Immune modulation by vitamin D and its relevance to food allergy

Nutrients

Volumn 7, Issue 8, 2015, Pages 6088-6108

  Suaini, Noor H A ^a,b   Zhang, Yuxia ^b,c   Vuillermin, Peter J ^a,d,e   Allen, Katrina J ^a,b,f   Harrison, Leonard C ^b,c  

^a ROYAL CHILDREN'S HOSPITAL   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE   (Australia)

^c WALTER AND ELIZA HALL INSTITUTE OF MEDICAL RESEARCH   (Australia)

^d BARWON HEALTH   (Australia)

^e DEAKIN UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^f UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

1,25(OH)2D3; Adaptive immunity; Deficiency; Food allergy; Inflammation; Innate immunity; Metabolism; T cells; Vitamin D

Indexed keywords

CALCITRIOL; COLECALCIFEROL; PARATHYROID HORMONE; POLYPEPTIDE ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; VITAMIN D;

ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY; BINDING AFFINITY; CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); FOOD ALLERGY; GENE EXPRESSION; HUMAN; IMMUNOMODULATION; INFLAMMATION; INNATE IMMUNITY; NONHUMAN; REVIEW; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SYNTHESIS; VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY; VITAMIN METABOLISM; ANIMAL; BLOOD; COMPLICATION; FOOD HYPERSENSITIVITY; IMMUNE SYSTEM; IMMUNOLOGY; METABOLISM; SKIN; ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION;

MUS;

ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY; ANIMALS; FOOD HYPERSENSITIVITY; HUMANS; IMMUNE SYSTEM; IMMUNITY, INNATE; SKIN; ULTRAVIOLET RAYS; VITAMIN D; VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY;

EID: 84938374056     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20726643     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/nu7085271     Document Type: Review

References (157)

1. Provvedini, D.; Tsoukas, C.; Deftos, L.; Manolagas, S. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 receptors in human leukocytes. Science 1983, 221, 1181-1183. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
2. Bhalla, A.K.; Amento, E.P.; Clemens, T.L.; Holick, M.F.; Krane, S.M. Specific high-affinity receptors for 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells: Presence in monocytes and induction in T lymphocytes following activation. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1983, 57, 1308-1310. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
3. Camargo, C.A.; Rifas-Shiman, S.L.; Litonjua, A.A.; Rich-Edwards, J.W.;Weiss, S.T.; Gold, D.R.; Kleinman, K.; Gillman, M.W. Maternal intake of vitamin D during pregnancy and risk of recurrent wheeze in children at 3 y of age. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2007, 85, 788-795. [PubMed]
4. Black, P.N.; Scragg, R. Relationship between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and pulmonary function in the third national health and nutrition examination survey. Chest 2005, 128, 3792-3798. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
5. Adorini, L.; Penna, G. Control of autoimmune diseases by the vitamin D endocrine system. Nat. Clin. Pract. Rheumatol. 2008, 4, 404-412. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
6. Van der Mei, I.A.; Ponsonby, A.L.; Dwyer, T.; Blizzard, L.; Simmons, R.; Taylor, B.V.; Butzkueven, H.; Kilpatrick, T. Past exposure to sun, skin phenotype, and risk of multiple sclerosis: Case-control study. BMJ 2003, 327, 316. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
7. Allen, K.J.; Koplin, J.J.; Ponsonby, A.L.; Gurrin, L.C.; Wake, M.; Vuillermin, P.; Martin, P.; Matheson, M.; Lowe, A.; Robinson, M.; et al. Vitamin D insufficiency is associated with challenge-proven food allergy in infants. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2013, 131, 1109-1116.e6. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
8. Mullins, R.J.; Camargo, C.A. Latitude, sunlight, vitamin D, and childhood food allergy/anaphylaxis. Curr. Allergy Asthma Rep. 2012, 12, 64-71. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
9. Osborne, N.J.; Ukoumunne, O.C.;Wake, M.; Allen, K.J. Prevalence of eczema and food allergy is associated with latitude in Australia. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2012, 129, 865-867. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
10. Hyppönen, E.; Berry, D.J.; Wjst, M.; Power, C. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and IgE-A significant but nonlinear relationship. Allergy 2009, 64, 613-620. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
11. Peroni, D.G.; Boner, A.L. Food allergy: The perspectives of prevention using vitamin D. Curr. Opin. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2013, 13, 287-292. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
12. Baeke, F.; Takiishi, T.; Korf, H.; Gysemans, C.; Mathieu, C. Vitamin D: Modulator of the immune system. Curr. Opin. Pharmacol. 2010, 10, 482-496. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
13. White, J.H. Vitamin D signaling, infectious diseases, and regulation of innate immunity. Infect. Immun. 2008, 76, 3837-3843. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
14. Dimeloe, S.; Nanzer, A.; Ryanna, K.; Hawrylowicz, C. Regulatory T cells, inflammation and the allergic response-the role of glucocorticoids and vitamin D. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 2010, 120, 86-95. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
15. Trinchieri, G.; Sher, A. Cooperation of toll-like receptor signals in innate immune defence. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2007, 7, 179-190. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
16. Institute of Medicine (US) Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes. Vitamin D. In Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D and Fluoride; National Academies Press (US): Washington, DC, USA, 1997.
17. Working Group of the Australian and New Zealand Bone and Mineral Society; Endocrine Society of Australia and Osteoporosis Australia. Vitamin D and adult bone health in Australia and New Zealand: A position statement. Med. J. Aust. 2005, 182, 281-285.
18. Holick, M.F.; Frommer, J.E.; McNeill, S.C.; Richtand, N.M.; Henley, J.W.; Potts, J.T. Photometabolism of 7-dehydrocholesterol to previtamin D3 in skin. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1977, 76, 107-114. [CrossRef]
19. Horst, R.; Reinhardt, T.; Reddy, S. Vitamin D metabolism. In Vitamin D; Feldman, D., Pike, J., Glorieux, F., Eds.; Elsevier Academic Press: London, UK, 2005; pp. 15-36.
20. Hollis, B.W. Comparison of equilibrium and disequilibrium assay conditions for ergocalciferol, cholecalciferol and their major metabolites. J. Steroid Biochem. 1984, 21, 81-86. [CrossRef]
21. Houghton, L.A.; Vieth, R. The case against ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) as a vitamin supplement. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2006, 84, 694-697. [PubMed]
22. Armas, L.A.; Hollis, B.W.; Heaney, R.P. Vitamin D2 is much less effective than vitamin D3 in humans. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2004, 89, 5387-5391. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
23. Trang, H.M.; Cole, D.E.; Rubin, L.A.; Pierratos, A.; Siu, S.; Vieth, R. Evidence that vitamin D3 increases serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D more efficiently than does vitamin D2. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1998, 68, 854-858. [PubMed]
24. Cheng, J.B.; Motola, D.L.; Mangelsdorf, D.J.; Russell, D.W. De-Orphanization of cytochrome P450 2R1: A microsomal vitamin D 25-hydroxilase. J. Biol. Chem. 2003, 278, 38084-38093. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
25. Gupta, R.P.; He, Y.A.; Patrick, K.S.; Halpert, J.R.; Bell, N.H. CYP3A4 is a vitamin D-24- and 25-hydroxylase: Analysis of structure function by site-directed mutagenesis. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2005, 90, 1210-1219. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
26. Gupta, R.P.; Hollis, B.W.; Patel, S.B.; Patrick, K.S.; Bell, N.H. CYP3A4 is a human microsomal vitamin D 25-hydroxylase. J. Bone Miner. Res. 2004, 19, 680-688. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
27. Wang, Z.; Schuetz, E.G.; Xu, Y.; Thummel, K.E. Interplay between vitamin D and the drug metabolizing enzyme CYP3A4. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 2013, 136, 54-58. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
28. Zhu, J.; DeLuca, H.F. Vitamin D 25-hydroxylase-Four decades of searching, are we there yet? Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2012, 523, 30-36. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
29. Bikle, D.D.; Gee, E.; Halloran, B.; Kowalski, M.A.; Ryzen, E.; Haddad, J.G. Assessment of the free fraction of 25-hydroxyvitamin D in serum and its regulation by albumin and the vitamin D-binding protein. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1986, 63, 954-959. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
30. Tang, J.Y.; Fu, T.; Lau, C.; Oh, D.H.; Bikle, D.D.; Asgari, M.M. Vitamin D in cutaneous carcinogenesis: Part I. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 2012, 67, 803.e1-803.e12. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
31. Guessous, I. Role of vitamin D deficiency in extraskeletal complications: Predictor of health outcome or marker of health status? Biomed. Res. Int. 2015, 2015, 13. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
32. Bossé, Y.; Lemire, M.; Poon, A.H.; Daley, D.; He, J.-Q.; Sandford, A.; White, J.H.; James, A.L.; Musk, A.W.; Palmer, L.J.; et al. Asthma and genes encoding components of the vitamin D pathway. Respir. Res. 2009, 10, 98-118. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
33. Zella, L.A.; Shevde, N.K.; Hollis, B.W.; Cooke, N.E.; Pike, J.W. Vitamin D-binding protein influences total circulating levels of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) but does not directly modulate the bioactive levels of the hormone in vivo. Endocrinology 2008, 149, 3656-3667. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
34. Bikle, D.D.; Gee, E. Free, and not total, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D regulates 25-hydroxyvitamin D metabolism by keratinocytes. Endocrinology 1989, 124, 649-654. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
35. Schlingmann, K.P.; Kaufmann, M.; Weber, S.; Irwin, A.; Goos, C.; John, U.; Misselwitz, J.; Klaus, G.; Kuwertz-Broking, E.; Fehrenbach, H.; et al. Mutations in CYP24A1 and idiopathic infantile hypercalcemia. N. Engl. J. Med. 2011, 365, 410-421. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
36. Jones, G.; Prosser, D.E.; Kaufmann, M. 25-hydroxyvitamin D-24-hydroxylase (CYP24A1): Its important role in the degradation of vitamin D. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2012, 523, 9-18. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
37. Gombart, A.F. The vitamin D-antimicrobial peptide pathway and its role in protection against infection. Future Microbiol. 2009, 4, 1151-1165. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
38. Henry, H.L. Regulation of vitamin D metabolism. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2011, 25, 531-541. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
39. Bergwitz, C.; Jüppner, H. Regulation of phosphate homeostasis by PTH, vitamin D, and FGF23. Annu. Rev. Med. 2010, 61, 91-104. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
40. Galitzer, H.; Ben-Dov, I.; Lavi-Moshayoff, V.; Naveh-Many, T.; Silver, J. Fibroblast growth factor 23 acts on the parathyroid to decrease parathyroid hormone secretion. Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens. 2008, 17, 363-367. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
41. Pike, J.W.; Meyer, M.B.; Bishop, K.A. Regulation of target gene expression by the vitamin D receptor-An update on mechanisms. Rev. Endocr. Metab. Disord. 2012, 13, 45-55. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
42. Prietl, B.; Treiber, G.; Pieber, T.R.; Amrein, K. Vitamin D and immune function. Nutrients 2013, 5, 2502-2521. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
43. Sigmundsdottir, H.; Pan, J.; Debes, G.F.; Alt, C.; Habtezion, A.; Soler, D.; Butcher, E.C. DCs metabolize sunlight-induced vitamin D3 to "program" T cell attraction to the epidermal chemokine CCL27. Nat. Immunol. 2007, 8, 285-293. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
44. Gottfried, E.; Rehli, M.; Hahn, J.; Holler, E.; Andreesen, R.; Kreutz, M. Monocyte-Derived cells express CYP27A1 and convert vitamin D3 into its active metabolite. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2006, 349, 209-213. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
45. Stoffels, K.; Overbergh, L.; Giulietti, A.; Verlinden, L.; Bouillon, R.; Mathieu, C. Immune regulation of 25-hydroxyvitamin-D3-1alpha-hydroxylase in human monocytes. J. Bone Miner. Res. 2006, 21, 37-47. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
46. Overbergh, L.; Decallonne, B.; Valckx, D.; Verstuyf, A.; Depovere, J.; Laureys, J.; Rutgeerts, O.; Saint-Arnaud, R.; Bouillon, R.; Mathieu, C. Identification and immune regulation of 25-hydroxyvitamin D-1-α-hydroxylase in murine macrophages. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 2000, 120, 139-146. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
47. Liu, P.T.; Stenger, S.; Li, H.; Wenzel, L.; Tan, B.H.; Krutzik, S.R.; Ochoa, M.T.; Schauber, J.; Wu, K.; Meinken, C.; et al. Toll-like receptor triggering of a vitamin D-mediated human antimicrobial response. Science 2006, 311, 1770-1773. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
48. Bikle, D. Nonclassic actions of vitamin D. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2009, 94, 26-34. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
49. Ren, S.; Nguyen, L.; Wu, S.; Encinas, C.; Adams, J.S.; Hewison, M. Alternative splicing of vitamin D-24-hydroxylase: A novel mechanism for the regulation of extrarenal 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D synthesis. J. Biol. Chem. 2005, 280, 20604-20611. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
50. Adams, J.S.; Singer, F.R.; Gacad, M.A.; Sharma, O.P.; Hayes, M.J.; Vouros, P.; Holick, M.F. Isolation and structural identification of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 produced by cultured alveolar macrophages in sarcoidosis. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1985, 60, 960-966. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
51. Tucker, G., III; Gagnon, R.E.; Haussler, M.R. Vitamin D3-25-hydroxylase: Tissue occurrence and apparent lack of regulation. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1973, 155, 47-57. [CrossRef]
52. Ichikawa, F.; Sato, K.; Nanjo, M.; Nishii, Y.; Shinki, T.; Takahashi, N.; Suda, T. Mouse primary osteoblasts express vitamin D3 25-hydroxylase mRNA and convert 1 alpha-hydroxyvitamin D3 into 1 alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Bone 1995, 16, 129-135. [CrossRef]
53. Shiga, K.; Fukuyama, R.; Kimura, S.; Nakajima, K.; Fushiki, S. Mutation of the sterol 27-hydroxylase gene (CYP27) results in truncation of mRNA expressed in leucocytes in a Japanese family with cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 1999, 67, 675-677. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
54. Hewison, M.; Zehnder, D.; Bland, R.; Stewart, P. 1alpha-hydroxylase and the action of vitamin D. J. Mol. Endocrinol. 2000, 25, 141-148. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
55. Karlgren, M.; Miura, S.; Ingelman-Sundberg, M. Novel extrahepatic cytochrome P450s. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2005, 207, 57-61. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
56. McKenna, N.J.; O'Malley, B.W. Combinatorial control of gene expression by nuclear receptors and coregulators. Cell 2002, 108, 465-474. [CrossRef]
57. Meyer, M.B.; Pike, J.W. Corepressors (NCOR and SMRT) as well as coactivators are recruited to positively regulated 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3-responsive genes. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 2013, 136, 120-124. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
58. Hsieh, J.C.; Jurutka, P.W.; Nakajima, S.; Galligan, M.A.; Haussler, C.A.; Shimizu, Y.; Shimizu, N.; Whitfield, G.K.; Haussler, M.R. Phosphorylation of the human vitamin D receptor by protein kinase C. Biochemical and functional evaluation of the serine 51 recognition site. J. Biol. Chem. 1993, 268, 15118-15126. [PubMed]
59. Pike, J.W.; Sleator, N.M. Hormone-Dependent phosphorylation of the 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 receptor in mouse fibroblasts. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1985, 131, 378-385. [CrossRef]
60. Norman, A.W.; Okamura, W.H.; Hammond, M.W.; Bishop, J.E.; Dormanen, M.C.; Bouillon, R.; Van Baelen, H.; Ridall, A.L.; Daane, E.; Khoury, R.; et al. Comparison of 6-s-cis- and 6-s-trans-locked analogs of 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 indicates that the 6-s-cis conformation is preferred for rapid nongenomic biological responses and that neither 6-s-cis- nor 6-s- trans-locked analogs are preferred for genomic biological responses. Mol. Endocrinol. 1997, 11, 1518-1531. [PubMed]
61. Huhtakangas, J.A.; Olivera, C.J.; Bishop, J.E.; Zanello, L.P.; Norman, A.W. The vitamin D receptor is present in caveolae-enriched plasma membranes and binds 1α,25(OH)2-vitamin D3 in vivo and in vitro. Mol. Endocrinol. 2004, 18, 2660-2671. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
62. Zanello, L.P.; Norman, A.W. Rapid modulation of osteoblast ion channel responses by 1α,25(OH)2-vitamin D3 requires the presence of a functional vitamin D nuclear receptor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2004, 101, 1589-1594. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
63. Sylvia, V.L.; Schwartz, Z.; Schuman, L.; Morgan, R.T.; Mackey, S.; Gomez, R.; Boyan, B.D. Maturation-dependent regulation of protein kinase C activity by vitamin D3 metabolites in chondrocyte cultures. J. Cell. Physiol. 1993, 157, 271-278. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
64. De Boland, A.R.; Nemere, I. Rapid actions of vitamin D compounds. J. Cell. Biochem. 1992, 49, 32-36. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
65. Slater, S.J.; Kelly, M.B.; Taddeo, F.J.; Larkin, J.D.; Yeager, M.D.; McLane, J.A.; Ho, C.; Stubbs, C.D. Direct activation of protein kinase C by 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. J. Biol. Chem. 1995, 270, 6639-6643. [PubMed]
66. Nutchey, B.K.; Kaplan, J.S.; Dwivedi, P.P.; Omdahl, J.L.; Ferrante, A.; May, B.K.; Hii, C.S. Molecular action of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and phorbol ester on the activation of the rat cytochrome P450C24 (CYP24) promoter: Role of MAP kinase activities and identification of an important transcription factor binding site. Biochem. J. 2005, 389, 753-762. [PubMed]
67. Dwivedi, P.P.; Gao, X.-H.; Tan, J.C.-T.; Evdokiou, A.; Ferrante, A.; Morris, H.A.; May, B.K.; Hii, C.S.T. A role for the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-Protein kinase C zeta-sp1 pathway in the 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 induction of the 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 24-hydroxylase gene in human kidney cells. Cell Signal. 2010, 22, 543-552. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
68. Dwivedi, P.P.; Hii, C.S.; Ferrante, A.; Tan, J.; Der, C.J.; Omdahl, J.L.; Morris, H.A.; May, B.K. Role of MAP kinases in the 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3-induced transactivation of the rat cytochrome P450C24 (CYP24) promoter. Specific functions for ERK1/ERK2 and ERK5. J. Biol. Chem. 2002, 277, 29643-29653. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
69. St-Arnaud, R. Targeted inactivation of vitamin D hydroxylases in mice. Bone 1999, 25, 127-129. [CrossRef]
70. St-Arnaud, R.; Arabian, A.; Travers, R.; Barletta, F.; Raval-Pandya, M.; Chapin, K.; Depovere, J.; Mathieu, C.; Christakos, S.; Demay, M.B.; et al. Deficient mineralization of intramembranous bone in vitamin D-24-hydroxylase-ablated mice is due to elevated 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D and not to the absence of 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D. Endocrinology 2000, 141, 2658-2666. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
71. Masuda, S.; Kaufmann, M.; Byford, V.; Gao, M.; St-Arnaud, R.; Arabian, A.; Makin, H.L.J.; Knutson, J.C.; Strugnell, S.; Jones, G. Insights into vitamin D metabolism using CYP24 over-expression and knockout systems in conjunction with liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS). J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 2004, 89-90, 149-153. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
72. Jones, G. Pharmacokinetics of vitamin D toxicity. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 88, 582S-586S. [PubMed]
73. Nowson, C.A.; McGrath, J.J.; Ebeling, P.R.; Haikerwal, A.; Daly, R.M.; Sanders, K.M.; Seibel, M.J.; Mason, R.S. Vitamin D and health in adults in Australia and New Zealand: A position statement. Med. J. Aust. 2012, 196, 686-687. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
74. Institute of Medicine Committee to Review Dietary Reference Intakes for vitamin D and Calcium. The national academies collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. In Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D; Ross, A.C., Taylor, C.L., Yaktine, A.L., Del Valle, H.B., Eds.; National Academies Press (US), National Academy of Sciences: Washington, DC, USA, 2011.
75. Devine, A.; Wilson, S.G.; Dick, I.M.; Prince, R.L. Effects of vitamin D metabolites on intestinal calcium absorption and bone turnover in elderly women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002, 75, 283-288. [PubMed]
76. Nordin, B.E.C.; Need, A.G. The relation between serum calcidiol and calcitriol. IBMS BoneKEy 2005, 2, 7-16. [CrossRef]
77. Elkassaby, S.; Harrison, L.C.; Mazzitelli, N.; Wentworth, J.M.; Colman, P.G.; Spelman, T.; Fourlanos, S. A randomised controlled trial of high dose vitamin D in recent-onset type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 2014, 106, 576-582. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
78. Vieth, R.; Ladak, Y.; Walfish, P.G. Age-related changes in the 25-hydroxyvitamin D versus parathyroid hormone relationship suggest a different reason why older adults require more vitamin D. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2003, 88, 185-191. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
79. Tjellesen, L.; Christiansen, C. Vitamin D metabolites in normal subjects during one year. A longitudinal study. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Investig. 1983, 43, 85-89. [CrossRef]
80. Medzhitov, R. Recognition of microorganisms and activation of the immune response. Nature 2007, 449, 819-826. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
81. Hoxha, M.; Zoto, M.; Deda, L.; Vyshka, G. Vitamin D and its role as a protective factor in allergy. Int. Sch. Res. Not. 2014, 2014, 7. [CrossRef]
82. Muehleisen, B.; Gallo, R.L. Vitamin D in allergic disease: Shedding light on a complex problem. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2013, 131, 324-329. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
83. Adams, J.S.; Hewison, M. Unexpected actions of vitamin D: New perspectives on the regulation of innate and adaptive immunity. Nat. Clin. Pract. Endocrinol. Metab. 2008, 4, 80-90. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
84. Sadeghi, K.; Wessner, B.; Laggner, U.; Ploder, M.; Tamandl, D.; Friedl, J.; Zügel, U.; Steinmeyer, A.; Pollak, A.; Roth, E. Vitamin D3 down-regulates monocyte TLR expression and triggers hyporesponsiveness to pathogen-associated molecular patterns. Eur. J. Immunol. 2006, 36, 361-370. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
85. Wang, T.T.; Nestel, F.P.; Bourdeau, V.; Nagai, Y.;Wang, Q.; Liao, J.; Tavera-Mendoza, L.; Lin, R.; Hanrahan, J.W.; Mader, S.; et al. Cutting edge: 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 is a direct inducer of antimicrobial peptide gene expression. J. Immunol. 2004, 173, 2909-2912. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
86. Buchau, A.S.; Morizane, S.; Trowbridge, J.; Schauber, J.; Kotol, P.; Bui, J.D.; Gallo, R.L. The host defense peptide cathelicidin is required for NK cell-mediated suppression of tumor growth. J. Immunol. 2010, 184, 369-378. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
87. Fabri, M.; Stenger, S.; Shin, D.-M.; Yuk, J.-M.; Liu, P.T.; Realegeno, S.; Lee, H.-M.; Krutzik, S.R.; Schenk, M.; Sieling, P.A.; et al. Vitamin D is required for IFN--mediated antimicrobial activity of human macrophages. Sci. Transl. Med. 2011, 3, 104ra102-104ra102. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
88. Yuk, J.-M.; Shin, D.-M.; Lee, H.-M.; Yang, C.-S.; Jin, H.S.; Kim, K.-K.; Lee, Z.-W.; Lee, S.-H.; Kim, J.-M.; Jo, E.-K. Vitamin D3 induces autophagy in human monocytes/macrophages via cathelicidin. Cell Host Microbe 2009, 6, 231-243. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
89. Weinberg, J.B. Nitric oxide production and nitric oxide synthase type 2 expression by human mononuclear phagocytes: A review. Mol. Med. 1998, 4, 557-591. [PubMed]
90. Denis, M. Human monocytes/macrophages: NO or no NO? J. Leukoc. Biol. 1994, 55, 682-684. [PubMed]
91. Kamen, D.L.; Tangpricha, V. Vitamin D and molecular actions on the immune system: Modulation of innate and autoimmunity. J. Mol. Med. (Berl.) 2010, 88, 441-450. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
92. Lim, W.C.; Hanauer, S.B.; Li, Y.C. Mechanisms of disease: Vitamin D and inflammatory bowel disease. Nat. Clin. Pract. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2005, 2, 308-315. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
93. Almerighi, C.; Sinistro, A.; Cavazza, A.; Ciaprini, C.; Rocchi, G.; Bergamini, A. 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 inhibits CD40l-induced pro-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activity in human monocytes. Cytokine 2009, 45, 190-197. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
94. Penna, G.; Adorini, L. 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 inhibits differentiation, maturation, activation, and survival of dendritic cells leading to impaired alloreactive T cell activation. J. Immunol. 2000, 164, 2405-2411. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
95. Griffin, M.D.; Lutz, W.; Phan, V.A.; Bachman, L.A.; McKean, D.J.; Kumar, R. Dendritic cell modulation by 1alpha,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 and its analogs: A vitamin D receptor-dependent pathway that promotes a persistent state of immaturity in vitro and in vivo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2001, 98, 6800-6805. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
96. Xu, H.; Soruri, A.; Gieseler, R.K.H.; Peters, J.H. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 exerts opposing effects to IL-4 on MHC class-II antigen expression, accessory activity, and phagocytosis of human monocytes. Scand. J. Immunol. 1993, 38, 535-540. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
97. Lemire, J.M.; Archer, D.C.; Beck, L.; Spiegelberg, H.L. Immunosuppressive actions of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3: Preferential inhibition of TH1 functions. J. Nutr. 1995, 125, 1704s-1708s. [PubMed]
98. D'Ambrosio, D.; Cippitelli, M.; Cocciolo, M.G.; Mazzeo, D.; Di Lucia, P.; Lang, R.; Sinigaglia, F.; Panina-Bordignon, P. Inhibition of IL-12 production by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Involvement of NF-kappaB downregulation in transcriptional repression of the P40 gene. J. Clin. Investig. 1998, 101, 252-262. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
99. Etten, E.V.; Mathieu, C. Immunoregulation by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3: Basic concepts. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 2005, 97, 93-101. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
100. Penna, G.; Roncari, A.; Amuchastegui, S.; Daniel, K.C.; Berti, E.; Colonna, M.; Adorini, L. Expression of the inhibitory receptor ILT3 on dendritic cells is dispensable for induction of CD4+FOXP3+ regulatory T cells by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Blood 2005, 106, 3490-3497. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
101. Biggs, L.; Yu, C.; Fedoric, B.; Lopez, A.F.; Galli, S.J.; Grimbaldeston, M.A. Evidence that vitamin D3 promotes mast cell-dependent reduction of chronic UVB-induced skin pathology in mice. J. Exp. Med. 2010, 207, 455-463. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
102. Yip, K.H.; Kolesnikoff, N.; Yu, C.; Hauschild, N.; Taing, H.; Biggs, L.; Goltzman, D.; Gregory, P.A.; Anderson, P.H.; Samuel, M.S.; et al. Mechanisms of vitamin D(3) metabolite repression of IgE-dependent mast cell activation. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2014, 133, 1356-1364.e14. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
103. Coussens, A.K.; Wilkinson, R.J.; Hanifa, Y.; Nikolayevskyy, V.; Elkington, P.T.; Islam, K.; Timms, P.M.; Venton, T.R.; Bothamley, G.H.; Packe, G.E.; et al. Vitamin D accelerates resolution of inflammatory responses during tuberculosis treatment. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2012, 109, 15449-15454. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
104. Steinman, R.M.; Banchereau, J. Taking dendritic cells into medicine. Nature 2007, 449, 419-426. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
105. Banchereau, J.; Steinman, R.M. Dendritic cells and the control of immunity. Nature 1998, 392, 245-252. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
106. Hewison, M. An update on vitamin D and human immunity. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.) 2012, 76, 315-325. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
107. Zhang, Y.; Bandala-Sanchez, E.; Harrison, L.C. Revisiting regulatory T cells in type 1 diabetes. Curr. Opin. Endocrinol. Diabetes Obes. 2012, 19, 271-278. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
108. Vickery, B.P.; Scurlock, A.M.; Jones, S.M.; Burks, A.W. Mechanisms of immune tolerance relevant to food allergy. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2011, 127, 576-584. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
109. Hawrylowicz, C.M. Regulatory T cells and IL-10 in allergic inflammation. J. Exp. Med. 2005, 202, 1459-1463. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
110. Tang, Q.; Bluestone, J.A. The FOXP3+ regulatory T cell: A jack of all trades, master of regulation. Nat. Immunol. 2008, 9, 239-244. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
111. La Cava, A. Tregs are regulated by cytokines: Implications for autoimmunity. Autoimmun. Rev. 2008, 8, 83-87. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
112. Chambers, E.S.; Hawrylowicz, C.M. The impact of vitamin D on regulatory T cells. Curr. Allergy Asthma Rep. 2011, 11, 29-36. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
113. Gorman, S.; Alexandra Kuritzky, L.; Judge, M.A.; Dixon, K.M.; McGlade, J.P.; Mason, R.S.; Finlay-Jones, J.J.; Hart, P.H. Topically applied 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 enhances the suppressive activity of CD4+ CD25+ cells in the draining lymph nodes. J. Immunol. 2007, 179, 6273-6283. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
114. Prietl, B.; Pilz, S.; Wolf, M.; Tomaschitz, A.; Obermayer-Pietsch, B.; Graninger, W.; Pieber, T.R. Vitamin D supplementation and regulatory T cells in apparently healthy subjects: Vitamin D treatment for autoimmune diseases? Isr. Med. Assoc. J. 2010, 12, 136-139. [PubMed]
115. Jirapongsananuruk, O.; Melamed, I.; Leung, D.Y. Additive immunosuppressive effects of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and corticosteroids on TH1, but not TH2, responses. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2000, 106, 981-985. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
116. Van Halteren, A.G.; Tysma, O.M.; van Etten, E.; Mathieu, C.; Roep, B.O. 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 or analogue treated dendritic cells modulate human autoreactive T cells via the selective induction of apoptosis. J. Autoimmun. 2004, 23, 233-239. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
117. Palmer, M.T.; Lee, Y.K.; Maynard, C.L.; Oliver, J.R.; Bikle, D.D.; Jetten, A.M.; Weaver, C.T. Lineage-specific effects of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) on the development of effector CD4 T cells. J. Biol. Chem. 2011, 286, 997-1004. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
118. Van Belle, T.L.; Gysemans, C.; Mathieu, C. Vitamin D in autoimmune, infectious and allergic diseases: A vital player? Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2011, 25, 617-632. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
119. Boonstra, A.; Barrat, F.J.; Crain, C.; Heath, V.L.; Savelkoul, H.F.; O'Garra, A. 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 has a direct effect on naive CD4(+) T cells to enhance the development of TH2 cells. J. Immunol. 2001, 167, 4974-4980. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
120. Mahon, B.D.; Wittke, A.; Weaver, V.; Cantorna, M.T. The targets of vitamin D depend on the differentiation and activation status of CD4 positive T cells. J. Cell. Biochem. 2003, 89, 922-932. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
121. Staeva-Vieira, T.P.; Freedman, L.P. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 inhibits IFN- and IL-4 levels during in vitro polarization of primary murine CD4+ T cells. J. Immunol. 2002, 168, 1181-1189. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
122. Khoo, A.L.; Chai, L.; Koenen, H.; Sweep, F.; Joosten, I.; Netea, M.; van der Ven, A. Regulation of cytokine responses by seasonality of vitamin D status in healthy individuals. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 2011, 164, 72-79. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
123. Chen, S.; Sims, G.P.; Chen, X.X.; Gu, Y.Y.; Chen, S.; Lipsky, P.E. Modulatory effects of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on human B cell differentiation. J. Immunol. 2007, 179, 1634-1647. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
124. Bohle, B. T lymphocytes and food allergy. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2004, 48, 424-433. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
125. Kay, A.B. Allergy and allergic diseases. First of two parts. N. Engl. J. Med. 2001, 344, 30-37. [PubMed]
126. Tan, T.H.T.; Ellis, J.A.; Saffery, R.; Allen, K.J. The role of genetics and environment in the rise of childhood food allergy. Clin. Exp. Allergy 2012, 42, 20-29. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
127. Lack, G.; Fox, D.; Northstone, K.; Golding, J. Factors associated with the development of peanut allergy in childhood. N. Engl. J. Med. 2003, 348, 977-985. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
128. Palomares, O. The role of regulatory T cells in IgE-mediated food allergy. J. Investig. Allergol. Clin. Immunol. 2013, 23, 371-382. [PubMed]
129. Stone, K.D.; Prussin, C.; Metcalfe, D.D. IgE, mast cells, basophils, and eosinophils. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2010, 125, S73-S80. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
130. Allen, K.J.; Martin, P.E. Clinical aspects of pediatric food allergy and failed oral immune tolerance. J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 2010, 44, 391-401. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
131. Ortolani, C.; Pastorello, E.A. Food allergies and food intolerances. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol. 2006, 20, 467-483. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
132. Berin, M.C.; Sicherer, S. Food allergy: Mechanisms and therapeutics. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 2011, 23, 794-800. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
133. Vickery, B.P.; Chin, S.; Burks, A.W. Pathophysiology of food allergy. Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 2011, 58, 363-376. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
134. Baek, J.H.; Shin, Y.H.; Chung, I.H.; Kim, H.J.; Yoo, E.G.; Yoon, J.W.; Jee, H.M.; Chang, Y.E.; Han, M.Y. The link between serum vitamin D level, sensitization to food allergens, and the severity of atopic dermatitis in infancy. J. Pediatr. 2014, 165, 849-854.e1. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
135. Weisse, K.; Winkler, S.; Hirche, F.; Herberth, G.; Hinz, D.; Bauer, M.; Röder, S.; Rolle-Kampczyk, U.; von Bergen, M.; Olek, S.; et al. Maternal and newborn vitamin D status and its impact on food allergy development in the German LINA cohort study. Allergy 2013, 68, 220-228. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
136. Hinz, D.; Bauer, M.; Roder, S.; Olek, S.; Huehn, J.; Sack, U.; Borte, M.; Simon, J.C.; Lehmann, I.; Herberth, G. Cord blood Tregs with stable FOXP3 expression are influenced by prenatal environment and associated with atopic dermatitis at the age of one year. Allergy 2012, 67, 380-389. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
137. Leyva-Castillo, J.M.; Hener, P.; Jiang, H.; Li, M. TSLP produced by keratinocytes promotes allergen sensitization through skin and thereby triggers atopic march in mice. J. Investig. Dermatol. 2013, 133, 154-163. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
138. Li, M.; Hener, P.; Zhang, Z.; Kato, S.; Metzger, D.; Chambon, P. Topical vitamin D3 and low-calcemic analogs induce thymic stromal lymphopoietin in mouse keratinocytes and trigger an atopic dermatitis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2006, 103, 11736-11741. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
139. Wjst, M. Introduction of oral vitamin D supplementation and the rise of the allergy pandemic. Allergy Asthma Clin. Immunol. 2009, 5, 8. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
140. Vassallo, M.F.; Camargo, C.A., Jr. Potential mechanisms for the hypothesized link between sunshine, vitamin D, and food allergy in children. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2010, 126, 217-222. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
141. Kong, J.; Zhang, Z.; Musch, M.W.; Ning, G.; Sun, J.; Hart, J.; Bissonnette, M.; Li, Y.C. Novel role of the vitamin D receptor in maintaining the integrity of the intestinal mucosal barrier. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 2008, 294, G208-G216. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
142. Clairmont, A.; Tessmann, D.; Stock, A.; Nicolai, S.; Stahi,W.; Sies, H. Induction of gap junctional intercellular communication by vitamin D in human skin fibroblasts is dependent on the nuclear vitamin D receptor. Carcinogenesis 1996, 17, 1389-1391. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
143. Pálmer, H.G.; González-Sancho, J.M.; Espada, J.; Berciano, M.T.; Puig, I.; Baulida, J.; Quintanilla, M.; Cano, A.; de Herreros, A.G.; Lafarga, M.; et al. Vitamin D3 promotes the differentiation of colon carcinoma cells by the induction of E-cadherin and the inhibition of β-catenin signaling. J. Cell Biol. 2001, 154, 369-388. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
144. Gniadecki, R.; Gajkowska, B.; Hansen, M. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 stimulates the assembly of adherens junctions in keratinocytes: Involvement of protein kinase C. Endocrinology 1997, 138, 2241-2248. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
145. Schwalfenberg, G.K. A review of the critical role of vitamin D in the functioning of the immune system and the clinical implications of vitamin D deficiency. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2011, 55, 96-108. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
146. Szeles, L.; Keresztes, G.; Torocsik, D.; Balajthy, Z.; Krenacs, L.; Poliska, S.; Steinmeyer, A.; Zuegel, U.; Pruenster, M.; Rot, A.; et al. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 is an autonomous regulator of the transcriptional changes leading to a tolerogenic dendritic cell phenotype. J. Immunol. 2009, 182, 2074-2083. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
147. Heine, G.; Niesner, U.; Chang, H.D.; Steinmeyer, A.; Zugel, U.; Zuberbier, T.; Radbruch, A.; Worm, M. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) promotes IL-10 production in human B cells. Eur. J. Immunol. 2008, 38, 2210-2218. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
148. Curotto de Lafaille, M.A.; Lafaille, J.J. Natural and adaptive FOXP3+ regulatory T cells: More of the same or a division of labor? Immunity 2009, 30, 626-635. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
149. Kanjarawi, R.; Dercamp, C.; Etchart, N.; Adel-Patient, K.; Nicolas, J.F.; Dubois, B.; Kaiserlian, D. Regulatory T cells control type I food allergy to beta-lactoglobulin in mice. Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol. 2011, 156, 387-396. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
150. Adel-Patient, K.; Wavrin, S.; Bernard, H.; Meziti, N.; Ah-Leung, S.; Wal, J.M. Oral tolerance and Treg cells are induced in BALB/c mice after gavage with bovine beta-lactoglobulin. Allergy 2011, 66, 1312-1321. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
151. Ruiter, B.; Shreffler, W.G. The role of dendritic cells in food allergy. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2012, 129, 921-928. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
152. Heine, G.; Anton, K.; Henz, B.M.;Worm, M. 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 inhibits anti-CD40 plus IL-4-mediated IgE production in vitro. Eur. J. Immunol. 2002, 32, 3395-3404. [PubMed]
153. Hartmann, B.; Heine, G.; Babina, M.; Steinmeyer, A.; Zügel, U.; Radbruch, A.; Worm, M. Targeting the vitamin D receptor inhibits the B cell-dependent allergic immune response. Allergy 2011, 66, 540-548. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
154. Matheu, V.; Back, O.; Mondoc, E.; Issazadeh-Navikas, S. Dual effects of vitamin D-induced alteration of TH1/TH2 cytokine expression: Enhancing IgE production and decreasing airway eosinophilia in murine allergic airway disease. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2003, 112, 585-592. [CrossRef]
155. Rothers, J.; Wright, A.L.; Stern, D.A.; Halonen, M.; Camargo, C.A., Jr. Cord blood 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels are associated with aeroallergen sensitization in children from Tucson, Arizona. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2011, 128, 1093-1099.e5. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
156. Vie Streym, S.; Kristine Moller, U.; Rejnmark, L.; Heickendorff, L.; Mosekilde, L.; Vestergaard, P. Maternal and infant vitamin D status during the first 9 months of infant life-a cohort study. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2013, 67, 1022-1028. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
157. Delvin, E.E.; Glorieux, F.H.; Salle, B.L.; David, L.; Varenne, J.P. Control of vitamin D metabolism in preterm infants: Feto-maternal relationships. Arch. Dis. Child. 1982, 57, 754-757. [CrossRef] [PubMed]