Modulation of bovine whey protein digestion in gastrointestinal tract: A comprehensive review

International Dairy Journal

Volumn 62, Issue , 2016, Pages 10-18

  Sah, B N P ^a   McAinch, A J ^a   Vasiljevic, T ^a  

^a VICTORIA UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMINO ACIDS; MUSCLE; PROTEINS;

ABSORPTION KINETICS; ADVERSE OUTCOMES; BRANCHED CHAIN AMINO ACIDS; DELIVERY SYSTEMS; FUNCTIONAL CAPACITY; GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT; MUSCLE DAMAGE; PROLONGED RELEASE;

BIOSYNTHESIS;

EID: 84982946645     PISSN: 09586946     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.idairyj.2016.07.003     Document Type: Review

References (121)

1. Ahmad, F.J., Drabu, S., Dureja, H., Khatri, S., Floating drug delivery systems: A review. Asian Journal of Chemistry 21 (2009), 4603–4611.
2. Ahuja, A., Khar, R.K., Ali, J., Mucoadhesive drug delivery systems. Drug Development and Industrial Pharmacy 23 (1997), 489–515.
3. Anglin, E.J., Cheng, L., Freeman, W.R., Sailor, M.J., Porous silicon in drug delivery devices and materials. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 60 (2008), 1266–1277.
4. Anonymous, Nutrition and athletic performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 48 (2016), 543–568.
5. Barbé, F., Ménard, O., Gouar, Y.L., Buffière, C., Famelart, M.H., Laroche, B., et al. Acid and rennet gels exhibit strong differences in the kinetics of milk protein digestion and amino acid bioavailability. Food Chemistry 143 (2014), 1–8.
6. Barker, G.R., Cochrane, G.M., Corbett, G.A., Glucose, glycine and diglycine in test meals as stimuli to a duodenal osmoreceptor slowing gastric emptying. Journal of Physiology 283 (1978), 341–346.
7. Bilsborough, S., Mann, N., A review of issues of dietary protein intake in humans. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism 16 (2006), 129–152.
8. Boddupalli, B.M., Mohammed, Z.N.K., Nath, R.A., Banji, D., Mucoadhesive drug delivery system: An overview. Journal of Advanced Pharmaceutical Technology and Research 1 (2010), 381–387.
9. Boirie, Y., Dangin, M., Gachon, P., Vasson, M.P., Maubois, J.L., Beaufrère, B., Slow and fast dietary proteins differently modulate postprandial protein accretion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 94 (1997), 14930–14935.
10. Bolster, D.R., Jefferson, L.S., Kimball, S.R., Regulation of protein synthesis associated with skeletal muscle hypertrophy by insulin, amino acid- and exercise-induced signalling. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 63 (2004), 351–356.
11. Bornhorst, G.M., Singh, R.P., Bolus formation and disintegration during digestion of food carbohydrates. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 11 (2012), 101–118.
12. Bornhorst, G.M., Singh, R.P., Kinetics of in vitro bread bolus digestion with varying oral and gastric digestion parameters. Food Biophysics 8 (2013), 50–59.
13. Calbet, J.A.L., Holst, J.J., Gastric emptying, gastric secretion and enterogastrone response after administration of milk proteins or their peptide hydrolysates in humans. European Journal of Nutrition 43 (2004), 127–139.
14. Clarkson, P.M., Hubal, M.J., Exercise-induced muscle damage in humans. American Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 81 (2002), S52–S69.
15. Creamer, L.K., Nilsson, H.C., Paulsson, M.A., Coker, C.J., Hill, J.P., Jiménez-Flores, R., Effect of genetic variation on the tryptic hydrolysis of bovine β-lactoglobulin A, B, and C. Journal of Dairy Science 87 (2004), 4023–4032.
16. Crozier, S.J., Kimball, S.R., Emmert, S.W., Anthony, J.C., Jefferson, L.S., Oral leucine administration stimulates protein synthesis in rat skeletal muscle. Journal of Nutrition 135 (2005), 376–382.
17. Cruz-Jentoft, A.J., Baeyens, J.P., Bauer, J.M., Boirie, Y., Cederholm, T., Landi, F., et al. Sarcopenia: European consensus on definition and diagnosis: Report of the european working group on Sarcopenia in older people. Age and Ageing 39 (2010), 412–423.
18. Dangin, M., Boirie, Y., Garcia-Rodenas, C., Gachon, P., Fauquant, J., Callier, P., et al. The digestion rate of protein is an independent regulating factor of postprandial protein retention. American Journal of Physiology - Endocrinology and Metabolism 280 (2001), E340–E348.
19. Dangin, M., Guillet, C., Garcia-Rodenas, C., Gachon, P., Bouteloup-Demange, C., Reiffers-Magnani, K., et al. The rate of protein digestion affects protein gain differently during aging in humans. Journal of Physiology 549 (2003), 635–644.
20. Déat-Lainé, E., Hoffart, V., Garrait, G., Jarrige, J.F., Cardot, J.M., Subirade, M., et al. Efficacy of mucoadhesive hydrogel microparticles of whey protein and alginate for oral insulin delivery. Pharmaceutical Research 30 (2013), 721–734.
21. Devries, M.C., Phillips, S.M., Supplemental protein in support of muscle mass and health: Advantage whey. Journal of Food Science 80 (2015), A8–A15.
22. Dikeman, C.L., Murphy, M.R., Fahey, G.C. Jr., Dietary fibers affect viscosity of solutions and simulated human gastric and small intestinal digesta. Journal of Nutrition 136 (2006), 913–919.
23. Doublier, J.L., Garnier, C., Renard, D., Sanchez, C., Protein–polysaccharide interactions. Current Opinion in Colloid and Interface Science 5 (2000), 202–214.
24. Dupont, D., Mandalari, G., Molle, D., Jardin, J., Léonil, J., Faulks, R.M., et al. Comparative resistance of food proteins to adult and infant in vitro digestion models. Molecular Nutrition and Food Research 54 (2010), 767–780.
25. Fang, Y., Dalgleish, D.G., Conformation of β-lactoglobulin studied by FTIR: Effect of pH, temperature, and adsorption to the oil-water interface. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 196 (1997), 292–298.
26. Ferrua, M.J., Singh, R.P., Modeling the fluid dynamics in a human stomach to gain insight of food digestion. Journal of Food Science 75 (2010), R151–R162.
27. Foster, C., Costill, D.L., Fink, W.J., Gastric emptying characteristics of glucose and glucose polymer solutions. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 51 (1980), 299–305.
28. Goldberg, D.M., Wormsley, K.G., The interrelationships of pancreatic enzymes in human duodenal aspirate. Gut 11 (1970), 859–866.
29. Golding, M., Wooster, T.J., Day, L., Xu, M., Lundin, L., Keogh, J., et al. Impact of gastric structuring on the lipolysis of emulsified lipids. Soft Matter 7 (2011), 3513–3523.
30. Guo, Q., Ye, A., Lad, M., Ferrua, M., Dalgleish, D., Singh, H., Disintegration kinetics of food gels during gastric digestion and its role on gastric emptying: An in vitro analysis. Food and Function 6 (2015), 756–764.
31. Hall, W.L., Millward, D.J., Long, S.J., Morgan, L.M., Casein and whey exert different effects on plasma amino acid profiles, gastrointestinal hormone secretion and appetite. British Journal of Nutrition 89 (2003), 239–248.
32. Hasanzadeh, M., Shadjou, N., de la Guardia, M., Eskandani, M., Sheikhzadeh, P., Mesoporous silica-based materials for use in biosensors. TrAC - Trends in Analytical Chemistry 33 (2012), 117–129.
33. Hill, K.M., Stathis, C.G., Grinfeld, E., Hayes, A., McAinch, A.J., Co-ingestion of carbohydrate and whey protein isolates enhance PGC-1α mRNA expression: A randomised, single blind, cross over study. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 10, 2013 Article 8.
34. Hoad, C.L., Rayment, P., Spiller, R.C., Marciani, L., De Celis Alonso, B., Traynor, C., et al. In vivo imaging of intragastric gelation and its effect on satiety in humans. Journal of Nutrition 134 (2004), 2293–2300.
35. Hsein, H., Garrait, G., Beyssac, E., Hoffart, V., Whey protein mucoadhesive properties for oral drug delivery: Mucin-whey protein interaction and mucoadhesive bond strength. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces 136 (2015), 799–808.
36. Hunt, J.A., Dalgleish, D.G., Adsorption behaviour of whey protein isolate and caseinate in soya oil-in-water emulsions. Food Hydrocolloids 8 (1994), 175–187.
37. Ivy, J.L., Regulation of muscle glycogen repletion, muscle protein synthesis and repair following exercise. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine 3 (2004), 131–138.
38. Jain, S.K., Agrawal, G.P., Jain, N.K., Floating microspheres as drug delivery system: Newer approaches. Current Drug Delivery 5 (2008), 220–223.
39. Johnston, C.S., Tjonn, S.L., Swan, P.D., High-protein, low-fat diets are effective for weight loss and favorably alter biomarkers in healthy adults. Journal of Nutrition 134 (2004), 586–591.
40. Jurca, R., Lamonte, M.J., Barlow, C.E., Kampert, J.B., Church, T.S., Blair, S.N., Association of muscular strength with incidence of metabolic syndrome in men. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 37 (2005), 1849–1855.
41. Kageyama, T., Pepsinogens, progastricsins, and prochymosins: Structure, function, evolution, and development. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 59 (2002), 288–306.
42. Karlsson, L.M., Tengvall, P., Lundström, I., Arwin, H., Penetration and loading of human serum albumin in porous silicon layers with different pore sizes and thicknesses. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 266 (2003), 40–47.
43. Keil, B., Specificity of proteolysis. 1992, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg.
44. Khutoryanskiy, V.V., Advances in mucoadhesion and mucoadhesive polymers. Macromolecular Bioscience 11 (2011), 748–764.
45. Kim, S.K., Small intestine transit time in the normal small bowel study. American Journal of Roentgenology 104 (1968), 52–524.
46. Kitabatake, N., Kinekawa, Y.I., Digestibility of bovine milk whey protein and β-lactoglobulin in vitro and in vivo. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 46 (1998), 4917–4923.
47. Kong, F., Singh, R.P., Disintegration of solid foods in human stomach. Journal of Food Science 73 (2008), R67–R80.
48. Koopman, R., Pannemans, D.L.E., Jeukendrup, A.E., Gijsen, A.P., Senden, J.M.G., Halliday, D., et al. Combined ingestion of protein and carbohydrate improves protein balance during ultra-endurance exercise. American Journal of Physiology - Endocrinology and Metabolism 287 (2004), E712–E720.
49. Kristensen, M., Jensen, M.G., Dietary fibres in the regulation of appetite and food intake. Importance of viscosity. Appetite 56 (2011), 65–70.
50. de Kruif, C.G., Weinbreck, F., de Vries, R., Complex coacervation of proteins and anionic polysaccharides. Current Opinion in Colloid and Interface Science 9 (2004), 340–349.
51. Lambers, T.T., Van Den Bosch, W.G., De Jong, S., Fast and slow proteins: Modulation of the gastric behavior of whey and casein in vitro. Food Digestion 4 (2013), 1–6.
52. Landi, F., Liperoti, R., Russo, A., Giovannini, S., Tosato, M., Capoluongo, E., et al. Sarcopenia as a risk factor for falls in elderly individuals: Results from the ilSIRENTE study. Clinical Nutrition 31 (2012), 652–658.
53. Lee, A.C., Hong, Y.H., Coacervate formation of α-lactalbumin–chitosan and β-lactoglobulin–chitosan complexes. Food Research International 42 (2009), 733–738.
54. Li, J., Ye, A., Lee, S.J., Singh, H., Physicochemical behaviour of WPI-stabilized emulsions in in vitro gastric and intestinal conditions. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces 111 (2013), 80–87.
55. Lin, J., Wei, Z., Mao, C., A label-free immunosensor based on modified mesoporous silica for simultaneous determination of tumor markers. Biosensors and Bioelectronics 29 (2011), 40–45.
56. Lisak, K., Toro-Sierra, J., Kulozik, U., Bozanic, R., Cheison, S.C., Chymotrypsin selectively digests β-lactoglobulin in whey protein isolate away from enzyme optimal conditions: Potential for native α-lactalbumin purification. Journal of Dairy Research 80 (2013), 14–20.
57. Lopes, C.M., Bettencourt, C., Rossi, A., Buttini, F., Barata, P., Overview on gastroretentive drug delivery systems for improving drug bioavailability. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 510 (2016), 144–158.
58. Lopez-Fandiño, R., Carrascosa, A.V., Olano, A., The effects of high pressure on whey protein denaturation and cheese-making properties of raw milk. Journal of Dairy Science 79 (1996), 929–936.
59. MacIerzanka, A., Sancho, A.I., Mills, E.N.C., Rigby, N.M., MacKie, A.R., Emulsification alters simulated gastrointestinal proteolysis of β-casein and β-lactoglobulin. Soft Matter 5 (2009), 538–550.
60. Mackie, A., Macierzanka, A., Colloidal aspects of protein digestion. Current Opinion in Colloid and Interface Science 15 (2010), 102–108.
61. Maldonado-Valderrama, J., Gunning, A.P., Wilde, P.J., Morris, V.J., In vitro gastric digestion of interfacial protein structures: Visualisation by AFM. Soft Matter 6 (2010), 4908–4915.
62. Marciani, L., Gowland, P.A., Fillery-Travis, A., Manoj, P., Wright, J., Smith, A., et al. Assessment of antral grinding of a model solid meal with echo-planar imaging. American Journal of Physiology - Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology 280 (2001), G844–G849.
63. Marciani, L., Gowland, P.A., Spiller, R.C., Manoj, P., Moore, R.J., Young, P., et al. Effect of meal viscosity and nutrients on satiety, intragastric dilution, and emptying assessed by MRI. American Journal of Physiology - Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology 280 (2001), G1227–G1233.
64. Martin-Ortigosa, S., Valenstein, J.S., Lin, V.S.Y., Trewyn, B.G., Wang, K., Gold functionalized mesoporous silica nanoparticle mediated protein and DNA codelivery to plant cells via the biolistic method. Advanced Functional Materials 22 (2012), 3576–3582.
65. McSweeney, P.L.H., Fox, P.F., (eds.) Advanced dairy chemistry, 4th ed. Proteins: Basic aspects, Vol. 1A, 2013, Springer US, Boston, MA, USA.
66. Mekhloufi, G., Sanchez, C., Renard, D., Guillemin, S., Hardy, J., pH-induced structural transitions during complexation and coacervation of β-lactoglobulin and Acacia gum. Langmuir 21 (2005), 386–394.
67. Mordier, S., Deval, C., Béchet, D., Tassa, A., Ferrara, M., Leucine limitation induces autophagy and activation of lysosome-dependent proteolysis in C2C12 myotubes through a mammalian target of rapamycin-independent signaling pathway. Journal of Biological Chemistry 275 (2000), 29900–29906.
68. Moreno, F.J., Mackie, A.R., Mills, E.N.C., Phospholipid interactions protect the milk allergen α-lactalbumin from proteolysis during in vitro digestion. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 53 (2005), 9810–9816.
69. Morisawa, Y., Kitamura, A., Ujihara, T., Zushi, N., Kuzume, K., Shimanouchi, Y., et al. Effect of heat treatment and enzymatic digestion on the B cell epitopes of cow's milk proteins. Clinical and Experimental Allergy 39 (2009), 918–925.
70. Mouécoucou, J., Villaume, C., Sanchez, C., Méjean, L., β-Lactoglobulin/polysaccharide interactions during in vitro gastric and pancreatic hydrolysis assessed in dialysis bags of different molecular weight cut-offs. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects 1670 (2004), 105–112.
71. Mulvihill, D.M., Donovan, M., Whey proteins and their thermal denaturation - A review. Irish Journal of Food Science and Technology 11 (1987), 43–75.
72. Nicolai, T., Britten, M., Schmitt, C., β-Lactoglobulin and WPI aggregates: Formation, structure and applications. Food Hydrocolloids 25 (2011), 1945–1962.
73. Nik, A.M., Wright, A.J., Corredig, M., Interfacial design of protein-stabilized emulsions for optimal delivery of nutrients. Food and Function 1 (2010), 141–148.
74. Nik, A.M., Wright, A.J., Corredig, M., Surface adsorption alters the susceptibility of whey proteins to pepsin-digestion. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 344 (2010), 372–381.
75. O'Loughlin, I.B., Murray, B.A., Kelly, P.M., Fitzgerald, R.J., Brodkorb, A., Enzymatic hydrolysis of heat-induced aggregates of whey protein isolate. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 60 (2012), 4895–4904.
76. Paddon-Jones, D., Rasmussen, B.B., Dietary protein recommendations and the prevention of sarcopenia. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care 12 (2009), 86–90.
77. Parada, J., Aguilera, J.M., Food microstructure affects the bioavailability of several nutrients. Journal of Food Science 72 (2007), R21–R32.
78. Pastor, E., Matveeva, E., Valle-Gallego, A., Goycoolea, F.M., Garcia-Fuentes, M., Protein delivery based on uncoated and chitosan-coated mesoporous silicon microparticles. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces 88 (2011), 601–609.
79. Pins, J.J., Keenan, J.M., Effects of whey peptides on cardiovascular disease risk factors. Journal of Clinical Hypertension (Greenwich, Conn.) 8 (2006), 775–782.
80. Prestidge, C.A., Barnes, T.J., MierczynsKa-Vasilev, A., Kempson, I., Peddie, F., Barnett, C., Peptide and protein loading into porous silicon wafers. Physica Status Solidi (A) Applications and Materials Science 205 (2008), 311–315.
81. Rahaman, T., Vasiljevic, T., Ramchandran, L., Effect of processing on conformational changes of food proteins related to allergenicity. Trends in Food Science and Technology 49 (2016), 24–34.
82. Reddy, I.M., Kella, N.K.D., Kinsella, J.E., Structural and conformational basis of the resistance of β-lactoglobulin to peptic and chymotryptic digestion. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 36 (1988), 737–741.
83. Rennie, M.J., Tipton, K.D., Protein and amino acid metabolism during and after exercise and the effects of nutrition. Annual Review of Nutrition 20 (2000), 457–483.
84. Rufián-Henares, J.A., Delgado-Andrade, C., Jiménez-Pérez, S., Morales, F.J., Assessing nutritional quality of milk-based sport supplements as determined by furosine. Food Chemistry 101 (2007), 573–578.
85. Sakuno, M.M., Matsumoto, S., Kawai, S., Taihei, K., Matsumura, Y., Adsorption and structural change of β-lactoglobulin at the diacylglycerol-water interface. Langmuir 24 (2008), 11483–11488.
86. Salonen, J., Kaukonen, A.M., Hirvonen, J., Lehto, V.P., Mesoporous silicon in drug delivery applications. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 97 (2008), 632–653.
87. Sanchez, C., Mekhloufi, G., Renard, D., Complex coacervation between β-lactoglobulin and Acacia gum: A nucleation and growth mechanism. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 299 (2006), 867–873.
88. Sarkar, A., Horne, D.S., Singh, H., Pancreatin-induced coalescence of oil-in-water emulsions in an in vitro duodenal model. International Dairy Journal 20 (2010), 589–597.
89. Sarojini, S., Manavalan, R., An overview on various approaches to gastroretentive dosage forms. International Journal of Drug Development and Research 4 (2012), 1–13.
90. Sawyer, L., β-Lactoglobulin. McSweeney, P.L.H., Fox, P.F., (eds.) Advanced dairy chemistry, 4th ed. Proteins: Basic aspects, Vol. 1A, 2013, Springer US, Boston, MA, USA, 211–259.
91. Schaafsma, G., The protein digestibility–corrected amino acid score. Journal of Nutrition 130 (2000), 1865S–1867S.
92. Schechter, I., Berger, A., On the size of the active site in proteases. I. Papain. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 27 (1967), 157–162.
93. Schmitt, C., Turgeon, S.L., Protein/polysaccharide complexes and coacervates in food systems. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 167 (2011), 63–70.
94. Shimomura, Y., Yamamoto, Y., Bajotto, G., Sato, J., Murakami, T., Shimomura, N., et al. Nutraceutical effects of branched-chain amino acids on skeletal muscle. Journal of Nutrition 136 (2006), 529S–532S.
95. da Silva Alexandre, T., de Oliveira Duarte, Y.A., Ferreira Santos, J.L., Wong, R., Lebrão, M.L., Sarcopenia according to the european working group on sarcopenia in older people (EWGSOP) versus Dynapenia as a risk factor for disability in the elderly. Journal of Nutrition, Health and Aging 18 (2014), 547–553.
96. Singh, H., Ye, A., Horne, D., Structuring food emulsions in the gastrointestinal tract to modify lipid digestion. Progress in Lipid Research 48 (2009), 92–100.
97. Slavin, J., Impact of the proposed definition of dietary fiber on nutrient databases. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 16 (2003), 287–291.
98. Slavin, J., Green, H., Dietary fibre and satiety. Nutrition Bulletin 32 (2007), 32–42.
99. Smart, J.D., The basics and underlying mechanisms of mucoadhesion. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 57 (2005), 1556–1568.
100. Sogias, I.A., Williams, A.C., Khutoryanskiy, V.V., Why is chitosan mucoadhesive?. Biomacromolecules 9 (2008), 1837–1842.
101. Streubel, A., Siepmann, J., Bodmeier, R., Gastroretentive drug delivery systems. Expert Opinion on Drug Delivery 3 (2006), 217–233.
102. Tang, H., Guo, J., Sun, Y., Chang, B., Ren, Q., Yang, W., Facile synthesis of pH sensitive polymer-coated mesoporous silica nanoparticles and their application in drug delivery. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 421 (2011), 388–396.
103. Tasbihi, M., Lavrencic Stangar, U., Černigoj, U., Jirkovsky, J., Bakardjieva, S., Novak Tušar, N., Photocatalytic oxidation of gaseous toluene on titania/mesoporous silica powders in a fluidized-bed reactor. Catalysis Today 161 (2011), 181–188.
104. Tee, J.C., Bosch, A.N., Lambert, M.I., Metabolic consequences of exercise-induced muscle damage. Sports Medicine 37 (2007), 827–836.
105. Thomas, M.J.K., Slipper, I., Walunj, A., Jain, A., Favretto, M.E., Kallinteri, P., et al. Inclusion of poorly soluble drugs in highly ordered mesoporous silica nanoparticles. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 387 (2010), 272–277.
106. Tolstoguzov, V., Some thermodynamic considerations in food formulation. Food Hydrocolloids 17 (2003), 1–23.
107. Tomé, D., Debabbi, H., Physiological effects of milk protein components. International Dairy Journal 8 (1998), 383–392.
108. Turgeon, S.L., Beaulieu, M., Schmitt, C., Sanchez, C., Protein-polysaccharide interactions: Phase-ordering kinetics, thermodynamic and structural aspects. Current Opinion in Colloid and Interface Science 8 (2003), 401–414.
109. Turgeon, S.L., Rioux, L.E., Food matrix impact on macronutrients nutritional properties. Food Hydrocolloids 25 (2011), 1915–1924.
110. Turgeon, S.L., Schmitt, C., Sanchez, C., Protein-polysaccharide complexes and coacervates. Current Opinion in Colloid and Interface Science 12 (2007), 166–178.
111. Urbain, J.L.C., Siegel, J.A., Charkes, N.D., Maurer, A.H., Malmud, L.S., Fisher, R.S., The two-component stomach: Effects of meal particle size on fundal and antral emptying. European Journal of Nuclear Medicine 15 (1989), 254–259.
112. Velázquez Alva, M.C., Irigoyen Camacho, M.E., Delgadillo Velázquez, J., Lazarevich, I., The relationship between sarcopenia, undernutrition, physical mobility and basic activities of daily living in a group of elderly women of Mexico City. Nutricion Hospitalaria 28 (2013), 514–521.
113. Vist, G.E., Maughan, R.J., The effect of osmolality and carbohydrate content on the rate of gastric emptying of liquids in man. Journal of Physiology 486 (1995), 523–531.
114. Weinbreck, F., Nieuwenhuijse, H., Robijn, G.W., De Kruif, C.G., Complex formation of whey proteins: Exocellular polysaccharide EPS B40. Langmuir 19 (2003), 9404–9410.
115. Weinbreck, F., de Vries, R., Schrooyen, P., de Kruif, C.G., Complex coacervation of whey proteins and gum arabic. Biomacromolecules 4 (2003), 293–303.
116. Wolfe, R.R., The underappreciated role of muscle in health and disease. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 84 (2006), 475–482.
117. Xiao, Z., Liu, W., Zhu, G., Zhou, R., Niu, Y., A review of the preparation and application of flavour and essential oils microcapsules based on complex coacervation technology. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 94 (2014), 1482–1494.
118. Yang, Y., Li, J., Lipid, protein and poly(NIPAM) coated mesoporous silica nanoparticles for biomedical applications. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 207 (2014), 155–163.
119. Ye, A., Complexation between milk proteins and polysaccharides via electrostatic interaction: Principles and applications – A review. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 43 (2008), 406–415.
120. Zeece, M., Huppertz, T., Kelly, A., Effect of high-pressure treatment on in-vitro digestibility of β-lactoglobulin. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 9 (2008), 62–69.
121. Zhang, S., Vardhanabhuti, B., Effect of initial protein concentration and pH on in vitro gastric digestion of heated whey proteins. Food Chemistry 145 (2014), 473–480.