The debate over dopamine's role in reward: The case for incentive salience

Psychopharmacology

Volumn 191, Issue 3, 2007, Pages 391-431

  Berridge, Kent C ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

Author keywords

Accumbens; Addiction; Appetite; Associative learning; Aversion; Basal forebrain; Dopamine; Opioid; Reward

Indexed keywords

DOPAMINE; LEVODOPA;

BEHAVIOR; DOPAMINE DYSREGULATION SYNDROME; DOPAMINE METABOLISM; DOPAMINERGIC SYSTEM; DRUG ABUSE; DRUG DEPENDENCE; HABIT; HUMAN; MESOLIMBIC DOPAMINERGIC SYSTEM; METABOLIC DISORDER; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SENSORIMOTOR FUNCTION; STATE DEPENDENT LEARNING;

ANIMALS; APPETITIVE BEHAVIOR; ASSOCIATION LEARNING; BEHAVIOR, ADDICTIVE; DOPAMINE; HUMANS; LIMBIC SYSTEM; MOTIVATION; NEUROTRANSMITTER AGENTS; NUCLEUS ACCUMBENS; PROSENCEPHALON; REINFORCEMENT (PSYCHOLOGY); REWARD;

EID: 33847634405     PISSN: 00333158     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00213-006-0578-x     Document Type: Review

References (256)

1. Ahn S, Phillips AG (1999) Dopaminergic correlates of sensory-specific satiety in the medial prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens of the rat. J Neurosci 19:B1-B6
2. Ainslie G (1992) Picoeconomics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge University Press
3. Albin RL, Young AB, Penney JB (1995) The functional anatomy of disorders of the basal ganglia. Trends Neurosci 18:63-64
4. Andrzejewski ME, Spencer RC, Kelley AE (2005) Instrumental learning, but not performance, requires dopamine D1-receptor activation in the amygdala. Neuroscience 135:335-345
5. Aragona BJ, Liu Y, Yu YJ, Curtis JT, Detwiler JM, Insel TR, Wang Z (2006) Nucleus accumbens dopamine differentially mediates the formation and maintenance of monogamous pair bonds. Nat Neurosci 9:133-139
6. Baldo BA, Daniel RA, Berridge CW, Kelley AE (2003) Overlapping distributions of orexin/hypocretin- and dopamine-beta-hydroxylase immunoreactive fibers in rat brain regions mediating arousal, motivation, and stress. J Comp Neurol 464:220-237
7. Baldwin AE, Sadeghian K, Holahan MR, Kelley AE (2002) Appetitive instrumental learning is impaired by inhibition of cAMP-dependent protein kinase within the nucleus accumbens. Neurobiol Learn Mem 77:44-62
8. Bayer HM, Glimcher PW (2005) Midbrain dopamine neurons encode a quantitative reward prediction error signal. Neuron 47:129-141
9. Becker JB, Rudick CN, Jenkins WJ (2001) The role of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and striatum during sexual behavior in the female rat. J Neurosci 21:3236-3241
10. Berke JD (2003) Learning and memory mechanisms involved in compulsive drug use and relapse. In: Wang JQ (ed) Drugs of abuse: neurological reviews and protocols (Methods in Molecular Medicine). Humana, Totowa, NJ, pp 75-101
11. Berke JD, Hyman SE (2000) Addiction, dopamine, and the molecular mechanisms of memory. Neuron 25:515-532
12. Berridge KC (2000) Measuring hedonic impact in animals and infants: microstructure of affective taste reactivity patterns. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 24:173-198
13. Berridge KC (2001) Reward learning: reinforcement, incentives, and expectations. In: Medin DL (ed) The psychology of learning and motivation. Academic, NY, pp 223-278
14. Berridge KC (2004) Motivation concepts in behavioral neuroscience. Physiol Behav 81:179-209
15. Berridge KC, Peciña S (1995) Benzodiazepines, appetite, and taste palatability. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 19:121-131
16. Berridge KC, Robinson TE (1998) What is the role of dopamine in reward: hedonic impact, reward learning, or incentive salience? Brain Res Rev 28:309-369
17. Berridge KC, Schulkin J (1989) Palatability shift of a salt-associated incentive during sodium depletion. Q J Exp Psychol [b] 41:121-138
18. Berridge KC, Valenstein ES (1991) What psychological process mediates feeding evoked by electrical stimulation of the lateral hypothalamus? Behav Neurosci. 105:3-14
19. Berridge KC, Winkielman P (2003) What is an unconscious emotion? (The case for unconscious "liking"). Cogn Emot 17:181-211
20. Berridge KC, Venier IL, Robinson TE (1989) Taste reactivity analysis of 6-hydroxydopamine-induced aphagia: implications for arousal and anhedonia hypotheses of dopamine function. Behav Neurosci 103:36-45
21. Berridge KC, Aldridge JW, Houchard KR, Zhuang X (2005) Sequential super-stereotypy of an instinctive fixed action pattern in hyper-dopaminergic mutant mice: a model of obsessive compulsive disorder and Tourette's. BMC Biol 3:4
22. Bindra D (1978) How adaptive behavior is produced: a perceptual- motivation alternative to response reinforcement. Behav Brain Sci 1:41-91
23. Bolles RC (1972) Reinforcement, expectancy, & learning. Psychol Rev 79:394-409
24. Brauer LH, De Wit H (1997) High dose pimozide does not block amphetamine-induced euphoria in normal volunteers. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 56:265-272
25. Brauer LH, Rukstalis MR, de Wit H (1995) Acute subjective responses to paroxetine in normal volunteers. Drug Alcohol Depend 39:223-230
26. Brauer LH, Goudie AJ, de Wit H (1997) Dopamine ligands and the stimulus effects of amphetamine: animal models versus human laboratory data. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 130:2-13
27. Brauer LH, Cramblett MJ, Paxton DA, Rose JE (2001) Haloperidol reduces smoking of both nicotine-containing and denicotinized cigarettes. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 159:31-37
28. Cabanac M (1979) Sensory pleasure. Q Rev Biol 54:1-29
29. Cabanac M (1992) Pleasure: the common currency. J Theor Biol 155:173-200
30. Cagniard B, Balsam PD, Brunner D, Zhuang X (2005) Mice with chronically elevated dopamine exhibit enhanced motivation, but not learning, for a food reward. Neuropsychopharmacology 31(7):1362-1370
31. Cannon CM, Bseikri MR (2004) Is dopamine required for natural reward? Physiol Behav 81:741-748
32. Cannon CM, Palmiter RD (2003) Reward without dopamine. J Neurosci 23:10827-10831
33. Carelli RM (2004) Nucleus accumbens cell firing and rapid dopamine signaling during goal-directed behaviors in rats. Neuropharmacology 47 Suppl 1:180-189
34. Cooper SJ, Dourish CT (1990) Neurobiology of stereotyped behaviour. Oxford University Press, Oxford University Press
35. Corbit LH, Balleine BW (2003) Instrumental and Pavlovian incentive processes have dissociable effects on components of a heterogeneous instrumental chain. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Processes 29:99-106
36. Cromwell HC, Berridge KC (1993) Where does damage lead to enhanced food aversion: the ventral pallidum/substantia innominata or lateral hypothalamus? Brain Res 624:1-10
37. Cromwell HC, Berridge KC (1996) Implementation of action sequences by a neostriatal site: A lesion mapping study of grooming syntax. J Neurosci 16:3444-3458
38. Cromwell HC, Schultz W (2003) Effects of expectations for different reward magnitudes on neuronal activity in primate striatum. J Neurophysiol
39. Cromwell HC, Hassani OK, Schultz W (2005) Relative reward processing in primate striatum. Exp Brain Res 162:520-525
40. Crow TJ (1973) Catecholamine-containing neurones and electrical self-stimulation. 2. A theoretical interpretation and some psychiatric implications. Psychol Med 3:66-73
41. Dalley JW, Laane K, Theobald DEH, Armstrong HC, Corlett PR, Chudasama Y, Robbins TW (2005) Time-limited modulation of appetitive Pavlovian memory by D1 and NMDA receptors in the nucleus accumbens. PNAS 102:6189-6194
42. Damasio AR (1999) The feeling of what happens: body and emotion in the making of consciousness, 1st edn. Harcourt Brace, Harcourt Brace
43. Darwin C (1872) The expression of the emotions in man and animals. Murray, London
44. Dauer W, Przedborski S (2003) Parkinson's disease: mechanisms and models. Neuron 39:889-909
45. Daw ND, Niv Y, Dayan P (2005) Uncertainty-based competition between prefrontal and dorsolateral striatal systems for behavioral control. Nature Neurosci 8:1704-1711
46. Day JJ, Wheeler RA, Roitman MF, Carelli RM (2006) Nucleus accumbens neurons encode Pavlovian approach behaviors: evidence from an autoshaping paradigm. Eur J Neurosci 23:1341-1351
47. Dayan P, Balleine BW (2002) Reward, motivation, and reinforcement learning. Neuron 36:285-298
48. de la Fuente-Fernandez R, Phillips AG, Zamburlini M, Sossi V, Calne DB, Ruth TJ, Stoessl AJ (2002) Dopamine release in human ventral striatum and expectation of reward. Behav Brain Res 136:359-363
49. Deroche V, Le Moal M, Piazza PV (1999) Cocaine self-administration increases the incentive motivational properties of the drug in rats. Eur J Neurosci 11:2731-2736
50. Deveney AM, Waddington JL (1997) Psychopharmacological distinction between novel full-efficacy "D-1-like" dopamine receptor agonists. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 58:551-558
51. Di Chiara G (2002) Nucleus accumbens shell and core dopamine: differential role in behavior and addiction. Behav Brain Res 137:75-114
52. Di Ciano P, Underwood RJ, Hagan JJ, Everitt BJ (2003) Attenuation of cue-controlled cocaine-seeking by a selective D-3 dopamine receptor antagonist SB-277011-A. Neuropsychopharmacology 28:329-338
53. Diaz-Mataix L, Artigas F, Celada P (2006) Activation of pyramidal cells in rat medial prefrontal cortex projecting to ventral tegmental area by a 5-HT1A receptor agonist. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 16:288-296
54. Dickinson A, Balleine B (2002) The role of learning in the operation of motivational systems. In: Gallistel CR (ed) Stevens' handbook of experimental psychology: learning, motivation, and emotion. Wiley, New York, pp 497-534
55. Dickinson A, Smith J, Mirenowicz J (2000) Dissociation of Pavlovian and instrumental incentive learning under dopamine antagonists. Behav Neurosci 114:468-483
56. Dodd ML, Klos KJ, Bower JH, Geda YE, Josephs KA, Ahlskog JE (2005) Pathological gambling caused by drugs used to treat Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol 62(9):1377-1381
57. Dommett E, Coizet V, Blaha CD, Martindale J, Lefebvre V, Walton N, Mayhew JE, Overton PG, Redgrave P (2005) How visual stimuli activate dopaminergic neurons at short latency. Science 307:1476-1479
58. Ekman P (1999) Basic emotions handbook of cognition and emotion. Wiley, Chichester, England, pp 45-60
59. Elliott R, Newman JL, Longe OA, Deakin JFW (2003) Differential response patterns in the striatum and orbitofrontal cortex to financial reward in humans: a parametric functional magnetic resonance imaging study. J Neurosci 23:303-307
60. Ettenberg A, McFarland K (2003) Effects of haloperidol on cue-induced autonomic and behavioral indices of heroin reward and motivation. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 168:139-145
61. Evans AH, Pavese N, Lawrence AD, Tai YF, Appel S, Doder M, Brooks DJ, Lees AJ, Piccini P (2006) Compulsive drug use linked to sensitized ventral striatal dopamine transmission. Ann Neurol 59:852-858
62. Everitt BJ, Robbins TW (2005) Neural systems of reinforcement for drug addiction: from actions to habits to compulsion. Nat Neurosci 8:1481-1489
63. Everitt BJ, Parkinson JA, Olmstead MC, Arroyo M, Robledo P, Robbins TW (1999) Associative processes in addiction and reward. The role of amygdala-ventral striatal subsystems. Ann N Y Acad Sci 877:412-438
64. Everitt BJ, Dickinson A, Robbins TW (2001) The neuropsychological basis of addictive behaviour. Brain Res Rev 36:129-138
65. Faure A, Haberland U, Conde F, Massioui NE (2005) Lesion to the nigrostriatal dopamine system disrupts stimulus-response habit formation. J Neurosci 25:2771-2780
66. Fenu S, Di Chiara G (2003) Facilitation of conditioned taste aversion learning by systemic amphetamine: role of nucleus accumbens shell dopamine D-1 receptors. Eur J Neurosci 18:2025-2030
67. Ferraro FM 3rd, Hill KG, Kaczmarek HJ, Coonfield DL, Kiefer SW (2002) Naltrexone modifies the palatability of basic tastes and alcohol in outbred male rats. Alcohol 27:107-114
68. Fibiger HC, Phillips AG (1986) Reward, motivation, cognition: Psychobiology of mesotelencephalic systems. In: Bloom FE (ed) Handbook of Physiology - The Nervous System. American Physiological Society, Bethesda, MD. pp 647-675
69. Fiorino DF, Phillips AG (1999) Facilitation of sexual behavior and enhanced dopamine efflux in the nucleus accumbens of male rats after D-amphetamine-induced behavioral sensitization. J Neurosci 19:456-463
70. Fiorino DF, Coury A, Phillips AG (1997) Dynamic changes in nucleus accumbens dopamine efflux during the Coolidge effect in male rats. J Neurosci 17:4849-4855
71. Fudim OK (1978) Sensory preconditioning of flavors with a formalin-produced sodium need. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process 4:276-285
72. Fulton S, Woodside B, Shizgal P (2000) Modulation of brain reward circuitry by leptin [published erratum appears in Science 2000 Mar 17;287(5460):1931]. Science 287:125-128
73. Gallistel CR, Fairhurst S, Balsam P (2004) The learning curve: implications of a quantitative analysis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101:13124-13131
74. Ghitza UE, Fabbricatore AT, Prokopenko V, Pawlak AP, West MO (2003) Persistent cue-evoked activity of accumbens neurons after prolonged abstinence from self-administered cocaine. J Neurosci 23:7239-7245
75. Goto Y, Grace AA (2005) Dopaminergic modulation of limbic and cortical drive of nucleus accumbens in goal-directed behavior. Nat Neurosci 8:805-812
76. Gray JA, Kumari V, Lawrence N, Young AMJ (1999) Functions of the dopaminergic innervation of the nucleus accumbens. Psychobiology 27:225-235
77. Grill HJ, Norgren R (1978a) The taste reactivity test. I. Mimetic responses to gustatory stimuli in neurologically normal rats. Brain Res 143:263-279
78. Grill HJ, Norgren R (1978b) The taste reactivity test. II. Mimetic responses to gustatory stimuli in chronic thalamic and chronic decerebrate rats. Brain Res 143:281-297
79. Harris GC, Wimmer M, Aston-Jones G (2005) A role for lateral hypothalamic orexin neurons in reward seeking. Nature 437:556-559
80. Hellemans KG, Dickinson A, Everitt BJ (2006) Motivational control of heroin seeking by conditioned stimuli associated with withdrawal and heroin taking by rats. Behav Neurosci 120:103-114
81. Hernandez PJ, Andrzejewski ME, Sadeghian K, Panksepp JB, Kelley AE (2005) AMPA/kainate, NMDA, and dopamine D1 receptor function in the nucleus accumbens core: a context-limited role in the encoding and consolidation of instrumental memory. Learn Mem 12:285-295
82. Hnasko TS, Sotak BN, Palmiter RD (2005) Morphine reward in dopamine-deficient mice. Nature 438:854-857
83. Horvitz JC (2002) Dopamine gating of glutamatergic sensorimotor and incentive motivational input signals to the striatum. Behav Brain Res 137:65-74
84. Hsu M, Bhatt M, Adolphs R, Tranel D, Camerer CF (2005) Neural systems responding to degrees of uncertainty in human decision-making. Science 310:1680-1683
85. Hutcheson DM, Everitt BJ, Robbins TW, Dickinson A (2001) The role of withdrawal in heroin addiction: enhances reward or promotes avoidance? Nat Neurosci 4:943-947
86. Hyman SE (2005) Addiction: a disease of learning and memory. Am J Psychiatry 162:1414-1422
87. Hyman SE, Malenka RC (2001) Addiction and the brain: the neurobiology of compulsion and its persistence. Nat Rev Neurosci 2:695-703
88. Ikemoto S, Panksepp J (1999) The role of nucleus accumbens dopamine in motivated behavior: a unifying interpretation with special reference to reward- seeking. Brain Res Rev 31:6-41
89. Insel TR (2003) Is social attachment an addictive disorder? Physiol Behav 79:351-357
90. Ito R, Dalley JW, Robbins TW, Everitt BJ (2002) Dopamine release in the dorsal striatum during cocaine-seeking behavior under the control of a drug-associated cue. J Neurosci 22:6247-6253
91. Jarrett MM, Limebeer CL, Parker LA (2005) Effect of delta9- tetrahydrocannabinol on sucrose palatability as measured by the taste reactivity test. Physiol Behav 86:475-479
92. Jenkins HM, Moore BR (1973) The form of the auto-shaped response with food or water reinforcers. J Exp Anal Behav 20:163-181
93. Jones S, Bonci A (2005) Synaptic plasticity and drug addiction. Curr Opin Pharmacol 5:20-25
94. Kaczmarek HJ, Kiefer SW (2000) Microinjections of dopaminergic agents in the nucleus accumbens affect ethanol consumption but not palatability. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 66:307-312
95. Kalivas PW, Nakamura M (1999) Neural systems for behavioral activation and reward. Curr Opin Neurobiol 9:223-227
96. Kalivas PW, Volkow ND (2005) The neural basis of addiction: a pathology of motivation and choice. Am J Psychiatry 162:1403-1413
97. Kapur S (2003) Psychosis as a state of aberrant salience: a framework linking biology, phenomenology, and pharmacology in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 160:13-23
98. Kelley AE (2004a) Memory and addiction: shared neural circuitry and molecular mechanisms. Neuron 44:161-179
99. Kelley AE (2004b) Ventral striatal control of appetitive motivation: role in ingestive behavior and reward-related learning. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 27:765-776
100. Kelley AE, Baldo BA, Pratt WE (2005a) A proposed hypothalamic-thalamic- striatal axis for the integration of energy balance, arousal, and food reward. J Comp Neurol 493:72-85
101. Kelley AE, Baldo BA, Pratt WE, Will MJ (2005b) Corticostriatal- hypothalamic circuitry and food motivation: integration of energy, action and reward. Physiol Behav 86:773-795
102. Killcross AS, Dickinson A, Robbins TW (1994) Effects of the neuroleptic alpha-flupenthixol on latent inhibition in aversively- and appetitively- motivated paradigms: evidence for dopamine-reinforcer interactions. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 115:196-205
103. Knutson B, Fong GW, Adams CM, Varner JL, Hommer D (2001) Dissociation of reward anticipation and outcome with event-related fMRI. Neuroreport 12:3683-3687
104. Koob GF, Le Moal M (2006) Neurobiology of addiction. Academic, London
105. Kringelbach ML (2005) The human orbitofrontal cortex: linking reward to hedonic experience. Nat Rev Neurosci 6:691-702
106. Laviolette SR, Nader K, van der Kooy D (2002) Motivational state determines the functional role of the mesolimbic dopamine system in the mediation of opiate reward processes. Behav Brain Res 129:17-29
107. LeDoux JE, Phelps EA (2000) Emotional networks in the brain. In: Lewis M, Haviland-Jones JM (eds) Handbook of emotions. Guilford, New York, pp 157-172
108. Levita L, Dalley JW, Robbins TW (2002) Nucleus accumbens dopamine and learned fear revisited: a review and some new findings. Behav Brain Res 137:115-127
109. Leyton M, Boileau I, Benkelfat C, Diksic M, Baker G, Dagher A (2002) Amphetamine-induced increases in extracellular dopamine, drug wanting, and novelty seeking: a PET/[11C]raclopride study in healthy men. Neuropsychopharmacology 27:1027-1035
110. Leyton M, Casey KF, Delaney JS, Kolivakis T, Benkelfat C (2005) Cocaine craving, euphoria, and self-administration: a preliminary study of the effect of catecholamine precursor depletion. Behav Neurosci 119:1619-1627
111. Ljungberg T, Apicella P, Schultz W (1992) Responses of monkey dopamine neurons during learning of behavioral reactions. J Neurophysiol 67:145-163
112. Loewenstein G, Schkade D (1999) Wouldn't it be nice? Predicting future feelings. In: Kahneman D, Diener E, Schwarz N (eds) Well-being: the foundations of hedonic psychology. Russell Sage Foundation, New York, NY, pp 85-105
113. Mahler SV, Smith KS, Berridge KC (2004) What is the 'motivational' mechanism for the marijuana munchies? The effects of intra-accumbens anandamide on hedonic taste reactions to sucrose. Society for Neuroscience Conference, San Diego
114. Marinelli M, Rudick CN, Hu XT, White FJ (2006) Excitability of dopamine neurons: modulation and physiological consequences. CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets 5:79-97
115. McClure SM, Daw ND, Read Montague P (2003) A computational substrate for incentive salience. Trends Neurosci 26:423-428
116. McClure SM, Laibson DI, Loewenstein G, Cohen JD (2004) Separate neural systems value immediate and delayed monetary rewards. Science 306:503-507
117. McFarland K, Davidge SB, Lapish CC, Kalivas PW (2004) Limbic and motor circuitry underlying footshock-induced reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior. J Neurosci 24:1551-1560
118. McGaugh JL (2002) Memory consolidation and the amygdala: a systems perspective. Trends Neurosci 25:456
119. Miles FJ, Everitt BJ, Dickinson A (2003) Oral cocaine seeking by rats: action or habit? Behav Neurosci 117:927-938
120. Miles FJ, Everitt BJ, Dalley JW, Dickinson A (2004) Conditioned activity and instrumental reinforcement following long-term oral consumption of cocaine by rats. Behav Neurosci 118:1331-1339
121. Mirenowicz J, Schultz W (1996) Preferential activation of midbrain dopamine neurons by appetitive rather than aversive stimuli. Nature 379:449-451
122. Montague PR, Hyman SE, Cohen JD (2004) Computational roles for dopamine in behavioural control. Nature 431:760-767
123. Nader K, Bechara A, van der Kooy D (1997) Neurobiological constraints on behavioral models of motivation. Annu Rev Psychol 48:85-114
124. Napier TC, Chrobak JJ (1992) Evaluations of ventral pallidal dopamine receptor activation in behaving rats. Neuroreport 3:609-611
125. Narita M, Nagumo Y, Hashimoto S, Narita M, Khotib J, Miyatake M, Sakurai T, Yanagisawa M, Nakamachi T, Shioda S, Suzuki T (2006) Direct involvement of orexinergic systems in the activation of the mesolimbic dopamine pathway and related behaviors induced by morphine. J Neurosci 26:398-405
126. Nelson A, Killcross S (2006) Amphetamine exposure enhances habit formation. J Neurosci 26:3805-3812
127. Nesse RM (1990) Evolutionary explanations of emotions. Human Nat 1:261-289
128. Nicola SM, Taha SA, Kim SW, Fields HL (2005) Nucleus accumbens dopamine release is necessary and sufficient to promote the behavioral response to reward-predictive cues. Neuroscience 135:1025-1033
129. Nocjar C, Panksepp J (2002) Chronic intermittent amphetamine pretreatment enhances future appetitive behavior for drug- and natural-reward: interaction with environmental variables. Behav Brain Res 128:189-203
130. O'Brien CP, Gardner EL (2005) Critical assessment of how to study addiction and its treatment: human and non-human animal models. Pharmacol Ther 108:18-58
131. O'Donnell P (2003) Dopamine gating of forebrain neural ensembles. Eur J Neurosci 17:429-435
132. Onn SP, West AR, Grace AA (2000) Dopamine-mediated regulation of striatal neuronal and network interactions. Trends Neurosci 23:S48-S56
133. Packard MG, White NM (1991) Dissociation of hippocampus and caudate nucleus memory systems by posttraining intracerebral injection of dopamine agonists. Behav Neurosci 105:295-306
134. Panksepp J (1986) The neurochemistry of behavior. Annu Rev Psychol 37:77-107
135. Panksepp J (2005) Affective consciousness: core emotional feelings in animals and humans. Conscious Cogn 14:30-80
136. Parker L, Leeb K (1994) Amphetamine-induced modification of quinine palatability: analysis by the taste reactivity test. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 47:413-420
137. Parker LA (1995) Chlordiazepoxide enhances the palatability of lithium-, amphetamine-, and saline-paired saccharin solution. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 50:345-349
138. Parker LA, Maier S, Rennie M, Crebolder J (1992) Morphine- and naltrexone-induced modification of palatability: analysis by the taste reactivity test. Behav Neurosci 106:999-1010
139. Pavlov IP (1927) Conditioned reflexes; an investigation of the physiological activity of the cerebral cortex. Oxford University Press, Humphrey Milford
140. Peciña S, Berridge KC (1995) Central enhancement of taste pleasure by intraventricular morphine. Neurobiology 3:269-280
141. Peciña S, Berridge KC (2000) Opioid eating site in accumbens shell mediates food intake and hedonic 'liking': map based on microinjection Fos plumes. Brain Res 863:71-86
142. Peciña S, Berridge KC (2005) Hedonic hot spot in nucleus accumbens shell: Where do mu-opioids cause increased hedonic impact of sweetness? J Neurosci 25:11777-11786
143. Peciña S, Berridge KC, Parker LA (1997) Pimozide does not shift palatability: separation of anhedonia from sensorimotor suppression by taste reactivity. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 58:801-811
144. Peciña S, Cagniard B, Berridge KC, Aldridge JW, Zhuang X (2003) Hyperdopaminergic mutant mice have higher "wanting" but not "liking" for sweet rewards. J Neurosci 23:9395-9402
145. Peciña S, Schulkin J, Berridge KC (2006) Nucleus accumbens corticotropin-releasing factor increases cue-triggered motivation for sucrose reward: paradoxical positive incentive effects in stress? BMC Biol 4:8
146. Peciña S, Smith KS, Berridge KC (2006) Hedonic hotspots in the brain. Neuroscientist 12(6):1-12
147. Petrovich GD, Holland PC, Gallagher M (2005) Amygdalar and prefrontal pathways to the lateral hypothalamus are activated by a learned cue that stimulates eating. J Neurosci 25:8295-8302
148. Phillips GD, Robbins TW, Everitt BJ (1994) Mesoaccumbens dopamine-opiate interactions in the control over behaviour by a conditioned reinforcer. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 114:345-359
149. Phillips GD, Setzu E, Hitchcott PK (2003a) Facilitation of appetitive pavlovian conditioning by D-amphetamine in the shell, but not the core, of the nucleus accumbens. Behav Neurosci 117:675-684
150. Phillips PE, Stuber GD, Heien ML, Wightman RM, Carelli RM (2003b) Subsecond dopamine release promotes cocaine seeking. Nature 422:614-618
151. Piazza PV, Deminiere JM, Le Moal M, Simon H (1989) Factors that predict individual vulnerability to amphetamine self-administration. Science 245:1511-1513
152. Redgrave P, Prescott TJ, Gurney K (1999) Is the short-latency dopamine response too short to signal reward error? Trends Neurosci 22:146-151
153. Redish AD (2004) Addiction as a computational process gone awry. Science 306:1944-1947
154. Reichmann H, Brecht MH, Koster J, Kraus PH, Lemke MR (2003) Pramipexole in routine clinical practice: a prospective observational trial in Parkinson's disease. CNS Drugs 17:965-973
155. Rescorla RA, Wagner AR (1972) A theory of Pavlovian conditioning: variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreinforcement. In: Black AH, Prokasy WF (eds) Classical conditioning II: current research and theory. Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York, pp 64-99
156. Reynolds SM, Berridge KC (2002) Positive and negative motivation in nucleus accumbens shell: bivalent rostrocaudal gradients for GABA-elicited eating, taste "liking"/"disliking" reactions, place preference/avoidance, and fear. J Neurosci 22:7308-7320
157. Robbins TW, Everitt BJ (1982) Functional studies of the central catecholamines. Int Rev Neurobiol 23:303-365
158. Robbins TW, Everitt BJ (1996) Neurobehavioural mechanisms of reward and motivation. Curr Opin Neurobiol 6:228-236
159. Robbins TW, Everitt BJ (1999) Drug addiction: bad habits add up. Nature 398:567-570
160. Robbins TW, Everitt BJ (2006) A role for mesencephalic dopamine in activation: commentary on Berridge (2006). Psychopharmacology (Berl), this issue
161. Robertson EM, Cohen DA (2006) Understanding consolidation through the architecture of memories. Neuroscientist 12:261-271
162. Robinson TE, Berridge KC (1993) The neural basis of drug craving: an incentive-sensitization theory of addiction. Brain Res Rev 18:247-291
163. Robinson TE, Berridge KC (2000) The psychology and neurobiology of addiction: an incentive-sensitization view. Addiction 95:91-117
164. Robinson TE, Berridge KC (2003) Addiction. Annu Rev Psychol 54:25-53
165. Robinson S, Sandstrom SM, Denenberg VH, Palmiter RD (2005) Distinguishing whether dopamine regulates liking, wanting, and/or learning about rewards. Behav Neurosci 119:5-15
166. Roitman MF, Stuber GD, Phillips PEM, Wightman RM, Carelli RM (2004) Dopamine operates as a subsecond modulator of food seeking. J Neurosci 24:1265-1271
167. Roitman MF, Wheeler RA, Carelli RM (2005) Nucleus accumbens neurons are innately tuned for rewarding and aversive taste stimuli, encode their predictors, and are linked to motor output. Neuron 45:587-597
168. Rolls ET (2005) Emotion explained. Oxford University Press, London
169. Rosse RB, Fay-McCarthy M, Collins JP Jr, Risher-Flowers D, Alim TN, Deutsch SI (1993) Transient compulsive foraging behavior associated with crack cocaine use. Am J Psychiatr 150:155-156
170. Sahakian BJ, Robbins TW, Morgan MJ, Iversen SD (1975) The effects of psychomotor stimulants on stereotypy and locomotor activity in socially-deprived and control rats. Brain Res 84:195-205
171. Salamone JD (1991) Behavioral pharmacology of dopamine systems: a new synthesis. In: Willner P, Scheel-Kruger J (eds) The mesolimbic dopamine system: from motivation to action. Wiley, New York, pp 599-611
172. Salamone JD (1994) The involvement of nucleus accumbens dopamine in appetitive and aversive motivation. Behav Brain Res 61:117-133
173. Salamone JD, Correa M (2002) Motivational views of reinforcement: implications for understanding the behavioral functions of nucleus accumbens dopamine. Behav Brain Res 137:3-25
174. Salamone JD, Cousins MS, Bucher S (1994) Anhedonia or anergia? Effects of haloperidol and nucleus accumbens dopamine depletion on instrumental response selection in a T-maze cost/benefit procedure. Behav Brain Res 65:221-229
175. Salamone JD, Cousins MS, Snyder BJ (1997) Behavioral functions of nucleus accumbens dopamine: empirical and conceptual problems with the anhedonia hypothesis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 21:341-359
176. Salamone JD, Correa M, Mingote SM, Weber SM (2005) Beyond the reward hypothesis: alternative functions of nucleus accumbens dopamine. Curr Opin Pharmacol 5:34-41
177. Sanders AE, Cagniard B, Manning SN, Zhuang X (2003) Dissecting aspects of motivation that are differentially modulated by dopamine and serotonin. Abstract Viewer/Itinerary Planner. Society for Neuroscience, Washington, DC
178. Sarter M, Nelson CL, Bruno JP (2005) Cortical cholinergic transmission and cortical information processing in schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 31:117-138
179. Schallert T, Whishaw IQ (1978) Two types of aphagia and two types of sensorimotor impairment after lateral hypothalamic lesions: observations in normal weight, dieted, and fattened rats. J Comp Physiol Psychol 92:720-741
180. Schmajuk NA, Cox L, Gray JA (2001) Nucleus accumbens, entorhinal cortex and latent inhibition: a neural network model. Behav Brain Res 118:123-141
181. Schoenbaum G, Setlow B (2005) Cocaine makes actions insensitive to outcomes but not extinction: implications for altered orbitofrontal-amygdalar function. Cereb Cortex 15:1162-1169
182. Schultz W (1997) Dopamine neurons and their role in reward mechanisms. Curr Opin Neurobiol 7:191-197
183. Schultz W (1998) Predictive reward signal of dopamine neurons. J Neurophysiol 80:1-27
184. Schultz W (2002) Getting formal with dopamine and reward. Neuron 36:241-263
185. Schultz W (2004) Neural coding of basic reward terms of animal learning theory, game theory, microeconomics and behavioural ecology. Curr Opin Neurobiol 14:139-147
186. Schultz W (2006) Behavioral theories and the neurophysiology of reward. Annu Rev Psychol 57:87-115
187. Schultz W, Dayan P, Montague PR (1997) A neural substrate of prediction and reward. Science 275:1593-1599
188. Shaham Y, Shalev U, Lu L, de Wit H, Stewart J (2003) The reinstatement model of drug relapse: history, methodology and major findings. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 168:3-20
189. Sherrington CS (1906) The integrative action of the nervous system. C. Scribner's, New York
190. Shippenberg TS, Heidbreder C (1995) Sensitization to the conditioned rewarding effects of cocaine: pharmacological and temporal characteristics. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 273:808-815
191. Shizgal P (1999) On the neural computation of utility: implications from studies of brain stimulation reward. In: Kahneman D, Diener E, Schwarz N (eds) Well-being: the foundations of hedonic psychology. Russell Sage Foundation, New York, pp 500-524
192. Shizgal P, Fulton S, Woodside B (2001) Brain reward circuitry and the regulation of energy balance. Int J Obes 25:S17-S21
193. Sienkiewicz-Jarosz H, Scinska A, Kuran W, Ryglewicz D, Rogowski A, Wrobel E, Korkosz A, Kukwa A, Kostowski W, Bienkowski P (2005) Taste responses in patients with Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 76:40-46
194. Small DM, Jones-Gotman M, Dagher A (2003) Feeding-induced dopamine release in dorsal striatum correlates with meal pleasantness ratings in healthy human volunteers. Neuroimage 19:1709-1715
195. Smith KS, Berridge KC (2005) The ventral pallidum and hedonic reward: neurochemical maps of sucrose "liking" and food intake. J Neurosci 25:8637-8649
196. Smith-Roe SL, Kelley AE (2000) Coincident activation of NMDA and dopamine D-1 receptors within the nucleus accumbens core is required for appetitive instrumental learning. J Neurosci 20:7737-7742
197. Söderpalm AHV, Berridge KC (2000) The hedonic impact and intake of food are increased by midazolam microinjection in the parabrachial nucleus. Brain Res 877:288-297
198. Steiner JE (1973) The gustofacial response: observation on normal and anencephalic newborn infants. Symp Oral Sens Percept 4:254-278
199. Steiner JE, Glaser D, Hawilo ME, Berridge KC (2001) Comparative expression of hedonic impact: affective reactions to taste by human infants and other primates. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 25:53-74
200. Stellar JR, Brooks FH, Mills LE (1979) Approach and withdrawal analysis of the effects of hypothalamic stimulation and lesions in rats. J Comp Physiol Psychol 93:446-466
201. Stricker EM, Zigmond MJ (1976) Brain catecholamines and the lateral hypothalamic syndrome. In: Novin D, Wyrwicka W, Bray G (eds) Hunger: basic mechanisms and clinical implications. Raven, New York, pp 19-32
202. Stricker EM, Zigmond MJ (1986) Brain monoamines, homeostasis, and adaptive behavior handbook of physiology: intrinsic regulatory systems of the brain. American Physiological Society, Bethesda, MD, pp 677-696
203. Taylor JR, Robbins TW (1984) Enhanced behavioural control by conditioned reinforcers following microinjections of D-amphetamine into the nucleus accumbens. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 84:405-412
204. Taylor JR, Robbins TW (1986) 6-Hydroxydopamine lesions of the nucleus accumbens, but not of the caudate nucleus, attenuate enhanced responding with reward-related stimuli produced by intra-accumbens D-amphetamine. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 90:390-397
205. Thorndike EL (1898) Animal intelligence: an experimental study of the associative processes in animals. Macmillan, New York
206. Thorndike EL (1911) Animal intelligence: experimental studies. Macmillan, New York
207. Thut G, Schultz W, Roelcke U, Nienhusmeier M, Missimer J, Maguire RP, Leenders KL (1997) Activation of the human brain by monetary reward. Neuroreport 8:1225-1228
208. Tindell AJ, Berridge KC, Aldridge JW (2004) Ventral pallidal representation of pavlovian cues and reward: population and rate codes. J Neurosci 24:1058-1069
209. Tindell AJ, Berridge KC, Zhang J, Peciña S, Aldridge JW (2005) Ventral pallidal neurons code incentive motivation: amplification by mesolimbic sensitization and amphetamine. Eur J Neurosci 22:2617-2634
210. Tindell AJ, Smith KS, Pecina S, Berridge KC, Aldridge JW (2006) Ventral pallidum firing codes hedonic reward: when a bad taste turns good. J Neurophysiol 96:2399-2409
211. Toates F (1986) Motivational systems. Cambridge University Press
212. Tobler PN, Dickinson A, Schultz W (2003) Coding of predicted reward omission by dopamine neurons in a conditioned inhibition paradigm. J Neurosci 23:10402-10410
213. Tobler PN, Fiorillo CD, Schultz W (2005a) Adaptive coding of reward value by dopamine neurons. Science 307:1642-1645
214. Tobler PN, O'Doherty JP, Dolan RJ, Schultz W (2005b) Human neural learning depends on reward prediction errors in the blocking paradigm. J Neurophysiol (1):301-310
215. Tomie A (1996) Locating reward cue at response manipulandum (CAM) induces symptoms of drug abuse. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 20:31
216. Ungless MA, Magill PJ, Bolam JP (2004) Uniform inhibition of dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area by aversive stimuli. Science 303:2040-2042
217. Uslaner JM, Acerbo MJ, Jones SA, Robinson TE (2006) The attribution of incentive salience to a stimulus that signals an intravenous injection of cocaine. Behav Brain Res 169(2):320-324
218. Vanderschuren LJ, Everitt BJ (2005) Behavioral and neural mechanisms of compulsive drug seeking. Eur J Pharmacol 526:77-88
219. Vanderschuren LJMJ, Everitt BJ (2004) Drug seeking becomes compulsive after prolonged cocaine self-administration. Science 305:1017-1019
220. Vanderschuren LJMJ, Kalivas PW (2000) Alterations in dopaminergic and glutamatergic transmission in the induction and expression of behavioral sensitization: a critical review of preclinical studies. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 151:99-120
221. Vanderschuren LJMJ, Di Ciano P, Everitt BJ (2005) Involvement of the dorsal striatum in cue-controlled cocaine seeking. J Neurosci 25:8665-8670
222. Vezina P (2004) Sensitization of midbrain dopamine neuron reactivity and the self-administration of psychomotor stimulant drugs. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 27:827-839
223. Vezina P, Lorrain DS, Arnold GM, Austin JD, Suto N (2002) Sensitization of midbrain dopamine neuron reactivity promotes the pursuit of amphetamine. J Neurosci 22:4654-4662
224. Volkow ND, Wise RA (2005) How can drug addiction help us understand obesity? Nat Neurosci 8:555-560
225. Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Fowler JS, Logan J, Gatley SJ, Wong C, Hitzemann R, Pappas NR (1999) Reinforcing effects of psychostimulants in humans are associated with increases in brain dopamine and occupancy of D-2 receptors. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 291:409-415
226. Volkow ND, Fowler JS, Wang GJ, Ding YS, Gatley SJ (2002a) Role of dopamine in the therapeutic and reinforcing effects of methylphenidate in humans: results from imaging studies. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 12:557-566
227. Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Fowler JS, Logan J, Jayne M, Franceschi D, Wong C, Gatley SJ, Gifford AN, Ding YS, Pappas N (2002b) "Nonhedonic" food motivation in humans involves dopamine in the dorsal striatum and methylphenidate amplifies this effect. Synapse 44:175-180
228. Volkow ND, Wang G-J, Telang F, Fowler JS, Logan J, Childress A-R, Jayne M, Ma Y, Wong C (2006) Cocaine cues and dopamine in dorsal striatum: mechanism of craving in cocaine addiction. J Neurosci 26:6583-6588
229. Waelti P, Mirenowicz J, Dickinson A, Schultz W (1998) Activity of primate dopamine neurons in a discrimination and blocking paradigm. Eur J Neurosci 10:302
230. Waelti P, Dickinson A, Schultz W (2001) Dopamine responses comply with basic assumptions of formal learning theory. Nature 412:43-48
231. Wakabayashi KT, Fields HL, Nicola SM (2004) Dissociation of the role of nucleus accumbens dopamine in responding to reward-predictive cues and waiting for reward. Behav Brain Res 154:19-30
232. Wang GJ, Volkow ND, Logan J, Pappas NR, Wong CT, Zhu W, Netusil N, Fowler JS (2001) Brain dopamine and obesity. Lancet 357:354-357
233. Wang GJ, Volkow ND, Chang L, Miller E, Sedler M, Hitzemann R, Zhu W, Logan J, Ma Y, Fowler JS (2004) Partial recovery of brain metabolism in methamphetamine abusers after protracted abstinence. Am J Psychiatry 161:242-248
234. Washton AM, Stone-Washton N (1993) Outpatient treatment of cocaine and crack addiction: a clinical perspective. NIDA Res Monogr 135:15-30
235. Watson JB (1913) Psychology as the behaviourist views it. Psychol Rev 20:158-177
236. Weingarten HP, Martin GM (1989) Mechanisms of conditioned meal initiation. Physiol Behav 45:735-740
237. Wickelgren I (1997) Neuroscience: getting the brain's attention. Science 278:35-37
238. Wickens J, Reynolds J, Hyland B (2003) Neural mechanisms of reward-related motor learning. Curr Opin Neurobiol 13:685-690
239. Wilson C, Nomikos GG, Collu M, Fibiger HC (1995) Dopaminergic correlates of motivated behavior: importance of drive. J Neurosci 15:5169-5178
240. Winkielman P, Berridge KC, Wilbarger JL (2005) Unconscious affective reactions to masked happy versus angry faces influence consumption behavior and judgments of value. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 31:121-135
241. Wise RA (1980) The dopamine synapse and the notion of 'pleasure centers' in the brain. Trends Neurosci 3:91-95
242. Wise RA (1982) Neuroleptics and operant behavior: the anhedonia hypothesis. Behav Brain Sci 5:39-87
243. Wise RA (1985) The anhedonia hypothesis: Mark III. Behav Brain Sci 8:178-186
244. Wise RA (2004a) Dopamine, learning and motivation. Nat Rev Neurosci 5:483-494
245. Wise RA (2004b) Drive, incentive, and reinforcement: the antecedents and consequences of motivation. Nebr Symp Motiv 50:159-195
246. Wise RA (2006) Role of brain dopamine in food reward and reinforcement. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 361:1149-1158
247. Wolterink G, Phillips G, Cador M, Donselaar-Wolterink I, Robbins TW, Everitt BJ (1993) Relative roles of ventral striatal D1 and D2 dopamine receptors in responding with conditioned reinforcement. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 110:355-364
248. Wyvell CL, Berridge KC (2000) Intra-accumbens amphetamine increases the conditioned incentive salience of sucrose reward: enhancement of reward "wanting" without enhanced "liking" or response reinforcement. J Neurosci 20:8122-8130
249. Wyvell CL, Berridge KC (2001) Incentive-sensitization by previous amphetamine exposure: increased cue-triggered 'wanting' for sucrose reward. J Neurosci 21:7831-7840
250. Yin HH, Zhuang X, Balleine BW (2006) Instrumental learning in hyperdopaminergic mice. Neurobiol Learn Mem (3):238-283
251. Zahm DS (2000) An integrative neuroanatomical perspective on some subcortical substrates of adaptive responding with emphasis on the nucleus accumbens. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 24:85-105
252. Zahm DS (2006) The evolving theory of basal forebrain functional-anatomical 'macrosystems'. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 30(2):148-172
253. Zhang J, Tindell A, Berridge K, Aldridge J (2005) Profile analysis of integrative coding in ventral pallidal neurons. Society for Neuroscience, Washington, DC
254. Zheng HY, Corkern M, Stoyanova I, Patterson LM, Tian R, Berthoud HR (2003) Peptides that regulate food intake - appetite-inducing accumbens manipulation activates hypothalamic orexin neurons and inhibits POMC neurons. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 284:R1436-R1444
255. Zhou QY, Palmiter RD (1995) Dopamine-deficient mice are severely hypoactive, adipsic, and aphagic. Cell 83:1197-1209
256. Zhuang X, Oosting RS, Jones SR, Gainetdinov PR, Miller GW, Caron MG, Hen R (2001) Hyperactivity and impaired response habituation in hyperdopaminergic mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:1982-1987