Drug metabolism by tumours: Its nature, relevance and therapeutic implications

Expert Opinion on Drug Metabolism and Toxicology

Volumn 3, Issue 6, 2007, Pages 783-803

  Michael, Michael ^a   Doherty, Margaret M ^b  

^a PETER MACCALLUM CANCER CENTRE   (Australia)

^b Pharmaceutical and Biopharmaceutics Consulting   (Australia)

Author keywords

Cancer; Chemotherapy; Drug metabolising enzymes; Tumoural drug metabolism

Indexed keywords

ALDEHYDE DEHYDROGENASE; ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENT; CAPECITABINE; CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE; CYTOCHROME P450 1A; CYTOCHROME P450 1B1; CYTOCHROME P450 2C; CYTOCHROME P450 2D6; CYTOCHROME P450 3A; CYTOCHROME P450 3A4; CYTOCHROME P450 3A5; CYTOTOXIC AGENT; DIAZIQUONE; DIHYDROPYRIMIDINE DEHYDROGENASE; DOCETAXEL; DRUG METABOLIZING ENZYME; FLUOROPYRIMIDINE; FLUOROURACIL; GLUCURONOSYLTRANSFERASE; GLUTATHIONE TRANSFERASE; IRINOTECAN; MITOMYCIN C; OXALIPLATIN; OXAZAPHOSPHORINE; PACLITAXEL; PRODRUG; TAMOXIFEN; THYMIDINE PHOSPHORYLASE; TRIAZIQUONE; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ANTIBODY DIRECTED ENZYME PRODRUG THERAPY; ANTINEOPLASTIC ACTIVITY; BREAST CANCER; CLINICAL TRIAL; COLORECTAL CANCER; DIGESTIVE SYSTEM CANCER; DNA POLYMORPHISM; DRUG ACTIVATION; DRUG CYTOTOXICITY; DRUG DETOXIFICATION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG INACTIVATION; DRUG INHIBITION; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG SENSITIVITY; DRUG TARGETING; ENZYME ACTIVATION; ENZYME ACTIVITY; ENZYME SUBSTRATE; ENZYME SUBSTRATE COMPLEX; GENE CONTROL; GENE DIRECTED ENZYME PRODRUG THERAPY; GENETIC HETEROGENEITY; GENETIC POLYMORPHISM; HEMATOLOGIC MALIGNANCY; HUMAN; LUNG CANCER; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; REVIEW; TUMOR CELL;

ANIMALS; ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENTS; CYTOCHROME P-450 ENZYME SYSTEM; GLUTATHIONE TRANSFERASE; HUMANS; METABOLIC DETOXICATION, DRUG; NEOPLASMS;

EID: 37349067079     PISSN: 17425255     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1517/17425255.3.6.783     Document Type: Review

References (153)

1. UNDEVIA SD, GOMEZ-ABUIN G, RATAIN MJ: Pharmacokinetic variability of anticancer agents. Nat. Rev. Cancer (2005) 5:447-458.
2. RENDIC S: Summary of information on human CYP enzymes: human P450 metabolism data. Drug Metab. Rev. (2002) 34:83-448.
3. TUKEY RH, STRASSBURG CP: Genetic multiplicity of the human UDP-glucuronosyltransferases and regulation in the gastrointestinal tract. Mol. Pharmacol. (2001) 59:405-414.
4. DESAI AA, INNOCENTI F, RATAIN MJ: UGT pharmacogenomics: implications for cancer risk and cancer therapeutics. Pharmacogenetics (2003) 13:517-523.
5. TOWNSEND DM, TEW KD: The role of glutathione-S-transferase in anti-cancer drug resistance. Oncogene (2003) 22:7369-7375.
6. PATTERSON LH, MURRAY GI: Tumour cytochrome P450 and drug activation. Curr. Pharm. Des. (2002) 8:1335-1347.
7. INNOCENTI F, RATAIN MJ: Update on pharmacogenetics in cancer chemotherapy. Eur J. Cancer (2002) 38:639-644.
8. SEKINE I, SAIJO N: Polymorphisms of metabolizing enzymes and transporter proteins involved in the clearance of anticancer agents. Ann. Oncol. (2001) 12:1515-1525.
9. RODRIGUEZ-ANTONA C, INGELMAN-SUNDBERG M: Cytochrome P450 pharmacogenetics and cancer. Oncogene (2006) 25:1679-1691.
10. YE Z, SONG H: Glutathione S-transferase polymorphisms (GSTM1, GSTP1 and GSTT1) and the risk of acute leukaemia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur. J. Cancer (2005) 41:980-989.
11. INNOCENTI F: UGT1A1 genotyping in patients undergoing treatment with irinotecan. Clin. Adv. Hematol. Oncol. (2005) 3:843-844.
12. MERCIER C, CICCOLINI J: Profiling dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase deficiency in patients with cancer undergoing 5-fluorouracil/ capecitabine therapy. Clin. Colorectal Cancer (2006) 6:288-296.
13. MURRAY GI: The role of cytochrome P450 in tumour development and progression and its potential in therapy. J. Pathol. (2000) 192:419-426.
14. GABBRIELLI G, BISI G, PUPI A, CAPPELLINI P, PANZERA F: Sequential scintiscanning with 99mTc-HIDA in the study of some aspects of post-operativc dynamics of the proximal digestive trac. Chir. Ital. (1979) 31:285-302.
15. BOSCH TM, MEIJERMAN I, BEIJNEN JH, SCHELLENS JH: Genetic polymorphisms of drug-metabolising enzymes and drug transporters in the chemotherapeutic treatment of cancer. Clin. Pharmacokinet. (2006) 45:253-285.
16. TANNOCK IF, LEE CM, TUNGGAL JK, COWAN DS, EGORIN MJ: Limited penetration of anticancer drugs through tumor tissue: a potential cause of resistance of solid tumors to chemotherapy. Clin. Cancer Res. (2002) 8:878-884.
17. SCHMIDT R et al.: CYP3A4, CYP2C9 and CYP2B6 expression and ifosfamide turnover in breast cancer tissue microsomes. Br. J. Cancer (2004) 90:911-916.
18. ROCHAT B, MORSMAN JM, MURRAY GI, FIGG WD, MCLEOD HL: Human CYP1B1 and anticancer agent metabolism: mechanism for tumor-specific drug inactivation? J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. (2001) 296:537-541.
19. GARATTINI S: Pharmacokinetics in cancer chemotherapy. Eur. J. Cancer (2007) 43:271-282.
20. MICHAEL M, DOHERTY MM: Tumoral drug metabolism: overview and its implications for cancer therapy. J. Clin. Oncol. (2005) 23:205-229.
21. RIDDICK DS, LEE C, RAMJI S et al.: Cancer chemotherapy and drug metabolism. Drug Metab. Dipos. (2005) 33:1083-1096.
22. DACHS GU, TUPPER J, TOZER GM: From bench to bedside for gene-directed enzyme prodrug therapy of cancer. Anticancer Drugs (2005) 16:349-359.
23. ROY P, WAXMAN DJ: Activation of oxazaphosphorines by cytockrome P450: application to gene-directed enzyme prodrug therapy for cancer. Toxicol. In Vitro (2006) 20:176-186.
24. MCFADYEN MC, MELVIN WT, MURRAY GI: Cytochrome P450 enzymes: novel options for cancer therapeutics. Mol. Cancer Ther. (2004) 3:363-371.
25. BHAGWAT SV, BOYD MR, RAVINDRANATH V. Multiple forms of cytochrome P450 and associated monooxygenase activities in human brain mirochondria. Biochem. Pharmacol. (2000) 59:573-582.
26. NISHIMURA M, YAGUTI H, YOSHITSUGU H, NAITO S, SATOH T: Tissue distribution of mRNA expression of human cytochrome P450 isoforms assessed by high-sensitivity real-time reverse transcription PCR. Yakugaku Zasshi (2003) 123:369-375.
27. BEEGHLY A, KATSAROS D, CHEN H et al.: Glutathione S-transferase polymorphisms and ovarian cancer treatment and survival. Gynecol. Oncol. (2006) 100:330-337.
28. ZHANG W, SHANNON WD, DUNCAN J, SCHEFFER GL, SCHEPER RJ, MCLEOD HL: Expression of drug pathway proteins is independent of tumour type. J. Pathol. (2006) 209:213-219.
29. JAKOB C et al.: Prognostic value of histologic tumor regression, thymidylate synthase, thymidine phosphorylase, and dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase in rectal cancer UICC stage II/III after neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy. Am. J. Surg. Pathol. (2006) 30:1169-1174.
30. CREWE HK, ELLIS SW, LENNARD MS, TUCKER GT: Variable contribution of cytochromes P450 2D6, 2C9 and 3A4 to the 4-hydroxylation of tamoxifen by human liver microsomes. Biochem. Pharmacol. (1997) 53:171-178.
31. MURRAY GI et al.: Tumor-specific expression of cytochrome P450 CYP1B1. Cancer Res. (1997) 57:3026-3031.
32. TOKIZANE T, SHIINA H, IGAWA M et al.: Cytochrome P450 1B1 is overexpressed and regulated by hypomethylation in prostate cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. (2005) 11:5793-5801.
33. EL-RAYES BF, ALI S, HEILBRUN LK et al.: Cytochrome p450 and glutathione transferase expression in human breast cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. (2003) 9:1705-1709.
34. ISCAN M, KLAAVUNIEMI T. COBAN T, KAPUCUOGLU N,PELKONEN O, RAUNIO H: The expression of cytochrome P450 enzymes in human breast tumours and normal breast tissue. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. (2001) 70:47-54.
35. MASSAAD L, DE WAZIERS I, RIBRAG V et al.: Comparison of mouse and human colon tumors with regard to phase I and phase II drug-metabolizing enzyme systems. Cancer Res. (1992) 52:6567-6575.
36. DOWNIE D, MACFADYEN MC, ROONEY PH et al.: Profiling cytochrome P450 expression in ovarian cancer: identification of prognostic markers. Clin. Cancer Res. (2005) 11:7369-7375.
37. TOTAH RA, RETTIE AE: Cytochrome P450 2C8: substrates, inhibitors, pharmacogenetics, and clinical relevance. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. (2005) 77:341-352.
38. MURRAY GI, TAYLOR MC, BURKE MD, MELVIN WT: Enhanced expression of cytochrome P450 in stomach cancer. Br. J. Cancer (1998) 77:1040-1044.
39. RIBRAG V, MASSAAD L, JANOT F, MORIZET J, GOUYETTE A, CHABOT GG: Main drug-metabolizing enzyme systems in human non-Hodgkin's lymphomas sensitive or resistant to chemotherapy. Leuk. Lymphoma (1995) 18:303-310.
40. SINGH S, CHAKRAVARTI D, EDNEY JA et al.: Relative imbalances in the expression of estrogen-metabolizing enzymes in the breast tissue of women with breast carcinoma. Oncol. Rep. (2005) 14:1091-1096.
41. MARTINEZ C, GARCIA-MARTIN E, PIZARRO RM, GARCIA-GAMITO FJ, AGUNDEZ JA: Expression of paclitaxel-inactivating CYP3A activity in human colorectal cancer: implications for drug therapy. Br. J. Cancer (2002) 87:681-686.
42. WOJNOWSKI L, KAMDEM LK: Clinical implications of CYP3A polymorphisms. Expert Opin. Drug Metab. Toxicol. (2006) 2:171-182.
43. HUANG Z, FASCO MJ, FIGGE HL, KEYOMARSI K, KAMINSKY LS: Expression of cytochromes P450 in human breast tissue and tumors. Drug Metab. Dispos. (1996) 24:899-905.
44. MURRAY GI, MACFADYEN MC, MITCHELL RT, CHEUNG YL, KERR AC, MELVIN WT: Cytochrome P450 CYP3A in human renal cell cancer. Br. J. Cancer (1999) 79:1836-1842.
45. FINNSTROM N, BJELFMAN C, SODERSTROM TG et al.: Detection of cytochrome P450 mRNA transcripts in prostate samples by RT-PCR. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. (2001) 31:880-886.
46. KOLESAR JB, MILLER A, STEPHENSON J et al.: CYP3A5*3 and CYP3A4*1B polymorphisms are associated and more frequent in NSCLC tumors than in normal volunteers. Proc. Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. (2004) 22(15 Suppl.):Abstract 2016.
47. COLLIE-DUQUID ES, JOHNSTON SJ, BOYCE L et al.: Thymidine phosphorylase and dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase protein expression in colorectal cancer. Int. J. Cancer (2001) 94:297-301.
48. KAMOSHIDA S, SHIOGAMA K, SHIMOMURA R et al.: Immunohistochemical demonstration of fluoropyrimidine-metabolizing enzymes in various types of cancer. Oncol. Rep. (2005) 14:1223-1230.
49. LI Y, MIZUTANI Y, SHIRAISHI T et al.: The significance of the expression of dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase in prostate cancer. BJU Int. (2007) 99:663-668.
50. CHUJO M, MIURA T, KAWANO Y et al.: Thymidine phosphorylase levels and dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase levels in non-small cell lung cancer tissues. OncoL Rep. (2006) 16:777-780.
51. CHIKAMATSU K, SHINO M, SAKAKURA K et al.: Expression of thymidylate synthase and dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase in adenoid cystic carcinoma of the head and neck: correlation with clinical outcome. Oral Oncol. (2006) 43(7):662-669.
52. WELLS PG, MACKENZIE PI, CH0WDHURY JR et al.: Glucuronidation and the UDP-glucuronosyltransferases in health and disease. Drug Metab. Dispos. (2004) 32:281-290.
53. TUKEY RH, STRASSBURG CP: Human UDP-glucuronosyltransferases: metabolism, expression, and desease. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. (2000) 40:581-616.
54. TURGEON D, CARRIER JS, LEVESQUE E, HUM DW, BELANGER A: Relative enzymatic activity, protein stability, and tissue distribution of human steroid-metabolizing UGT2B subfamily members. Endocrinology (2001) 142:778-787.
55. STRASSBURG CP, STRASSBURG A, NGUYEN N, LI Q, MANNS MP, TURKEY RH: Regulation and function of family 1 and family 2 UDP-glucuronosyltransferase genes (UGT1A, UGT2B) in human oesophagus. Biochem J. (1999) 338(Part 2):489-498.
56. STRASSBURG CP MANNS MP, TUKEY RH: Differential down-regulation of the UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1A locus is an early event in human liver and biliary cancer. Cancer Res. (1997) 57:2979-2985.
57. TOBIN P, CLARKE S, SEALE JP et al.: The in vitro metabolism of irinotecan (CPT-11) by carboxylesterase and β-glucuronidase in human colorectal tumours. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. (2006) 62:122-129.
58. ULLRICH D, MUNZEL PA, BECK-GSCHAIDMEIER S, SCHRODER M, BOCK KW: Drug-metabolizing enzymes in pharyngeal mucosa and in oropharyngeal cancer tissue. Biochem. Pharmacol. (1997) 54:1159-1162.
59. ALBIN N, MASSAAD L, TOUSSAINT C et al.: Main drug-metabolizing enzyme systems in human breast tumors and peritumoral tissues. Cancer Res. (1993) 53:3541-3546.
60. MCILWAIN CC, TOWNSEND DM, TEW KD: Glutathione S-transferase polymorphisms: cancer incidence and therapy. Oncogene (2006) 25:1639-1648.
61. HOWELLS RE, DHAR KK, HOBAN PR et al.: Association between glutathione-S-transferase GSTP1 genotypes, GSTP1 over-expression, and outcome in epithelial ovarian cancer. Int. J. Gynecol. Cancer (2004) 14:242-250.
62. MOORGHEN M, CAIRNS J, FORRESTER LM et al.: Enhanced expression of glutathione S-transferases in colorectal carcinoma compared to non-neoplastic mucosa. Carcinogenesis (1991) 12:13-17.
63. KOOMAGI R, STAMMLER G, MANEGOLD C, MATTERN J, VOLM M: Expression of resistance-related proteins in tumoral and peritumoral tissues of patients with lung cancer. Cancer Lett. (1996) 110:129-136.
64. WROCZYNSKI P NOWAK M, WIERZCHOWSKI J, SZUBERT A, POLANSKI J: Activities of cytosolic aldehyde dehydrogenase isozymes in colon cancer: determination using selective, fluorimetric assays. Acta Pol. Pharm. (2005) 62:427-433.
65. SAKAKURA C, HAGIWARA A, NAKANISHI M et al.: Differential gene expression profiles of gastric cancer cells established from primary tumour and malignant ascites. Br. J. Cancer (2002) 87:1153-1161.
66. JAMIESON D, WILSON K, PRIDGEON S et al.: NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1 and NRH:quinone oxidoreductase 2 activity and expression in bladder and ovarian cancer and lower NRH:quinone oxidoreductase 2 activity associated with an NQO2 exon 3 single-nucleotide polymorphism. Clin. Cancer Res. (2007) 13:1584-1590.
67. GUTIERREZ PL: The role of NAD(P)H oxidoreductase (DT-Diaphorase) in the bioactivation of quinone-containing antitumor agents: a review. Free Radic. Biol. Med. (2000) 29:263-275.
68. ALLEN PG, KOLESAR JM: NAD(P)H: quinone oxidoreductase enhances proliferation inhibition by 4-hydroxytamoxifen. Anticancer Res. (2002) 22:1475-1480.
69. ROSS D, KEPA JK, WINSKI SI, BEALL HD, ANWAR A, SIEGEL D: NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1): chemoprotection, bioactivation, gene regulation and generic polymorphisms. Chem. Biol. Interact. (2000) 129:77-97.
70. LYN-COOK BD, YAN-SANDERS Y, MOORE S, TAYLOR S, WORD B, HAMMONS GJ: Increased levels of NAD(P)H: quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) in pancreatic tissues from smokers and pancreatic adenocarcinomas: potential biomarker of early damage in the pancreas. Cell Biol. Toxicol. (2006) 22:73-80.
71. SIEGEL D, ROSS D: Immunodetection of NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) in human tissues. Free Radic. Biol. Med. (2000) 29:246-253.
72. BEGLEITERA, LEITH MK, THLIVERIS JA, DIGBY T: Dietary induction of NQO1 increases the antitumour activity of mitomycin C in human colon tumours in vivo. Br. J. Cancer (2004) 91:1624-1631.
73. SARBIA M, BITZER M, SIEGEL D et al.: Association between NAD(P)H: quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) inactivating C609T polymorphism and adenocarcinoma of the upper gastrointestinal tract. Int. J. Cancer (2003) 107:381-386.
74. BROCKDORFF BL, SKOUV J, REITER BE, LYKKESFELDT AE: Increased expression of cytochrome p450 1A1 and 1B1 genes in anti-estrogen-resistant human breast cancer cell lines. Int. J. Cancer (2000) 88:902-906.
75. SMITH G, HARRISON DJ, EAST N, RAE F, WOLF H, WOLF CR. Regulation of cytochrome P450 gene expression in human colon and breast tumour xenograhs. Br. J. Cancer (1993) 68:57-63.
76. HAAS S, PIERL C, HARTH V et al.: Expression of xenobiotic and steroid hormone metabolizing enzymes in human breast carcinomas. Int. J. Cancer (2006) 119:1785-1791.
77. BERGHEIM I, BODE C, PARLESAK A. Decreased expression of cytochrome P450 protein in non-malignant colonic tissue of patients with colonic adenoma. BMC Gastroenterol. (2005) 5:34.
78. CZERWINSKI M, MCLEMORE TL, GELBOIN HV, GONZALEZ FJ: Quantification of CYP2B7, CYP4B1, and CYPOR messenger RNAs in normal human lung and lung rumors. Cancer Res. (1994) 54:1085-1091.
79. JABBOUR E, CORTES J, O'BRIEN S, GILES F, KANTARJIAN H: New targeted therapies for chronic myelogenous leukemia: opportunities to overcome imatinib resistance. Semin. Hematol. (2007) 44:S25-S31.
80. ZHOU GB, CHEN SJ, CHEN Z: Acute promyelocytic leukemia: a model of molecular target based therapy. Hematology (2005) 10(Suppl. 1):270-280.
81. LYSENG-WILLIAMSON K, JARVIS B: Imatinib. Drugs (2001) 61:1765-1774; discussion 1775-1776.
82. HOCHHAUS A, ERBEN P ERNST T, MUELLER MC: Resistance to targeted therapy in chronic myelogenous leukemia. Semin. Hematol. (2007) 44:S15-S24.
83. NJAR VC, GEDIYA I, PURUSHOTTAMACHAR P et al: Retinoic acid metabolism blocking agents (RAMBAs) for treatment of cancer and dermatological diseases. Bioorg. Med. Chem. (2006) 14:4323-4340.
84. JOHNSTON SJ, RIDGE SA, CASSIDY J, MCLEOD HL: Regulation of dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase in colorectal cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. (1999) 5:2566-2570.
85. SLAVIERO KA, CLARKE SJ, RIVORY LP: Inflammatory response: an unrecognised source of variability in the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of cancer chemotherapy. Lancet Oncol. (2003) 4:224-232.
86. MALIAKAL PP COVILLE PF, WANWIMOLRUK S: Decreased hepatic drug metabolising enzyme activity in rats with nitrosamine-induced tumours. Drug Metabol. Drug Interact. (2002) 19:13-27.
87. RIVORY LP, SLAVIERO KA, CLARKE SJ: Hepatic cytochrome P450 3A drug metabolism is reduced in cancer patients who have an acute-phase response. Br. J. Cancer (2002) 87:277-280.
88. RENTON KW. Alteration of drug biotransformation and elimination during infection and inflammation. Pharmarol Ther. (2001) 92:147-163.
89. CHARLES KA, RIVORY LP, BROWN SL, LIDDLE C, CLARKE SJ, ROBERTSON GR: Transcriptional repression of hepatic cytochrome P450 3A4 gene in the presence of cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. (2006) 12:7492-7497.
90. MILES JS, MCLAREN AW, FORRESTER LM, GLANCEY MJ, LANG MA, WOLF CR: Identification of the human liver cytochrome P-450 responsible for coumarin 7-hydroxylase activity. Biochem. J. (1990) 267:365-371.
91. RODRIGUEZ-ANTONA C et al.: Cytochrome P450 expression in human hepatocytes and hepatoma cell lines: molecular mechanisms that determine lower expression in cultured cells. Xenobiotica (2002) 32:505-520.
92. REKHA GK, SLADEK NE: Multienzyme-mediated stable and transient multidrug resistance and collateral sensitivity induced by xenobiotics. Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol. (1997) 40:215-224.
93. MCFADYEN MC, MCLEOD HL, JACKSON FC, MELVIN WT, DOEHMER J, MURRAY GI: Cytochrome P450 CYP1B1 protein expression: a novel mechanism of anticancer drug resistance. Biochem. Pharmacol. (2001) 62:207-212.
94. YU LJ, MATIAS J, SCUDIERO DA et al.: P450 enzyme expression patterns in the NCI human tumor cell line panel. Drug Metab. Dispos. (2001) 29:304-312.
95. YUN CH, KIM KH, CALCUTT MW, GUENGERICH FP: Kinetic analysis of oxidation of coumarins by human cytochrome P450 2A6. J. Biol. Chem. (2005) 280:12279-12291.
96. GARCIA-MARTIN E, PIZARRO RM, MARTINEZ C et al.: Acquired resistance to the anticancer drug paclitaxel is associated with induction of cytochrome P450 2C8. Pharmacogenomics (2006) 7:575-585.
97. ETIENNE MC, CHERADAME S, FISCHEL JL et al.: Response to fluorouracil therapy in cancer patients: the role of tumoral dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase activity. J. Clin. Oncol. (1995) 13:1663-1670.
98. SALONGA D, DANENBERG KD, JOHNSON M et al.: Colorectal tumors responding to 5-fluorouracil have low gene expression levels of dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase, thymidylate synthase, and thymidine phosphorylase. Clin. Cancer Res. (2000) 6:1322-1327.
99. SMORENBURG CH, PETERS GJ, VAN GROENINGEN CJ et al.: Phase II study of tailored chemotherapy for advanced colorectal cancer with either 5-fluouracil and leucovorin or oxaliplatin and irinotecan based on the expression of thymidylate synthase and dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase. Ann. Oncol. (2006) 17:35-42.
100. MIYOSHI Y, ANDO A, TAKAMURA Y, TAQUCHI T, TAMAKI Y, NOQUCHI S: Prediction of response to docetaxel by CYP3A4 mRNA expression in breast cancer tissues. Int. J. Cancer (2002) 97:129-132.
101. MIYOSHI Y, TAGUCHI T, KIM SJ, TAMAKI Y, NOGUCHI S: Prediction of response to docetaxel by immunohistochemical analysis of CYP3A4 expression in human breast cancers. Breast Cancer (2005) 12:11-15.
102. KUHN JG: Pharmacology of irinotecan. Oncology (Huntingt) (1998) 12:39-42.
103. XU G, ZHANG W, MA MK, MCLEOD HL: Human carboxylesterase 2 is commonly expressed in tumor tissue and is correlated with activation of irinotecan. Clin. Cancer Res. (2002) 8:2605-2611.
104. WU MH, YAN B, HUMERICKHOUSE R, DOLAN ME: Irinotecan activation by human carboxylesterases in colorectal adenocarcinoma cells. Clin. Cancer Res. (2002) 8:2696-2700.
105. CUMMINGS J, ETHELL BT, JARDINE L et al.: Glucuronidation as a mechanism of intrinsic drug resistance in human colon cancer: reversal of resistance by food additives. Cancer Res. (2003) 63:8443-8450.
106. TAKAHASHI T, FUJIWARA Y, YAMAKIDO M, KATOH O, WATANABE H, MACKENZIE PI: The role of glucuronidation in 7-ethyl-10-hydroxycamptothecin resistance in vitro. Jpn J. Cancer Res. (1997) 88:1211-1217.
107. SLADEK NE: Aldehyde dehydrogenase-mediated cellular relative insensitivity to the oxazaphosphorines. Curr. Pharm. Des. (1999) 5:607-625.
108. SLADEK NE, KOLLANDER R, SREERAMA L, KIANG DT: Cellular levels of aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDH1A1 and ALDH3A1) as predictors of therapeutic responses to cyclophosphamide-based chemotherapy of breast cancer: a retrospective study. Rational individualization of oxazaphosphorine-based cancer chemotherapeutic regimens. Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol. (2002) 49:309-321.
109. STOEHLMACHER J, PARK DJ, ZHANG W et al.: Association between glutathione S-transferase P1, T1, and M1 genetic polymorphism and survival of patients with metastatic colorectal cancer. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. (2002) 94:936-942.
110. MULDER TP, VERSPAGET HW, SIER CF et al.: Glutathione S-transferase pi in colorectal tumors is predictive for overall survival. Cancer Res. (1995) 55:2696-2702.
111. ARAI T, YASUDA Y, TAKAYA T et al.: Immunohistochemical expression of glutathione transferase-pi in untreated primary non-small-cell lung cancer. Cancer Detect. Prev. (2000) 24:252-257.
112. TIDEFELT U, ELMHORN-ROSENBORG A, PAUL C, HAO XY, MANNERVIK B, ERIKSSON LC: Expression of glutathione transferase pi as a predictor for treatment results at different stages of acute nonlymphoblastic leukemia. Cancer Res. (1992) 52:3281-3285.
113. GHAZAL-ASWAD S, HOGARTH L, HALL AG et al.: The rehitionship between turnout glutathione concentration, glutathione S-transferase isoenzyme expression and response to single agent carboplatin in epithelial ovarian cancer patients. B.r J. Cancer (1996) 74:468-473.
114. FERRANDINA G, SCAMBIA G, DAMIA G et al.: Glutathione S-transferase activity in epithelial ovarian cancer: association with response to chemotherapy and disease outcome. Ann. Oncol. (1997) 8:343-350.
115. SCHISSELBAUER JC, SILBER R, PAPADOPOULOS E, ABRAMS K, LACRETA FP, TEW KD: Characterization of glutathione S-transferase expression in lymphocytes from chronic lymphocytic leukemia patients. Cancer Res. (1990) 50:3562-3568.
116. DHAINI HR, THOMAS DG, GIORDANO TJ et al.: Cytochrome P450 CYP3A4/5 expression as a biomarker of outcome in osteosarcoma. J. Chn. Oncol. (2003) 21:2481-2485.
117. SCHULLER J,CASSIDY J, DUMONT E et al.: Prderential activation of capecitabine in tumor following oral administration to colorectal cancer patients. Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol. (2000) 45:291-297.
118. METZGER R, DANENBERG K, LEICHMAN CG et al.: High basal level gene expression of thymidine phosphorylase (platelet-derived endothelial cell growth factor) in colorectal tumors is associated with nonresponse to 5-fluorouracil. Clin. Cancer Res. (1998) 4:2371-2376.
119. VAN CUTSEM E, TWELVES C, CASSIDY J et al.; XELODA COLORECTAL CANCER STUDY GROUP: Oral capecitabine compared with intravenous fluorouracil plus leucovorin in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer: results of a large Phase III study. J. Clin. Oncol. (2001) 19:4097-4106.
120. TWELVES C, WONG A, NOWACKI MP et al.: Capecitabine as adjuvant treatment fbr stage III colon cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. (2005) 352:2696-2704.
121. BUDMAN DR, MEROPOL NJ, REIGNER B et al.: Preliminary studies of a novel oral fluoropyrimidine carbamate: capecitabine. J. Clin. Oncol. (1998) 16:1795-1802.
122. MORGAN AS, SANDERSON PE, BORCH RF et al.: Tumor efficacy and bone marrow-sparing properties of TER286, a cytotoxin activated by glutathione S-transferase. Cancer Res. (1998) 58:2568-2575.
123. KAVANAGH JJ, GERSHENSON DM, CHOI H et al.: Multi-institutional Phase II study of TLK286 (TELCYTA, a glutathione S-transferase P1-1 activated glutathione analog prodrug) in patients with platinum and paclitaxel refractory or resistant ovarian cancer. Int. J. Gynecol. Cancer (2005) 15:593-600.
124. XU G, MCLEOD HL: Strategies for enzyme/prodrug cancer therapy. Clin. Cancer Res. (2001) 7:3314-3324.
125. CHEN L, YU LJ, WAXMAN DJ: Potentiation of cytochrome P450/ cyclophosphamide-based cancer gene therapy by coexpression of the P450 reductase gene. Cancer Res. (1997) 57:4830-4837.
126. EVRARD A, CUQ P, CICCOLINI J, VIAN I, CANO JP: Increased cytotoxicity and bystander effect of 5-fluorouracil and 5-deoxy-5-fluorouridine in human colorectal cancer cells transfected with thymidine phosphorylase. Br. J. Cancer (1999) 80:1726-1733.
127. DANKS MY, MORTON CL, KRULL EJ et al.: Comparison of activation of CPT-11 by rabbit and human carboxylesterases for use in enzyme/prodrug therapy. Clin. Cancer Res. (1999) 5:917-924.
128. BRAYBROOKE JP, SLADE A, DEPLANQUE G et al.: Phase I study of MetXia-P450 gene therapy and oral cyclophosphamide for patients with advanced breast cancer or melanoma. Clin. Cancer Res. (2005) 11:1512-1520.
129. PALMER DH, MAUTNER V, MIRZA D et al.: Virus-directed enzyme prodrug therapy: intratumoral administration of a replication-deficient adenovirus encoding nitroreductase to patients with resectable liver cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. (2004) 22:1546-1552.
130. PEDLEY RB, SHARMA K, BOXER GM et al.: Enhancement of antibody-directed enzyme prodrug therapy in colorectal xenografts by an antivascular agent. Cancer Res. (1999) 59:3998-4003.
131. MAYER A, FRANCIS RJ, SHARMA SK et al.: A Phase I study of single administration of antibody-directed enzyme prodrug therapy with the recombinant anti-carcinoembryonic antigen antibody-enzyme fusion protein MFECP1 and a bis-iodo phenol mustard prodrug. Clin. Cancer Res. (2006) 12:6509-6516.
132. SAWADA N, ISHIKAWA T, FUKASE Y, NISHIDA M, YOSHIKUBO T, ISHITSUKA H: Induction of thymidine phosphorylase activity and enhancement of capecitabine efficacy by taxol/taxotere in human cancer xenografts. Clin. Cancer Res. (1998) 4:1013-1019.
133. O'SHAUGHNESSY J, MILES D, VUKELJA S et al.: Superior survival with capecitabine plus docetaxel combination therapy in anthracycline-pretreated patients with advanced breast cancer: Phase III trial results. J. Clin. Oncol. (2002) 20:2812-2823.
134. SAWADA N, ISHIKAWA T, SEKIGUCHI F, TANAKA Y, ISHITSUKA H: X-ray irradiation induces thymidine phosphorylase and enhances the efficacy of capecitabine (Xeloda) in human cancer xenografts. Clin. Cancer Res. (1999) 5:2948-2953.
135. SAIF MW, ELOUBEIDI MA, RUSSO S et al.: Phase I study of capecitabine with concomitant radiotherapy for patients with locally advanced pancreatic cancer expression analysis of genes related to outcome. J. Clin. Oncol. (2005) 23:8679-8687.
136. NGAN SY, MICHAEL M, MACKAY J et al.: A Phase I trial of preoperative radiotherapy and capecitabine for locally advanced, potentially resectable rectal cancer. Br. J. Cancer (2004) 91:1019-1024.
137. RAMASWAMY S, GOLUB TR: DNA microarrays in clinical oncology. J. Clin. Oncol. (2002) 20:1932-1941.
138. CURRAN S, MCKAY JA, MCLEOD HL, MURRAY GI: Laser capture microscopy. Mol. Pathol. (2000) 53:64-68.
139. MOHR S, BOTTIN MC, LANNES B et al.: Microdissection, mRNA amplification and microarray: a study of pleural mesothelial and malignant mesothelioma cells. Biochimie (2004) 86:13-19.
140. EMMERT-BUCK MR, BONNER RF, SMITH PD et al.: Laser capture microdissection. Science (1996) 274:998-1001.
141. MOHR S, LEIKAUF GD, KEITH G, RIHN BH: Microarrays as cancer keys: an array of possibilities. J. Clin. Oncol. (2002) 20:3165-3175.
142. BAO F, POLK P, NORDBERG ML et al.: Comparative gene expression analysis of a chronic myelogenous leukemia cell line resistant to cyclophosphamide using oligonucleotide arrays and response to tyrosine kinase inhibitors. Leuk. Res. (2007) 31(11):1511-1520.
143. MA XJ, PATEL R, WANG X et al.: Molecular classification of human cancers using a 92-gene real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction assay. Arcb. Pathol. Lab. Med. (2006) 130:465-473.
144. HORIGUCHI J, TAKEI H, KOIBUCHI Y et al.: Prognostic significance of dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase expression in breast cancer. Br. J. Cancer (2002) 86:222-225.
145. MARIN A, LOPEZ DE CERAIN A, HAMILTON E et al.: DT-diaphorase and cytochrome B5 reductase in human lung and breast tumours. Br. J. Cancer (1997) 76:923-929.
146. NAKAMURA T, SAKAEDA T, OHMOTO N et al.: Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction for MDR1, MRP1, MRP2, and CYP3A-mRNA levels in Caco-2 cell lines, human duodenal enterocytes, normal colorectal tissues, and colorectal adenocarcinomas. Drug Metab. Dispos. (2002) 30:4-6.
147. AJIKI T, HIRATA K, OKAZAKI T et al.: Thymidylate synthase and dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase expressions in gallbladder cancer. Anticancer Res. (2006) 26:1391-1396.
148. TOUSSAINT C, ALBIN N, MASSAAD L et al.: Main drug- and carcinogen-metabolizing enzyme systems in human non-small cell lung cancer and peritumoral tissues. Cancer Res. (1993) 53:4608-4612.
149. FUJITAKA K, OGURI T, ISOBE T, FUJIWARA Y, KOHNO N: Induction of cytochrome P450 3A4 by docetaxel in peripheral mononuclear cells and its expression in lung cancer. Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol. (2001) 48:42-46.
150. HIGASHIYAMA M, KODAMA K, YOKOUCHI H et al.: Thymidylate synthase and dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase activities in non-small cell lung cancer tissues: relationship with in vitro sensitivity to 5-fluororacil. Lung Cancer (2001) 34:407-416.
151. MUNGIKAR AM, ZINGDE SM, ADVANI SH, GOTHOSKAR BP: Mixed function oxidase enzymes in human normal granulocytes and chronic myeloid leukemia cells. I. Detection and estimation. Biochem. Med. (1983) 30:181-187.
152. NAGAI F, HIYOSHI Y, SUGIMACHI K, TAMURA HO: Cytochrome P450 (CYP) expression in human myeloblastic and lymphoid cell lines. Biol. Pharm. Bull. (2002) 25:383-385.
153. XIE HJ, LUNDGREN S, BROBERG U, FINNSTROM M, RANE A, HASSAN M.: Effect of cyclophosphamide on gene expression of cytochromes p450 and β-actin in the HL-60 cell line. Eur. J. Pharmacol. (2002) 449:197-205.