noble. 1994. The sobering D2 story. Science 265:1346-1347.
10. Blum, K., E. P. Noble, P. J. Sheridan, A. Montgomery, T. Ritchie, P. Jagadeeswaran, H. Nogami, A. H. Briggs and J. B. Conn. 1990. Allelic association of human dopamine D2 receptor gene in alcoholism. Journal of the American Medical Association 263:2055-2060.
11. Blum, K., P. J. Sheridan, R. G. Wood, E. R. Braverman, T. J. H. Chen, J. G. Cull and D. E. Comings. 1996b. The D2 dopamine receptor gene as a predictor of reward deficiency syndrome: Bayes theorem. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine (in press).
12. Blum, K., and Trachtenberg, M.C. 1988. Neurogenic deficits caused by alcoholism: restoration by SAAVE™. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 20:297-312.
13. Blum, K., M. C. Trachtenberg and D. W. Cook. 1990. Neuronutrient effects on weight loss in carbohydrate bingers: An open clinical trial. Current Therapeutic Research 48:217-233.
14. Blum, K., M. C. Trachtenberg, C. E. Elliott, M. L. Dingler, R. L. Sexton, A. I. Samuels and L. Cataldie. 1989. Enkephalinase inhibition and precursor amino acid loading improves inpatient treatment of alcohol and polydrug abusers: double-blind placebo-controlled study of the nutritional adjunct SAAVE™. Alcohol 5:481-493.
15. Bouchard, C. 1995. Genetics of obesity: an update on molecular markers. International Journal of Obesity 19 (Supplement 3):S10-S13.
16. Brown, R. J., K. Blum and M. C. Trachtenberg. 1990. Neurodynamics of relapse prevention: a neuronutrient approach to outpatient DUI offenders. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 22:173-187.
17. Cadoret, R. J., E. Froughton, T. O'Gorman and E. Heywood. 1986. An adoption study of genetic and environmental factors in drug abuse. Archives of General Psychiatry 43:1131-1136.
18. Cloninger, C. R., M. Bohman and S. Sigvardsson. 1981. Inheritance of alcohol abuse: cross-fostering analysis of adopted men. Archives of General Psychiatry 38: 861-868.
19. Cloninger, C. R. 1983. Genetic and environmental factors in the development of alcoholism. Journal of Psychiatric Treatment Evaluation 5:487-496.
20. Comings, D. E. 1990. Tourette Syndrome and Human Behavior. Duarte, Calif.: Hope Press.
21. Comings, D. E. 1995. Tourette syndrome: A hereditary neuropsychiatric spectrum disorder. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry 6:235-247.
22. Comings, B. G., and D. E. Comings. 1987. A controlled study of Tourette syndrome. V. Depression and mania. American Journal of Human Genetics 41:804-821.
23. Comings, D. E., and B. G. Comings. 1989. A controlled family history study of Tourette syndrome I. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, learning disorders and dyslexia. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 51:275-280.
24. 2 receptor locus as a modifying gene in neuropsychiatric disorders. Journal of the American Medical Association 266:1793-1800.
25. Comings, E. E., L. Ferry, S. Bradshaw-Robinson, R. Burchette, C. Chiu and D. Muhleman. 1996a. The dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) gene: A genetic risk factor in smoking. Pharmacogenetics (in press).
26. 2) as a major gene in obesity and height. Biochemical Medicine and Metabolic Biology 50:176-185.
27. 2 receptor gene: A genetic risk factor in substance abuse. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 34:175-180.
28. 2) gene in posttraumatic stress disorder: A study and replication. Biological Psychiatry (in press).
29. Comings, D. E., R. J. Rosenthal, H. R. Leiseur, L. Rugle, D. Muhleman, C. Chiu, F. Dietz and R. Gane. 1996b. The molecular genetics of pathological gambling: The DRD2 gene. Pharmacogenetics (in press).
30. 2, DbetaH and DATA. American Journal of Medical Genetics (Neuropsychological Genetics) (in press).
31. Cook, E. H., M. A. Stein, M. D. Drajowsi, W. Cox, D. M. Olkon, J. E. Kieffer and B. L. Leventhal. 1995. Association of attention-deficit disorder and the dopamine transporter gene. American Journal of Human Genetics 56:993-998.
32. Dyr, W., W. J. McBride, T. K. Lumeng, and J. M. Murphy. 1993. Effects of D1 and D2 dopamine receptor agents on ethanol consumption in the high-alcohol-drinking (HAD) line of rats. Alcohol 10:207-212.
33. Ebstein, R. P., O. Novick, R. Umansky, B. Priel, Y. Osher, D. Blaine, E. Bennett, L. Nemanov, M. Katz and R. Belmaker. (1996). Dopamine D4 receptor (D4DR) exon III polymorphism associated with the human personality trait of Novelty Seeking. Nature Genetics 12:78-80.
34. Gittelman, R., S. Mannuzza, R. Shenker and N. Bonagura. 1985. Hyperactive boys almost grown up. I. Psychiatric status. Archives of General Psychiatry 42:937-947.
35. Goodwin, D. S. 1979. Alcoholism and heredity. Archives of General Psychiatry 36:57-61.
36. Grandy, D. K., M. Lih, L. Allen, J. R. Bunzow, M. Marchionni, H. Makam, L. Reed, R. E. Magenis and D. Civelli. 1989. The human dopamine D2 receptor gene is located on chromosome 11 at q22-q23 and identified as Taq I RLFP. American Journal of Human Genetics 45:778-785.
37. Hall, R D., F. E. Bloom and J. Olds. 1977. Neuronal and neurochemical substrates of reinforcement. Neuroscience Research Program Buletin 15:131-314.
38. Harris, G. C., and G. Aston-Jones. 1994. Involvement of D2 dopamine receptors in then ucleus accumbens in the opiate withdrawal syndrome. Nature 371(6493):155-157.
39. Knell, E., and D. E. Comings. 1993. Tourette syndrome and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Evidence for a genetic relationship. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 54:331-337.
40. Koob, G. F., and F. E. Bloom. 1988. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of drug dependence. Science 242:715-723.
41. Krahn, D. 1991. The relationship of eating disorders and substance abuse. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 3:239-253.
42. Lawford, B. R., R. M. Young, J. Rowell, J. Qualichefski, B. H. Fletcher, K. Syndulko, T. Ritchie and E. P. Noble. 1995. Bromocriptine in the treatment of alcoholics with the D2 dopamine receptor A1 allele. Nature Medicine 1:337-341.
43. Lopez, R. 1965. Hyperactivity in twins. Canadian Psychological Association 10:421-426.
44. McBride, W. J., X. M. Guan, E. Chernet, L. Lumeng and T.-K. Li. 1990. Regional differences in the densities of serotonin 1A receptors between P and NP rats. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 14:316, abstract.
45. McBride, W.J., E. Chernet, W. Dyr, L. Lumeng and T-K. Li. 1993. Densities of dopamine D2 receptors are reduced in CNS regions of alcohol preferring P rats. Alcohol 10:387-390.
46. McLearn, G. E., and D. A. Rodgers. 1959. Differences in alcohol preferences among inbred strains of mice. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol 20:691-695.
47. 123I]b-CIT SPECT imaging of striatal dopamine transporter binding in Tourette's disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 152:1359-1361.
48. Miller, N. S., M. S. Gold, B. M. Belkin, A. L. Klaher. 1989. The diagnosis of alcohol and. cannabis dependence in cocaine dependents and alcohol dependence in their families. British Journal of Addiction 84:1491-1498.
49. Neiswanger, K., B. B. Kaplan and S. Y. Hill. 1995. What can the DRD2/alcoholism story teach us about association studies in psychiatric genetics. American Journal of Medical Genetics (Neuropsychiatric Genetics) 60:272-275.
50. Newman, M. M, and M. S. Gold 1992. Preliminary findings of patterns of substance abuse in eating. American Journal of Drugs and Alcohol Abuse 18:207-211.
51. Noble, E. P., S. M. Berman and T. Z. Ozkaragoz. 1994. Prolonged P300 latency in children with the D2 dopamine receptor A1 allele. American Journal of Human Genetics 54:658-668.
52. Noble, E. P., K. Blum, M. E. Khalsa, T. Ritchie, A. Montgomery, R. C. Wood, R. J. Fitch, T. Ozkaragoz, P. J. Sheridan, M. D. Ariglin, A. Paredes, L. J. Treiman and R. S. Sparks. 1993. Allelic association of the D2 dopamine receptor gene with cocaine dependence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 83:271-285.
53. Noble, E. P. K. Blum, T. Ritchie, A. Montgomery and P. J. Sheridan. 1991. Allelic association of the D2 dopamine receptor gene with receptor binding characteristics in alcoholism. Archives of General Psychiatry 48:648-654.
54. Noble, E. P., S. T. Jeor, T. Ritchie, K. Syndulko, S. C. Jeor, R. J. Fitch, R. L. Brunner and R. S. Sparkes. 1994. D2 dopamine receptor gene and cigarette smoking: A reward gene? Medical Hypothesis 42:257-260.
55. Noble, E. P., R. E. Noble and T. Ritchie. 1994. D2 dopamine receptor gene and obesity. Journal of Eating Disorders 15:205-217.
56. Olds, M. E., and J. Olds. 1969. Effects of lesions in medical forebrain bundle on self-stimulation behavior. American Journal of Physiology 217:1253-1264.
57. Routtenberg, A. 1978. The reward system of the brain. Scientific American 239:154-165.
58. Russell, V. A., M. C. L. Lanin and J. F. Taljaard. 1988. Effect of ethanol on 3H-dopamine release in rat nucleus accumbens and striatal slices. Neurochemical Research 13:487-492.
59. Schubert, D. S. P., A. W. Wolf, M. B. Paterson, T. P. Grande and L. Pendleton. 1988. A statistical evaluation of the literature regarding the associations among alcoholism, drug abuse and antisocial personality disorder. International Journal of Addiction 23:797-808.
60. Schuckit, M. A., D. W. Goodwin and G. Winokur. 1972. A study of alcoholism in half-siblings. American Journal of Psychiatry 128:1132-1136.
61. Sibley, D., and F. J. Monsma. Molecular biology of dopamine receptors. 1992. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 13:61-69
62. Stein, L., and Belluzzi, J.D. 1986. Second messenger, natural rewards, and drugs of abuse. Clinical Neuropharmacology 9(Suppl. 4):205-209.
63. Swan, G. E., D. Carmelli, R. H. Rosenman, R. R. Fabsitz and J. C. Christian. 1990. Smoking and alcohol consumption in adult male twins: genetic heritability and shared environmental influence. Journal of Substance Abuse 2:39-50.
64. Turton, M. D., D. O'Shea, I. Gunn, S. A. Beak, C. M. B. Edwards, K. Meeran, S.J. Choi, G. M. Taylor, M. M. Heath, P. D. Lambert, J. P. H. Wilding, D. M. Smith, M. A. Gahel, J. Herbert, S. R. Bloom. 1996. A role for glucagon-like peptide-1 in the central regulation of feeding. Nature 379:60-72.
65. Uhl, G., K. Blum, E. P. Noble and S. Smith. 1993. Substance abuse vulnerability and D2 receptor genes. Trends in Neuroscience 16:83-88.
66. Volberg, R. A., and H. J. Steadman. 1988. Refining prevalence estimates of pathological gambling. American Journal of Psychiatry 145:502-505.
67. Volkow, N. D., J. S. Fowler, G.-J. Wang, R. Hitzemann, J. Logan, D. Schlyer, S. Dewey and A. P. Wolf. 1993. Decreased dopamine D2 receptor availability is associated with reduced frontal metabolism in cocaine abusers. Synapse 14:169-177.
68. Wallace, B. C. 1990. Crack cocaine smokers as adult children of alcoholics. The dysfunctional family link. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 7:89-100.
69. Whipple, S. C., E. S. Parker and E. P. Noble. 1988. An atypical neurocognitive profile in alcoholic fathers and their sons. Journal of Studies in Alcohol 49:240-244.
70. Willerman, L. 1973. Activity level and hyperactivity in twins. Child Development 44:288-293.
71. Wise, R. A., and M. A. Bozarth. 1984. Brain reward circuitry: four circuit elements "wired" in apparent series. Brain Research Bulletin 297:265-273.
72. Zhang, X., R. Proenca, M. Barone, L. Leopold, J. M. Friedman. 1994. Positional cloning of the mouse obese gene and its human homologue. Nature 372(6505):425-32.
73. Zhou, F. C., S. Bledsoe, L. Lumeng and T-K. Li. 1990. Serotonergic immuno-stained terminal fibers are decreased in selected brain areas of alcohol-preferring P rats. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 14:355, abstract.