Lifestyle and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease and Type 2 Diabetes in Women: A Review of the Epidemiologic Evidence

American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine

Volumn 2, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 191-213

  Bassuk, Shari S ^a   Manson, Joann E ^a  

^a BRIGHAM AND WOMEN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

cardiovascular disease; coronary heart disease; dietary factors; obesity; physical activity; smoking; stroke; type 2 diabetes

Indexed keywords

EID: 84990344890     PISSN: 15598276     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1559827608314095     Document Type: Review

References (259)

1. Rosamond W., Flegal K., Friday G., et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics-2007 update: a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation. 2007; 115: e69-e171.
2. Ford ES, Capewell S. Coronary heart disease mortality among young adults in the U.S. from 1980 through 2002: concealed leveling of mortality rates. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007; 50: 2128-2132.
3. Mosca L., Linfante AH, Benjamin EJ, et al. National study of physician awareness and adherence to cardiovascular disease prevention guidelines. Circulation. 2005; 111: 499-510.
4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevalence of diabetes and impaired fasting glucose in adults-United States, 1999-2000. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2003; 52: 833-837.
5. Manson JE, Spelsberg A. Risk modification in the diabetic patient. In: Manson JE, Ridker PM, Gaziano JM, Hennekens CH, eds. Prevention of Myocardial Infarction. New York: Oxford University Press; 1996: 241-273.
6. Mosca L., Banka CL, Benjamin EJ, et al. Evidence-based guidelines for cardiovascular disease prevention in women: 2007 update. Circulation. 2007; 115: 1481-1501.
7. Eyre H., Kahn R., Robertson RM, et al. Preventing cancer, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes: a common agenda for the American Cancer Society, the American Diabetes Association, and the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2004; 109: 3244-3255.
8. Stampfer MJ, Hu FB, Manson JE, Rimm EB, Willett WC Primary prevention of coronary heart disease in women through diet and lifestyle. N Engl J Med. 2000; 343: 16-22.
9. Knoops KT, de Groot LC, Kromhout D., et al. Mediterranean diet, lifestyle factors, and 10-year mortality in elderly European men and women: the HALE project. JAMA. 2004; 292: 1433-1439.
10. Hu FB, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, et al. Diet, lifestyle, and the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in women. N Engl J Med. 2001; 345: 790-797.
11. Hennekens CH Risk factors for coronary heart disease in women. Cardiol Clin. 1998; 16: 1-8.
12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Tobacco use among adults-United States, 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2006; 55: 1145-1148.
13. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Cigarette use among high school students- United States, 1991-2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2006;55: 724-726.
14. Bolego C., Poli A., Paoletti R. Smoking and gender. Cardiovasc Res. 2002; 53: 568-576.
15. Kawachi I., Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, et al. Smoking cessation and time course of decreased risks of coronary heart disease in middle-aged women. Arch Intern Med. 1994; 154: 169-175.
16. Dunn NR, Faragher B., Thorogood M., et al. Risk of myocardial infarction in young female smokers. Heart. 1999; 82: 581-583.
17. Thun MJ, Apicella LF, Henley SJ Smoking vs other risk factors as the cause of smoking-attributable deaths: confounding in the courtroom. JAMA. 2000; 284: 706-712.
18. Evans A., Tolonen H., Hense HW, Ferrario M., Sans S., Kuulasmaa K. Trends in coronary risk factors in the WHO MONICA project. Int J Epidemiol. 2001; 30(suppl 1):S35-S40.
19. Thun MJ, da Costa e Silva VL Introduction and overview of global tobacco surveillance. In: Shafey O, Dolwick S, Guindon GE, eds. Tobacco Control Country Profiles. 2nd ed. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2003:7-12.
20. Teo KK, Ounpuu S., Hawken S., et al. Tobacco use and risk of myocardial infarction in 52 countries in the INTERHEART study: a case-control study. Lancet. 2006; 368: 647-658.
21. Rosenberg L., Kaufman DW, Helmrich SP, Shapiro S. The risk of myocardial infarction after quitting smoking in men under 55 years of age. N Engl J Med. 1985; 313: 1511-1514.
22. Rosenberg L., Palmer JR, Shapiro S. Decline in the risk of myocardial infarction among women who stop smoking. N Engl J Med. 1990; 322: 213-217.
23. Dobson AJ, Alexander HM, Heller RF, Lloyd DM How soon after quitting smoking does risk of heart attack decline ? J Clin Epidemiol. 1991; 44: 1247-1253.
24. Hammond EC, Horn D. Smoking and death rates: report on forty-four months of follow-up of 187,783 men: II. Death rates by cause. JAMA. 1958; 166: 1294-1308.
25. Hammond EC, Garfinkel L. Coronary heart disease, stroke, and aortic aneurysm. Arch Environ Health. 1969; 19: 167-182.
26. Rogot E., Murray JL Smoking and causes of death among U.S. veterans: 16 years of observation. Public Health Rep. 1980; 95: 213-222.
27. Doll R., Peto R. Mortality in relation to smoking: 20 years’ observations on male British doctors. Br Med J. 1976; 2: 1525-1536.
28. US Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Consequences of Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health; 2004.
29. Kawachi I., Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, et al. Smoking cessation and decreased risk of stroke in women. JAMA. 1993; 269: 232-236.
30. Kurth T., Kase CS, Berger K., Gaziano JM, Cook NR, Buring JE Smoking and risk of hemorrhagic stroke in women. Stroke. 2003; 34: 2792-2795.
31. Wannamethee SG, Shaper AG, Whincup PH, Walker M. Smoking cessation and the risk of stroke in middle-aged men. JAMA. 1995; 274: 155-160.
32. Gill JS, Shipley MJ, Tsementzis SA, et al. Cigarette smoking: a risk factor for hemorrhagic and nonhemorrhagic stroke. Arch Intern Med. 1989; 149: 2053-2057.
33. Juvela S., Poussa K., Porras M. Factors affecting formation and growth of intracranial aneurysms: a long-term follow-up study. Stroke. 2001; 32: 485-491.
34. Kubota K., Yamaguchi T., Abe Y., Fujiwara T., Hatazawa J., Matsuzawa T. Effects of smoking on regional cerebral blood flow in neurologically normal subjects. Stroke. 1983; 14: 720-724.
35. Whelton PK, He J., Appel LJ, et al. Primary prevention of hypertension: clinical and public health advisory from the National High Blood Pressure Education Program. JAMA. 2002; 288: 1882-1888.
36. Bowman TS, Gaziano JM, Buring JE, Sesso HD A prospective study of cigarette smoking and risk of incident hypertension in women. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007; 50: 2085-2092.
37. Green MS, Jucha E., Luz Y. Blood pressure in smokers and nonsmokers: epidemiologic findings. Am Heart J. 1986; 111: 932-940.
38. Lee DH, Ha MH, Kim JR, Jacobs DR Jr. Effects of smoking cessation on changes in blood pressure and incidence of hypertension: a 4-year follow-up study. Hypertension. 2001; 37: 194-198.
39. Will JC, Galuska DA, Ford ES, Mokdad A., Calle EE Cigarette smoking and diabetes mellitus: evidence of a positive association from a large prospective cohort study. Int J Epidemiol. 2001; 30: 540-546.
40. Manson JE, Ajani UA, Liu S., Nathan DM, Hennekens CH A prospective study of cigarette smoking and the incidence of diabetes mellitus among US male physicians. Am J Med. 2000; 109: 538-542.
41. Rimm EB, Chan J., Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC Prospective study of cigarette smoking, alcohol use, and the risk of diabetes in men. BMJ. 1995; 310: 555-559.
42. Wannamethee SG, Shaper AG, Perry IJ Smoking as a modifiable risk factor for type 2 diabetes in middle-aged men. Diabetes Care. 2001; 24: 1590-1595.
43. Kawakami N., Takatsuka N., Shimizu H., Ishibashi H. Effects of smoking on the incidence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: replication and extension in a Japanese cohort of male employees. Am J Epidemiol. 1997; 145: 103-109.
44. Barnoya J., Glantz SA Cardiovascular effects of secondhand smoke: nearly as large as smoking. Circulation. 2005; 111: 2684-2698.
45. US Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Consequences of Involuntary Exposure to Tobacco Smoke: A Report of the Surgeon General. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Coordinating Center for Health Promotion, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health; 2006.
46. Kawachi I., Colditz GA, Speizer FE, et al. A prospective study of passive smoking and coronary heart disease. Circulation. 1997; 95: 2374-2379.
47. Hedley AA, Ogden CL, Johnson CL, Carroll MD, Curtin LR, Flegal KM Prevalence of overweight and obesity among US children, adolescents, and adults, 1999-2002. JAMA. 2004; 291: 2847-2850.
48. Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Curtin LR, McDowell MA, Tabak CJ, Flegal KM Prevalence of overweight and obesity in the United States, 1999-2004. JAMA. 2006; 295: 1549-1555.
49. Ogden CL, Carroll MD, McDowell MA, Flegal KM Obesity Among Adults in the United States-No Change Since 2003-2004. NCHS Data Brief No. 1. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics; 2007.
50. Poirier P., Giles TD, Bray GA, et al. Obesity and cardiovascular disease: pathophysiology, evaluation, and effect of weight loss: an update of the 1997 American Heart Association Scientific Statement on Obesity and Heart Disease from the Obesity Committee of the Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism. Circulation. 2006; 113: 898-918.
51. Goldstein LB, Adams R., Alberts MJ, et al. Primary prevention of ischemic stroke: a guideline from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council: cosponsored by the Atherosclerotic Peripheral Vascular Disease Interdisciplinary Working Group; Cardiovascular Nursing Council; Clinical Cardiology Council; Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism Council; and the Quality of Care and Outcomes Research Interdisciplinary Working Group. Circulation. 2006; 113: e873-e923.
52. Grundy SM What is the contribution of obesity to the metabolic syndrome? Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2004; 33: 267-282.
53. Rajala MW, Scherer PE Minireview: the adipocyte-at the crossroads of energy homeostasis, inflammation, and atherosclerosis. Endocrinology. 2003; 144: 3765-3773.
54. Graham TE, Yang Q., Bluher M., et al. Retinol-binding protein 4 and insulin resistance in lean, obese, and diabetic subjects. N Engl J Med. 2006; 354: 2552-2563.
55. Huang Z., Willett WC, Manson JE, et al. Body weight, weight change, and risk for hypertension in women. Ann Intern Med. 1998; 128(2):81-88.
56. Ashton WD, Nanchahal K., Wood DA Body mass index and metabolic risk factors for coronary heart disease in women. Eur Heart J. 2001; 22: 46-55.
57. Garrison RJ, Kannel WB A new approach for estimating healthy body weights. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1993;17: 417-423.
58. Willett WC, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, et al. Weight, weight change, and coronary heart disease in women: risk within the ‘normal’ weight range. JAMA. 1995; 273: 461-465.
59. Despres JP, Lemieux I. Abdominal obesity and metabolic syndrome. Nature. 2006; 444: 881-887.
60. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults: The Evidence Report. NIH Pub. No. 98-4083. Washington, DC: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; 1998.
61. Rexrode KM, Carey VJ, Hennekens CH, et al. Abdominal adiposity and coronary heart disease in women. JAMA. 1998; 280: 1843-1848.
62. Zhang X., Shu XO, Yang G., et al. Abdominal adiposity and mortality in Chinese women. Arch Intern Med. 2007; 167: 886-892.
63. Yusuf S., Hawken S., Ounpuu S., et al. Obesity and the risk of myocardial infarction in 27,000 participants from 52 countries: a case-control study. Lancet. 2005; 366: 1640-1649.
64. Stefanick ML Physical activity and weight loss. In: Manson JE, Buring JE, Ridker PM, Gaziano JM, eds. Clinical Trials in Heart Disease: A Companion Guide to Braunwald's Heart Disease. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders; 2004: 315-332.
65. Neter JE, Stam BE, Kok FJ, Grobbee DE, Geleijnse JM Influence of weight reduction on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Hypertension. 2003; 42: 878-884.
66. Esposito K., Pontillo A., Di Palo C., et al. Effect of weight loss and lifestyle changes on vascular inflammatory markers in obese women: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2003; 289: 1799-1804.
67. Tchernof A., Nolan A., Sites CK, Ades PA, Poehlman ET Weight loss reduces C-reactive protein levels in obese postmenopausal women. Circulation. 2002; 105: 564-569.
68. Van Gaal LF, Wauters MA, De Leeuw IH The beneficial effects of modest weight loss on cardiovascular risk factors. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1997; 21(suppl 1): S5-S9.
69. Wilson PW, Kannel WB, Silbershatz H., D'Agostino RB Clustering of metabolic factors and coronary heart disease. Arch Intern Med. 1999; 159: 1104-1109.
70. Sjostrom L., Lindroos AK, Peltonen M., et al. Lifestyle, diabetes, and cardiovascular risk factors 10 years after bariatric surgery. N Engl J Med. 2004; 351: 2683-2693.
71. Sjostrom L., Narbro K., Sjostrom CD, et al. Effects of bariatric surgery on mortality in Swedish obese subjects. N Engl J Med. 2007;357: 741-752.
72. Eilat-Adar S., Eldar M., Goldbourt U. Association of intentional changes in body weight with coronary heart disease event rates in overweight subjects who have an additional coronary risk factor. Am J Epidemiol. 2005; 161: 352-358.
73. Song YM, Sung J., Davey Smith G., Ebrahim S. Body mass index and ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke: a prospective study in Korean men. Stroke. 2004; 35: 831-836.
74. Rexrode KM, Hennekens CH, Willett WC, et al. A prospective study of body mass index, weight change, and risk of stroke in women. JAMA. 1997; 277: 1539-1545.
75. Kurth T., Gaziano JM, Rexrode KM, et al. Prospective study of body mass index and risk of stroke in apparently healthy women. Circulation. 2005; 111: 1992-1998.
76. Kurth T., Gaziano JM, Berger K., et al. Body mass index and the risk of stroke in men. Arch Intern Med. 2002; 162: 2557-2562.
77. Mokdad AH, Ford ES, Bowman BA, et al. Prevalence of obesity, diabetes, and obesity-related health risk factors, 2001. JAMA. 2003; 289: 76-79.
78. Field AE, Coakley EH, Must A., et al. Impact of overweight on the risk of developing common chronic diseases during a 10-year period. Arch Intern Med. 2001; 161: 1581-1586.
79. Ford ES, Williamson DF, Liu S. Weight change and diabetes incidence: findings from a national cohort of US adults. Am J Epidemiol. 1997; 146: 214-222.
80. Colditz GA, Willett WC, Rotnitzky A., Manson JE Weight gain as a risk factor for clinical diabetes mellitus in women. Ann Intern Med. 1995; 122: 481-486.
81. Pan XR, Li GW, Hu YH, et al. Effects of diet and exercise in preventing NIDDM in people with impaired glucose tolerance. The Da Qing IGT and Diabetes Study. Diabetes Care. 1997; 20: 537-544.
82. Tuomilehto J., Lindstrom J., Eriksson JG, et al. Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med. 2001; 344: 1343-1350.
83. Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E., Fowler SE, et al. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med. 2002;346: 393-403.
84. Ramachandran A., Snehalatha C., Mary S., Mukesh B., Bhaskar AD, Vijay V. The Indian Diabetes Prevention Programme shows that lifestyle modification and metformin prevent type 2 diabetes in Asian Indian subjects with impaired glucose tolerance (IDPP-1). Diabetologia. 2006; 49: 289-297.
85. Gillies CL, Abrams KR, Lambert PC, et al. Pharmacological and lifestyle interventions to prevent or delay type 2 diabetes in people with impaired glucose tolerance: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2007; 334: 299.
86. Ryan DH, Espeland MA, Foster GD, et al. Look AHEAD (Action for Health in Diabetes): design and methods for a clinical trial of weight loss for the prevention of cardiovascular disease in type 2 diabetes. Control Clin Trials. 2003;24: 610-628.
87. US Department of Health and Human Services. Physical Activity and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: US Dept of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion; 1996.
88. Haskell WL, Lee IM, Pate RR, et al. Physical activity and public health: updated recommendation for adults from the American College of Sports Medicine and the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2007; 116: 1081-1093.
89. Barnes PM Physical activity among adults: United States, 2000 and 2005. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/hestats/physicalactivity/physicalactivity.htm. Accessed November 20, 2007.
90. Manson JE, Greenland P., LaCroix AZ, et al. Walking compared with vigorous exercise for the prevention of cardiovascular events in women. N Engl J Med. 2002; 347: 716-725.
91. Manson JE, Hu FB, Rich-Edwards JW, et al. A prospective study of walking as compared with vigorous exercise in the prevention of coronary heart disease in women. N Engl J Med. 1999; 341: 650-658.
92. Lee IM, Rexrode KM, Cook NR, Manson JE, Buring JE Physical activity and coronary heart disease in women: is “no pain, no gain” passé? JAMA. 2001; 285: 1447-1454.
93. Sesso HD, Paffenbarger RS, Ha T., Lee IM Physical activity and cardiovascular disease risk in middle-aged and older women. Am J Epidemiol. 1999; 150: 408-416.
94. Gregg EW, Cauley JA, Stone K., et al. Relationship of changes in physical activity and mortality among older women. JAMA. 2003; 289: 2379-2386.
95. Tanasescu M., Leitzmann MF, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Hu FB Exercise type and intensity in relation to coronary heart disease in men. JAMA. 2002; 288: 1994-2000.
96. Bijnen FC, Caspersen CJ, Feskens EJ, Saris WH, Mosterd WL, Kromhout D. Physical activity and 10-year mortality from cardiovascular diseases and all causes: the Zutphen Elderly Study. Arch Intern Med. 1998; 158: 1499-1505.
97. Yu S., Yarnell JW, Sweetnam PM, Murray L. What level of physical activity protects against premature cardiovascular death? The Caerphilly study. Heart. 2003; 89: 502-506.
98. Lee IM No pain, no gain? Thoughts on the Caerphilly study. Br J Sports Med. 2004; 38: 4-5.
99. Wannamethee SG, Shaper AG, Walker M. Changes in physical activity, mortality, and incidence of coronary heart disease in older men. Lancet. 1998; 351: 1603-1608.
100. Jakicic JM, Wing RR, Butler BA, Robertson RJ Prescribing exercise in multiple short bouts versus one continuous bout: effects on adherence, cardiorespiratory fitness, and weight loss in overweight women. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1995; 19: 893-901.
101. Murphy M., Nevill A., Neville C., Biddle S., Hardman A. Accumulating brisk walking for fitness, cardiovascular risk, and psychological health. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2002; 34: 1468-1474.
102. Lee IM, Sesso HD, Paffenbarger RS Jr. Physical activity and coronary heart disease risk in men: does the duration of exercise episodes predict risk? Circulation. 2000; 102: 981-986.
103. Williams MA, Haskell WL, Ades PA, et al. Resistance exercise in individuals with and without cardiovascular disease: 2007 update: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Council on Clinical Cardiology and Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism. Circulation. 2007; 116: 572-584.
104. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Trends in strength training- United States, 1998-2004. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2006; 55: 769-772.
105. American College of Sports Medicine. ASCM's Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Preparation. 7th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2006.
106. Mora S., Redberg RF, Cui Y., et al. Ability of exercise testing to predict cardiovascular and all-cause death in asymptomatic women: a 20-year follow-up of the lipid research clinics prevalence study. JAMA. 2003; 290: 1600-1607.
107. Lee CD, Folsom AR, Blair SN Physical activity and stroke risk: a meta-analysis. Stroke. 2003;34: 2475-2481.
108. Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, et al. Physical activity and risk of stroke in women. JAMA. 2000; 283: 2961-2967.
109. Hu FB, Sigal RJ, Rich-Edwards JW, et al. Walking compared with vigorous physical activity and risk of type 2 diabetes in women: a prospective study. JAMA. 1999; 282: 1433-1439.
110. Weinstein AR, Sesso HD, Lee IM, et al. Relationship of physical activity vs body mass index with type 2 diabetes in women. JAMA. 2004; 292: 1188-1194.
111. Folsom AR, Kushi LH, Hong CP Physical activity and incident diabetes mellitus in postmenopausal women. Am J Public Health. 2000; 90: 134-138.
112. Hu G., Qiao Q., Silventoinen K., et al. Occupational, commuting, and leisure-time physical activity in relation to risk for type 2 diabetes in middle-aged Finnish men and women. Diabetologia. 2003; 46: 322-329.
113. Li TY, Rana JS, Manson JE, et al. Obesity as compared with physical activity in predicting risk of coronary heart disease in women. Circulation. 2006; 113: 499-506.
114. Rana JS, Li TY, Manson JE, Hu FB Adiposity compared with physical inactivity and risk of type 2 diabetes in women. Diabetes Care. 2007; 30: 53-58.
115. Bassuk SS, Manson JE Epidemiological evidence for the role of physical activity in reducing risk of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. J Appl Physiol. 2005; 99: 1193-1204.
116. Mora S., Cook N., Buring JE, Ridker PM, Lee IM Physical activity and reduced risk of cardiovascular events: potential mediating mechanisms. Circulation. 2007; 116: 2110-2118.
117. Sigal RJ, Kenny GP, Boule NG, et al. Effects of aerobic training, resistance training, or both on glycemic control in type 2 diabetes: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2007; 147: 357-369.
118. Appel LJ, Moore TJ, Obarzanek E., et al. A clinical trial of the effects of dietary patterns on blood pressure. DASH Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med. 1997; 336: 1117-1124.
119. Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Vollmer WM, et al. Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med. 2001; 344: 3-10.
120. Esposito K., Marfella R., Ciotola M., et al. Effect of a Mediterranean-style diet on endothelial dysfunction and markers of vascular inflammation in the metabolic syndrome: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2004; 292: 1440-1446.
121. Appel LJ, Sacks FM, Carey VJ, et al. Effects of protein, monounsaturated fat, and carbohydrate intake on blood pressure and serum lipids: results of the OmniHeart randomized trial. JAMA. 2005; 294: 2455-2464.
122. Estruch R., Martinez-Gonzalez MA, Corella D., et al. Effects of a Mediterranean-style diet on cardiovascular risk factors: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2006; 145: 1-11.
123. Jenkins DJ, Kendall CW, Faulkner DA, et al. Assessment of the longer-term effects of a dietary portfolio of cholesterol-lowering foods in hypercholesterolemia. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006; 83: 582-591.
124. Jenkins DJ, Kendall CW, Faulkner DA, et al. Long-term effects of a plant-based dietary portfolio of cholesterol-lowering foods on blood pressure [published online ahead of print April 25, 2007]. Eur J Clin Nutr. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602768
125. de Lorgeril M., Salen P., Martin JL, Monjaud I., Delaye J., Mamelle N. Mediterranean diet, traditional risk factors, and the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial infarction: final report of the Lyon Diet Heart Study. Circulation. 1999; 99: 779-785.
126. Singh RB, Dubnov G., Niaz MA, et al. Effect of an Indo-Mediterranean diet on progression of coronary artery disease in high risk patients (Indo-Mediterranean Diet Heart Study): a randomised single-blind trial. Lancet. 2002;360: 1455-1461.
127. Trichopoulou A., Costacou T., Bamia C., Trichopoulos D. Adherence to a Mediterranean diet and survival in a Greek population. N Engl J Med. 2003; 348: 2599-2608.
128. Fung TT, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, Hu FB Dietary patterns and the risk of coronary heart disease in women. Arch Intern Med. 2001; 161: 1857-1862.
129. Fung TT, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, Rexrode KM, Willett WC, Hu FB Prospective study of major dietary patterns and stroke risk in women. Stroke. 2004; 35: 2014-2019.
130. McCullough ML, Feskanich D., Stampfer MJ, et al. Diet quality and major chronic disease risk in men and women: moving toward improved dietary guidance. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002; 76: 1261-1271.
131. Hu FB, Willett WC Optimal diets for prevention of coronary heart disease. JAMA. 2002; 288: 2569-2578.
132. Fung TT, Schulze M., Manson JE, Willett WC, Hu FB Dietary patterns, meat intake, and the risk of type 2 diabetes in women. Arch Intern Med. 2004; 164: 2235-2240.
133. Fung TT, McCullough M., van Dam RM, Hu FB A prospective study of overall diet quality and risk of type 2 diabetes in women. Diabetes Care. 2007; 30: 1753-1757.
134. Trichopoulou A., Orfanos P., Norat T., et al. Modified Mediterranean diet and survival: EPIC-elderly prospective cohort study. BMJ. 2005; 330: 991.
135. US Department of Health and Human Services. Healthy People 2010. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services; 2000.
136. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Fruit and vegetable consumption among adults-United States, 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2007; 56: 213-217.
137. He FJ, Nowson CA, Lucas M., MacGregor GA Increased consumption of fruit and vegetables is related to a reduced risk of coronary heart disease: meta-analysis of cohort studies. J Hum Hypertens. 2007; 21: 717-728.
138. He FJ, Nowson CA, MacGregor GA Fruit and vegetable consumption and stroke: meta-analysis of cohort studies. Lancet. 2006; 367: 320-326.
139. Joshipura KJ, Hu FB, Manson JE, et al. The effect of fruit and vegetable intake on risk for coronary heart disease. Ann Intern Med. 2001; 134: 1106-1114.
140. Liu S., Manson JE, Lee IM, et al. Fruit and vegetable intake and risk of cardiovascular disease: the Women's Health Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000; 72: 922-928.
141. Joshipura KJ, Ascherio A., Manson JE, et al. Fruit and vegetable intake in relation to risk of ischemic stroke. JAMA. 1999; 282: 1233-1239.
142. Liu S., Serdula M., Janket SJ, et al. A prospective study of fruit and vegetable intake and the risk of type 2 diabetes in women. Diabetes Care. 2004; 27: 2993-2996.
143. Foster-Powell K., Holt SH, Brand-Miller JC International table of glycemic index and glycemic load values: 2002. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002; 76: 5-56.
144. Liu S., Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, et al. A prospective study of dietary glycemic load, carbohydrate intake, and risk of coronary heart disease in US women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000; 71: 1455-1461.
145. Oh K., Hu FB, Cho E., et al. Carbohydrate intake, glycemic index, glycemic load, and dietary fiber in relation to risk of stroke in women. Am J Epidemiol. 2005; 161: 161-169.
146. Jeppesen J., Schaaf P., Jones C., Zhou MY, Chen YD, Reaven GM Effects of low-fat, high-carbohydrate diets on risk factors for ischemic heart disease in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997; 65: 1027-1033.
147. Salmeron J., Ascherio A., Rimm EB, et al. Dietary fiber, glycemic load, and risk of NIDDM in men. Diabetes Care. 1997; 20: 545-550.
148. Salmeron J., Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Wing AL, Willett WC Dietary fiber, glycemic load, and risk of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in women. JAMA. 1997; 277: 472-477.
149. Schulze MB, Liu S., Rimm EB, Manson JE, Willett WC, Hu FB Glycemic index, glycemic load, and dietary fiber intake and incidence of type 2 diabetes in younger and middle-aged women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;80: 348-356.
150. Krishnan S., Rosenberg L., Singer M., et al. Glycemic index, glycemic load, and cereal fiber intake and risk of type 2 diabetes in US black women. Arch Intern Med. 2007; 167: 2304-2309.
151. Villegas R., Liu S., Gao YT, et al. Prospective study of dietary carbohydrates, glycemic index, glycemic load, and incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus in middle-aged Chinese women. Arch Intern Med. 2007; 167: 2310-2316.
152. Meyer KA, Kushi LH, Jacobs DR Jr, Slavin J., Sellers TA, Folsom AR Carbohydrates, dietary fiber, and incident type 2 diabetes in older women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000; 71: 921-930.
153. Stevens J., Ahn K., Juhaeri, Houston D., Steffan L., Couper D. Dietary fiber intake and glycemic index and incidence of diabetes in African-American and white adults: the ARIC study. Diabetes Care. 2002; 25: 1715-1721.
154. Jacobs DR Jr, Meyer KA, Kushi LH, Folsom AR Whole-grain intake may reduce the risk of ischemic heart disease death in postmenopausal women: the Iowa Women's Health Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 1998; 68: 248-257.
155. Liu S., Stampfer MJ, Hu FB, et al. Whole-grain consumption and risk of coronary heart disease: results from the Nurses’ Health Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999; 70: 412-419.
156. Liu S., Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, et al. Whole grain consumption and risk of ischemic stroke in women: a prospective study. JAMA. 2000; 284: 1534-1540.
157. Pereira MA, O'Reilly E., Augustsson K., et al. Dietary fiber and risk of coronary heart disease: a pooled analysis of cohort studies. Arch Intern Med. 2004; 164: 370-376.
158. Fung TT, Hu FB, Pereira MA, et al. Whole-grain intake and the risk of type 2 diabetes: a prospective study in men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002; 76: 535-540.
159. Liu S., Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, et al. A prospective study of whole-grain intake and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in US women. Am J Public Health. 2000; 90: 1409-1415.
160. Montonen J., Knekt P., Jarvinen R., Aromaa A., Reunanen A. Whole-grain and fiber intake and the incidence of type 2 diabetes. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003; 77: 622-629.
161. Schulze MB, Schulz M., Heidemann C., Schienkiewitz A., Hoffmann K., Boeing H. Fiber and magnesium intake and incidence of type 2 diabetes: a prospective study and meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med. 2007; 167: 956-965.
162. Chandalia M., Garg A., Lutjohann D., von Bergmann K., Grundy SM, Brinkley LJ Beneficial effects of high dietary fiber intake in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 2000; 342: 1392-1398.
163. Fukagawa NK, Anderson JW, Hageman G., Young VR, Minaker KL High-carbohydrate, high-fiber diets increase peripheral insulin sensitivity in healthy young and old adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 1990; 52: 524-528.
164. Pereira MA, Jacobs DR Jr, Pins JJ, et al. Effect of whole grains on insulin sensitivity in overweight hyperinsulinemic adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002; 75: 848-855.
165. Whelton SP, Hyre AD, Pedersen B., Yi Y., Whelton PK, He J. Effect of dietary fiber intake on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized, controlled clinical trials. J Hypertens. 2005; 23: 475-481.
166. Brown L., Rosner B., Willett WW, Sacks FM Cholesterol-lowering effects of dietary fiber: a meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999; 69: 30-42.
167. Katz DL, Nawaz H., Boukhalil J., et al. Effects of oat and wheat cereals on endothelial responses. Prev Med. 2001; 33: 476-484.
168. Block G. Foods contributing to energy intake in the US: data from NHANES III and NHANES 1999-2000. J Food Composit Anal. 2004; 17: 439-447.
169. Malik VS, Schulze MB, Hu FB Intake of sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain: a systematic review. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006; 84: 274-288.
170. Schulze MB, Manson JE, Ludwig DS, et al. Sugar-sweetened beverages, weight gain, and incidence of type 2 diabetes in young and middle-aged women. JAMA. 2004; 292: 927-934.
171. Duffey KJ, Popkin BM Adults with healthier dietary patterns have healthier beverage patterns. J Nutr. 2006; 136: 2901-2907.
172. Apovian CM Sugar-sweetened soft drinks, obesity, and type 2 diabetes. JAMA. 2004; 292: 978-979.
173. Hu FB, Manson JE, Willett WC Types of dietary fat and risk of coronary heart disease: a critical review. J Am Coll Nutr. 2001; 20: 5-19.
174. He K., Xu Y., Van Horn L. The puzzle of dietary fat intake and risk of ischemic stroke: a brief review of epidemiologic data. J Am Diet Assoc. 2007;107: 287-295.
175. Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, et al. Dietary fat intake and the risk of coronary heart disease in women. N Engl J Med. 1997; 337: 1491-1499.
176. Oh K., Hu FB, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC Dietary fat intake and risk of coronary heart disease in women: 20 years of follow-up of the Nurses’ Health Study. Am J Epidemiol. 2005; 161: 672-679.
177. Summers LK, Fielding BA, Bradshaw HA, et al. Substituting dietary saturated fat with polyunsaturated fat changes abdominal fat distribution and improves insulin sensitivity. Diabetologia. 2002; 45: 369-377.
178. Vessby B., Unsitupa M., Hermansen K., et al. Substituting dietary saturated for monounsaturated fat impairs insulin sensitivity in healthy men and women: the KANWU study. Diabetologia. 2001; 44: 312-319.
179. Lovejoy JC, Smith SR, Champagne CM, et al. Effects of diets enriched in saturated (palmitic), monounsaturated (oleic), or trans (elaidic) fatty acids on insulin sensitivity and substrate oxidation in healthy adults. Diabetes Care. 2002; 25: 1283-1288.
180. Meyer KA, Kushi LH, Jacobs DR Jr, Folsom AR Dietary fat and incidence of type 2 diabetes in older Iowa women. Diabetes Care. 2001; 24: 1528-1535.
181. Salmeron J., Hu FB, Manson JE, et al. Dietary fat intake and risk of type 2 diabetes in women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001; 73: 1019-1026.
182. van Dam RM, Willett WC, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Hu FB Dietary fat and meat intake in relation to risk of type 2 diabetes in men. Diabetes Care. 2002; 25: 417-424.
183. Howard BV, Van Horn L., Hsia J., et al. Low-fat dietary pattern and risk of cardiovascular disease: the Women's Health Initiative Randomized Controlled Dietary Modification Trial. JAMA. 2006; 295: 655-666.
184. Allison DB, Egan SK, Barraj LM, Caughman C., Infante M., Heimbach JT Estimated intakes of trans fatty and other fatty acids in the US population. J Am Diet Assoc. 1999; 99: 166-174.
185. Mozaffarian D., Katan MB, Ascherio A., Stampfer MJ, Willett WC Trans fatty acids and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 2006; 354: 1601-1613.
186. Mauger JF, Lichtenstein AH, Ausman LM, et al. Effect of different forms of dietary hydrogenated fats on LDL particle size. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003; 78: 370-375.
187. de Roos NM, Bots ML, Katan MB Replacement of dietary saturated fatty acids by trans fatty acids lowers serum HDL cholesterol and impairs endothelial function in healthy men and women. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2001; 21: 1233-1237.
188. Sun Q., Ma J., Campos H., et al. A prospective study of trans fatty acids in erythrocytes and risk of coronary heart disease. Circulation. 2007; 115: 1858-1865.
189. van Dam RM, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Hu FB Dietary patterns and risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus in U.S. men Ann Intern Med. 2002; 136: 201-209.
190. He K., Song Y., Daviglus ML, et al. Accumulated evidence on fish consumption and coronary heart disease mortality: a meta-analysis of cohort studies. Circulation. 2004; 109: 2705-2711.
191. He K., Song Y., Daviglus ML, et al. Fish consumption and incidence of stroke: a meta-analysis of cohort studies. Stroke. 2004; 35: 1538-1542.
192. Yokoyama M., Origasa H., Matsuzaki M., et al. Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid on major coronary events in hypercholesterolaemic patients (JELIS): a randomised open-label, blinded endpoint analysis. Lancet. 2007; 369: 1090-1098.
193. GISSI-Prevenzione Investigators (Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell'Infarto miocardico). Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell'Infarto miocardico. Lancet. 1999; 354: 447-455.
194. Dickinson BD, Havas S. Reducing the population burden of cardiovascular disease by reducing sodium intake: a report of the Council on Science and Public Health. Arch Intern Med. 2007; 167: 1460-1468.
195. He FJ, MacGregor GA Effect of modest salt reduction on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized trials: implications for public health. J Hum Hypertens. 2002; 16: 761-770.
196. He FJ, Markandu ND, MacGregor GA Modest salt reduction lowers blood pressure in isolated systolic hypertension and combined hypertension. Hypertension. 2005;46: 66-70.
197. Cohen HW, Hailpern SM, Fang J., Alderman MH Sodium intake and mortality in the NHANES II follow-up study. Am J Med. 2006; 119: e7-e14.
198. Tunstall-Pedoe H., Woodward M., Tavendale R., A'Brook R., McCluskey MK Comparison of the prediction by 27 different factors of coronary heart disease and death in men and women of the Scottish Heart Health Study: cohort study. BMJ. 1997;315: 722-729.
199. Tuomilehto J., Jousilahti P., Rastenyte D., et al. Urinary sodium excretion and cardiovascular mortality in Finland: a prospective study. Lancet. 2001; 357: 848-851.
200. He J., Ogden LG, Vupputuri S., Bazzano LA, Loria C., Whelton PK Dietary sodium intake and subsequent risk of cardiovascular disease in overweight adults. JAMA. 1999; 282: 2027-2034.
201. Nagata C., Takatsuka N., Shimizu N., Shimizu H. Sodium intake and risk of death from stroke in Japanese men and women. Stroke. 2004; 35: 1543-1547.
202. Cook NR, Cutler JA, Obarzanek E., et al. Long term effects of dietary sodium reduction on cardiovascular disease outcomes: observational follow-up of the trials of hypertension prevention (TOHP). BMJ. 2007; 334: 885.
203. Lichtenstein AH, Appel LJ, Brands M., et al. Diet and lifestyle recommendations revision 2006: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Nutrition Committee. Circulation. 2006; 114: 82-96.
204. US Department of Agriculture and US Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2005. 6th ed. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office; 2005.
205. Briefel RR, Johnson CL Secular trends in dietary intake in the United States. Annu Rev Nutr. 2004; 24: 401-431.
206. Di Castelnuovo A., Rotondo S., Iacoviello L., Donati MB, De Gaetano G. Meta-analysis of wine and beer consumption in relation to vascular risk. Circulation. 2002; 105: 2836-2844.
207. Reynolds K., Lewis B., Nolen JD, Kinney GL, Sathya B., He J. Alcohol consumption and risk of stroke: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2003; 289: 579-588.
208. Koppes LL, Dekker JM, Hendriks HF, Bouter LM, Heine RJ Moderate alcohol consumption lowers the risk of type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis of prospective observational studies. Diabetes Care. 2005; 28: 719-725.
209. Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Speizer FE, Hennekens CH A prospective study of moderate alcohol consumption and the risk of coronary disease and stroke in women. N Engl J Med. 1988; 319: 267-273.
210. Rosenberg L., Slone D., Shapiro S., Kaufman DW, Miettinen OS, Stolley PD Alcoholic beverages and myocardial infarction in young women. Am J Public Health. 1981; 71: 82-85.
211. Gordon T., Kannel WB Drinking habits and cardiovascular disease: the Framingham Study. Am Heart J. 1983; 105: 667-673.
212. Scragg R., Stewart A., Jackson R., Beaglehole R. Alcohol and exercise in myocardial infarction and sudden coronary death in men and women. Am J Epidemiol. 1987;126: 77-85.
213. Rehm JT, Bondy SJ, Sempos CT, Vuong CV Alcohol consumption and coronary heart disease morbidity and mortality. Am J Epidemiol. 1997; 146: 495-501.
214. Thun MJ, Peto R., Lopez AD, et al. Alcohol consumption and mortality among middle-aged and elderly U.S. adults N Engl J Med. 1997; 337: 1705-1714.
215. Yusuf S., Hawken S., Ounpuu S., et al. Effect of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with myocardial infarction in 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study. Lancet. 2004; 364: 937-952.
216. Mukamal KJ, Jensen MK, Gronbaek M., et al. Drinking frequency, mediating bio-markers, and risk of myocardial infarction in women and men. Circulation. 2005; 112: 1406-1413.
217. Kao WH, Puddey IB, Boland LL, Watson RL, Brancati FL Alcohol consumption and the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Am J Epidemiol. 2001; 154: 748-757.
218. Meisinger C., Thorand B., Schneider A., Stieber J., Doring A., Lowel H. Sex differences in risk factors for incident type 2 diabetes mellitus: the MONICA Augsburg cohort study. Arch Intern Med. 2002; 162: 82-89.
219. Carlsson S., Hammar N., Grill V., Kaprio J. Alcohol consumption and the incidence of type 2 diabetes: a 20-year follow-up of the Finnish twin cohort study. Diabetes Care. 2003; 26: 2785-2790.
220. Sesso HD, Gaziano JM Alcohol intake and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 1999; 8: 353-357.
221. Dimmitt SB, Rakic V., Puddey IB, et al. The effects of alcohol on coagulation and fibrinolytic factors: a controlled trial. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. 1998; 9: 39-45.
222. Ridker PM, Vaughan DE, Stampfer MJ, Glynn RJ, Hennekens CH Association of moderate alcohol consumption and plasma concentration of endogenous tissue-type plasminogen activator. JAMA. 1994;272: 929-933.
223. Rimm EB, Williams P., Fosher K., Criqui M., Stampfer MJ Moderate alcohol intake and lower risk of coronary heart disease: meta-analysis of effects on lipids and haemostatic factors. BMJ. 1999; 319: 1523-1528.
224. Mukamal KJ, Massaro JM, Ault KA, et al. Alcohol consumption and platelet activation and aggregation among women and men: the Framingham Offspring Study. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2005;29: 1906-1912.
225. Davies MJ, Baer DJ, Judd JT, Brown ED, Campbell WS, Taylor PR Effects of moderate alcohol intake on fasting insulin and glucose concentrations and insulin sensitivity in postmenopausal women: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2002; 287: 2559-2562.
226. Singletary KW, Gapstur SM Alcohol and breast cancer: review of epidemiologic and experimental evidence and potential mechanisms. JAMA. 2001; 286: 2143-2151.
227. Cho E., Smith-Warner SA, Ritz J., et al. Alcohol intake and colorectal cancer: a pooled analysis of 8 cohort studies. Ann Intern Med. 2004; 140: 603-613.
228. Layke JC, Lopez PP Esophageal cancer: a review and update. Am Fam Physician. 2006; 73: 2187-2194.
229. Sherlock S. Alcoholic liver disease. Lancet. 1995; 345: 227-229.
230. Urbano-Marquez A., Estruch R., Fernandez-Sola J., Nicolas JM, Pare JC, Rubin E. The greater risk of alcoholic cardiomyopathy and myopathy in women compared with men. JAMA. 1995; 274: 149-154.
231. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Alcohol Alert No. 46: Are Women More Vulnerable to Alcohol's Effects? Rockville, MD: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism; 1999.
232. Kris-Etherton PM, Lichtenstein AH, Howard BV, Steinberg D., Witztum JL Antioxidant vitamin supplements and cardiovascular disease. Circulation. 2004; 110: 637-641.
233. Lee IM, Cook NR, Gaziano JM, et al. Vitamin E in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer: the Women's Health Study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2005; 294: 56-65.
234. Cook NR, Albert CM, Gaziano JM, et al. A randomized factorial trial of vitamins C and E and beta carotene in the secondary prevention of cardiovascular events in women: results from the Women's Antioxidant Cardiovascular Study. Arch Intern Med. 2007; 167: 1610-1618.
235. Liu S., Lee IM, Song Y., et al. Vitamin E and risk of type 2 diabetes in the Women's Health Study randomized controlled trial. Diabetes. 2006; 55: 2856-2862.
236. Bazzano LA, Reynolds K., Holder KN, He J. Effect of folic acid supplementation on risk of cardiovascular diseases: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. JAMA. 2006; 296: 2720-2726.
237. Albert CM, Cook NR, Gaziano JM, et al. A randomized trial of folic acid and B-vitamins in the secondary prevention of cardiovascular events in women: results from the Women's Antioxidant and Folic Acid Cardiovascular Study (WAFACS) [abstract]. Circulation. 2006; 114: 2424.
238. Wang X., Qin X., Demirtas H., et al. Efficacy of folic acid supplementation in stroke prevention: a meta-analysis. Lancet. 2007; 369: 1876-1882.
239. Christen WG, Gaziano JM, Hennekens CH Design of Physicians’ Health Study II: a randomized trial of beta-carotene, vitamins E and C, and multivitamins, in prevention of cancer, cardiovascular disease, and eye disease, and review of results of completed trials. Ann Epidemiol. 2000; 10: 125-134.
240. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Trends in intake of energy and macronutrients-United States, 1971-2000. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2004;53(4):80-82.
241. Serdula MK, Mokdad AH, Williamson DF, Galuska DA, Mendlein JM, Heath GW Prevalence of attempting weight loss and strategies for controlling weight. JAMA. 1999; 282: 1353-1358.
242. US Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for obesity in adults: recommendations and rationale. Ann Intern Med. 2003; 139: 930-932.
243. Galuska DA, Will JC, Serdula MK, Ford ES Are health care professionals advising obese patients to lose weight? JAMA. 1999; 282: 1576-1578.
244. Wee CC, McCarthy EP, Davis RB, Phillips RS Physician counseling about exercise. JAMA. 1999; 282: 1583-1588.
245. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, North American Association for the Study of Obesity. The Practical Guide: Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults. NIH Pub. No. 00-4-84. Washington, DC: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; 2000.
246. US Department of Health and Human Services. The Surgeon General's Call to Action to Prevent and Decrease Overweight and Obesity. Rockville, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Office of the Surgeon General; 2001.
247. Manson JE, Skerrett PJ, Greenland P., VanItallie TB The escalating pandemics of obesity and sedentary lifestyle: a call to action for clinicians. Arch Intern Med. 2004; 164: 249-258.
248. Klein S., Burke LE, Bray GA, et al. Clinical implications of obesity with specific focus on cardiovascular disease: a statement for professionals from the American Heart Association Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism: endorsed by the American College of Cardiology Foundation. Circulation. 2004; 110: 2952-2967.
249. Klein S., Sheard NF, Pi- Sunyer X., et al. Weight management through lifestyle modification for the prevention and management of type 2 diabetes: rationale and strategies: a statement of the American Diabetes Association, the North American Association for the Study of Obesity, and the American Society for Clinical Nutrition. Diabetes Care. 2004; 27: 2067-2073.
250. Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrates, Fiber, Fat, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2002.
251. American Heart Association. Choose to Move Handbook. Dallas, TX: American Heart Association; 2004. Available at http://www.choosetomove.org/.
252. National Institute on Aging. Exercise: A Guide. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Aging; 2007. Available at http://www.nia.nih.gov/HealthInformation/Publications/ExerciseGuide/.
253. Pratt M. Benefits of lifestyle activity vs structured exercise. JAMA. 1999; 281: 375-376.
254. Bravata DM, Smith-Spangler C., Sundaram V., et al. Using pedometers to increase physical activity and improve health: a systematic review. JAMA. 2007; 298: 2296-2304.
255. Institute of Medicine. Preventing Childhood Obesity: Health in the Balance. Washington, DC: Institute of Medicine; 2005.
256. Wadden TA, Brownell KD, Foster GD Obesity: responding to the global epidemic. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2002; 70: 510-525.
257. Caroli M., Argentieri L., Cardone M., Masi A. Role of television in childhood obesity prevention. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2004; 28(suppl 3):S104-S108.
258. James J., Thomas P., Cavan D., Kerr D. Preventing childhood obesity by reducing consumption of carbonated drinks: cluster randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 2004; 328: 1237.
259. Goldhaber SZ, Grodstein F., Stampfer MJ, et al. A prospective study of risk factors for pulmonary embolism in women. JAMA 1997;277: 642-645.