Review of natural compounds for potential skin cancer treatment

Molecules

Volumn 19, Issue 8, 2014, Pages 11679-11721

  Chinembiri, Tawona N ^a   Du Plessis, Lissinda H ^a   Gerber, Minja ^a   Hamman, Josias H ^a   Du Plessis, Jeanetta ^a  

^a NORTH WEST UNIVERSITY   (South Africa)

Author keywords

Anti cancer; Dietary; Melanoma; Natural; Phytochemical; Plant

Indexed keywords

ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENT; PLANT EXTRACT;

APOPTOSIS; CELL PROLIFERATION; DRUG EFFECTS; MELANOMA; MULTIDRUG RESISTANCE; NEOVASCULARIZATION, PATHOLOGIC; PATHOLOGY; SKIN NEOPLASMS;

ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENTS; APOPTOSIS; CELL PROLIFERATION; DRUG RESISTANCE, MULTIPLE; MELANOMA; NEOVASCULARIZATION, PATHOLOGIC; PLANT EXTRACTS; SKIN NEOPLASMS;

EID: 84906707088     PISSN: None     EISSN: 14203049     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/molecules190811679     Document Type: Review

References (254)

1. Kachuri, L.; De, P.; Ellison, L.F.; Semenciw, R.; Advisory Committee on Canadian Cancer Statistics. Cancer incidence, mortality and survival trends in Canada, 1970-2007. Chronic Dis. Inj. Can. 2013, 33, 69-80.
2. Erb, P.; Ji, J.; Wernli, M.; Kump, E.; Glaser, A.; Büchner, S.A. Role of apoptosis in basal cell and squamous cell carcinoma formation. Immunol. Lett. 2005, 100, 68-72.
3. Lippens, S.; Hoste, E.; Vandenabeele, P.; Declercq, W. Cell death in skin. In Apoptosis: Physiology and Pathology; Reed, J.C., Green, D.R., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2011; pp. 323-332.
4. Marks, V.J.; Hanson, N.W. Non-melanoma skin cancer. In Sauer's Manual of Skin Diseases; Hall, B.J., Hall, J.C., Eds.; Wolters Kluwer Health: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2010; Volume 10, pp. 305-312.
5. Freedman, M.L.; Nierodzik, M.L.R. Cancer and age. In Encyclopedia of Gerontology, 2nd ed.; Birren, J.E., Ed.; Elsevier: New York, NY, USA, 2007; Volume 1, pp. 191-212.
6. Conroy, M.L.; Davis, K.R.; Embree, J.L.; Madara, B.; Magaletto, P.; Roach, R.R.; Sauls, B.L.; Scemons, D.; Shen, Q.; Skoruppa, D.; et al. Atlas of Pathophysiology, 3rd ed.; Eckman, M., Labus, D., Thompson, G., Eds.; Wolters Kluwer Health: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2010; pp. 1-455.
7. Raasch, B. Management of superficial basal cell carcinoma: Focus on imiquimod. Clin. Cosmet. Investig. Dermatol. 2009, 2, 65-75.
8. Sweetman, S.C. Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference, 37th ed.; Pharmaceutical Press: London, UK, 2011; pp. 1-4142.
9. Iyer, A.K.; Singh, A.; Ganta, S.; Amiji, M.M. Role of integrated cancer nanomedicine in overcoming drug resistance. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2013, 65, 1784-1802.
10. Kunjachan, S.; Rychlik, B.; Storm, G.; Kiessling, F.; Lammers, T. Multidrug resistance: Physiological principles and nanomedical solutions. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2013, 65, 1852-1865.
11. Markman, J.L.; Rekechenetskiy, A.; Holler, E.; Ljubimova, J.Y. Nanomedicine therapeutic approaches to overcome cancer drug resistance. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2013, 65, 1866-1879.
12. Alifrangis, C.; Koizia, L.; Rozario, A.; Rodney, S.; Harrington, M.; Somerville, C.; Peplow, T.; Waxman, J. The experiences of cancer patients. QJM 2011, 104, 1075-1081.
13. Slevin, M.L.; Stubbs, L.; Plant, H.J.; Wilson, P.; Gregory, W.M.; Armes, P.J.; Downer, S.M. Attitudes to chemotherapy: Comparing views of patients with cancer with those of doctors, nurses, and general public. Brit. Med. J. 1990, 300, 1458-1460.
14. Thornton, M.; Parry, M.; Gill, P.; Mead, D.; Macbeth, F. Hard choices: A qualitative study of influences on the treatment decisions made by advanced lung cancer patients. Int. Palliat. Nurs. 2011, 17, 68-74.
15. Molassiotis, A.; Fernandez-Ortega, P.; Pud, D.; Ozden, G.; Scott, J.A.; Panteli, V.; Margulies, A.; Browall, M.; Magri, M.; Selvekerova, S. Use of complementary and alternative medicine in cancer patients: A European survey. Ann. Oncol. 2005, 16, 655-663.
16. Cragg, G.M.; Newman, D.J. Natural products: A continuing source of novel drug leads. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2013, 1830, 3670-95.
17. Heinrich, M.B.J.; Gibbons, S.; Williamson, E.M. Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy, 1st ed.; Churchill Livingstone: Edinburgh, UK, 2004.
18. Fedorov, S.N.; Ermakova, S.P.; Zvyagintseva, T.N.; Stonik, V.A. Anticancer and cancer preventive properties of marine polysaccharides: Some results and prospects. Mar. Drugs 2013, 11, 4876-4901.
19. Valeriote, F.A.; Tenney, K.; Media, J.; Pietraszkiewicz, H.; Edelstein, M.; Johnson, T.A.; Amagata, T.; Crews, P. Discovery and development of anticancer agents from marine sponges: Perspectives based on a chemistry-experimental therapeutics collaborative program. Exp. Ther. Oncol. 2012, 10, 119-134.
20. Costa, M.; Garcia, M.; Costa-Rodrigues, J.; Costa, M.S.; Ribeiro, M.J.; Fernandes, M.H.; Barros, P.; Barreiro, A.; Vasconcelos, V.; Martins, R. Exploring bioactive properties of marine cyanobacteria isolated from the Portuguese coast: High potential as a source of anticancer compounds. Mar. Drugs 2014, 12, 98-114.
21. Indumathy, S.; Dass, C.R. Finding chemo: The search for marine-based pharmaceutical drugs active against cancer. Pharm. Pharmacol. 2013, 65, 1280-1301.
22. Newman, D.J.; Cragg, G.M. Marine-sourced anti-cancer and cancer pain control agents in clinical and late preclinical development. Mar. Drugs 2014, 12, 255-278.
23. Schwartsmann, G.; da Rocha, A.B.; Berlinck, R.G.S.; Jimeno, J. Marine organisms as a source of new anticancer drugs. Lancet. Oncol. 2001, 2, 221-225.
24. Cann, S.A.H.; van Netten, J.P.; van Netten, C. Dr William Coley and tumour regression: A place in history or in the future. Postgrad. Med. 2003, 79, 672-680.
25. Bhanot, A.; Sharma, R.; Noolvi, M.N. Natural sources as potential anti-cancer agents: A review. Int. Phytomed. 2011, 3, 9-26.
26. Van Wyk, B.; van Oudtshoorn, B.; Gericke, N. Medicinal Plants of South Africa, 1st ed.; Briza Publications: Pretoria, South Africa, 1997; pp. 1-304.
27. Cragg, G.M.; Newman, D.J. Plants as a source of anti-cancer agents. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2005, 100, 72-79.
28. Balunas, M.J.; Kinghorn, A.D. Drug discovery from medicinal plants. Life Sci. 2005, 78, 431-441.
29. Nobili, S.; Lippi, D.; Witort, E.; Donnini, M.; Bausi, L.; Mini, E.; Capaccioli, S. Natural compounds for cancer treatment and prevention. Pharmacol. Res. 2009, 59, 365-378.
30. Mansky, P.J.; Wallerstedt, D.B.; Sannes, T.S.; Stagl, J.; Johnson, L.L.; Blackman, M.R.; Grem, J.L.; Swain, S.M.; Monahan, B.P. NCCAM/NCI phase 1 study of mistletoe extract and gemcitabine in patients with advanced solid tumors. Evid. Based Complement. Alternat. Med. 2013, 2013, doi:org/10.1155/2013/964592.
31. Shanafelt, T.D.; Call, T.G.; Zent, C.S.; Leis, J.F.; LaPlant, B.; Bowen, D.A.; Roos, M.; Laumann, K.; Ghosh, A.K.; Lesnick, C.; et al. Phase 2 trial of daily, oral polyphenon E in patients with asymptomatic, Rai stage 0 to II chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Cancer 2013, 119, 363-370.
32. Mittal, A.; Tabasum, S.; Singh, R.P. Berberine in combination with doxorubicin suppresses growth of murine melanoma B16F10 cells in culture and xenograft. Phytomedicine 2014, 21, 340-347.
33. Kim, K.H.; Moon, E.; Kim, S.Y.; Choi, S.U.; Lee, K.R. Lignan constituents of Tilia amurensis and their biological evaluation on antitumor and anti-inflammatory activities. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2012, 50, 3680-3686.
34. Singh, T.; Katiyar, S.K. Green tea polyphenol, (-)-epigallocatechin-3- gallate, induces toxicity in human skin cancer cells by targeting β-catenin signaling. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2013, 273, 418-424.
35. Chan, L.; Chou, T.; Ding, H.; Chen, P.; Chiang, F.; Kuo, P.; Liang, C. Apigenin induces apoptosis via tumor necrosis factor receptor- and Bcl-2-mediated pathway and enhances susceptibility of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma to 5-fluorouracil and cisplatin. Biochim. Biophys. Acta Gen. S. 2012, 1820, 1081-1091.
36. Nihal, M.; Ahmad, N.; Mukhtar, H.; Wood, G.S. Anti-proliferative and proapoptotic effects of (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate on human melanoma: Possible implications for the chemoprevention of melanoma. Int. J. Cancer 2005, 114, 513-521.
37. Katiyar, S.K. Green tea prevents non-melanoma skin cancer by enhancing DNA repair. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2011, 508, 152-158.
38. Wang, S.; Meckling, K.A.; Marcone, M.F.; Kakuda, Y.; Tsao, R. Can phytochemical antioxidant rich foods act as anticancer agents? Food Res. Int. 2011, 44, 2545-2554.
39. Saeidnia, S.; Abdollahi, M. Antioxidants: Friends or foe in prevention or treatment of cancer: The debate of the century. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2013, 271, 49-63.
40. Batra, P.; Sharma, A.K. Anti-cancer potential of flavonoids: Recent trends and future perspectives. 3 Biotech 2013, 3, 439-459.
41. Kuttan, G.; Pratheeshkumar, P.; Manu, K.A.; Kuttan, R. Inhibition of tumor progression by naturally occurring terpenoids. Pharm. Biol. 2011, 49, 995-1007.
42. Steinmetz, K.A.; Potter, J.D. Vegetables, fruit, and cancer. II. Mechanisms. Cancer Causes Control 1991, 2, 427-442.
43. Hendrickson, J.B. The Molecules of Nature: A Survey of The Biosynthesis And Chemistry of Natural Products; W.A. Benjamin, Inc.: New York, NY, USA, 1965.
44. Corcoran, M.P.; McKay, D.L.; Blumberg, J.B. Flavonoid basics: Chemistry, sources, mechanisms of action, and safety. J. Nutr. Gerontol. Geriatr. 2012, 31, 176-189.
45. Agrawal, A. Pharmacological Activities of Flavonoids: A Review. Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Nanotech. 2011, 4, 1394-1398.
46. Harborne, J.B.; Williams, C.A. Advances in flavonoid research since 1992. Phytochemistry 2000, 55, 481-504.
47. Saewan, N.; Jimtaisong, A. Photoprotection of natural flavonoids. J. Appl. Pharm. Sci. 2013, 3, 129-141.
48. Kelly, G.S. Quercetin. Altern. Med. Rev. 2011, 16, 172-194.
49. Lin, Y.S.; Tsai, P.H.; Kandaswami, C.C.; Cheng, C.H.; Ke, F.C.; Lee, P.P.; Hwang, J.J.; Lee, M.T. Effects of dietary flavonoids, luteolin, and quercetin on the reversal of epithelial-mesenchymal transition in A431 epidermal cancer cells. Cancer Sci. 2011, 102, 1829-1839.
50. Jung, M.; Bu, S.; Tak, K.; Park, J.; Kim, E. Anticarcinogenic effect of quercetin by inhibition of insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 signaling in mouse skin cancer. Nutr. Res. Pract. 2013, 7, 439-445.
51. Derenne, A.; van Hemelryck, V.; Lamoral-Theys, D.; Kiss, R.; Goormaghtigh, E. FTIR spectroscopy: A new valuable tool to classify the effects of polyphenolic compounds on cancer cells. Biochim. Biophys. Acta Mol. Basis Dis. 2013, 1832, 46-56.
52. Sak, K. Site-specific anticancer effects of dietary flavonoid quercetin. Nutr. Cancer 2014, 66, 177-193.
53. Erlund, I. Review of the flavonoids quercetin, hesperetin, and naringenin: Dietary sources, bioactivities, bioavailability, and epidemiology. Nutr. Res. 2004, 24, 851-874.
54. Hollman, P.C.H.; van Trijp, J.M.P.; Mengelers, M.J.B.; de Vries, J.H.M.; Katan, M.B. Bioavailability of the dietary antioxidant flavonol quercetin in man. Cancer Lett. 1997, 114, 139-140.
55. Asensi, M.; Ortega, A.; Mena, S.; Feddi, F.; Estrela, J.M. Natural polyphenols in cancer therapy. Crit. Rev. Clin. Lab. Sci. 2011, 48, 197-216.
56. Caltagirone, S.; Rossi, C.; Poggi, A.; Ranelletti, F.O.; Natali, P.G.; Brunetti, M.; Aiello, F.B.; Piantelli, M. Flavonoids apigenin and quercetin inhibit melanoma growth and metastatic potential. Int. J. Cancer 2000, 87, 595-600.
57. Rosner, K.; Röpke, C.; Pless, V.; Skovgaard, G.L. Late type apoptosis and apoptosis free lethal effect of quercetin in human melanoma. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 2006, 70, 2169-2177.
58. Zhang, X.-M.; Chen, J.; Xia, Y.-G.; Xu, Q. Apoptosis of murine melanoma B16-BL6 cells induced by quercetin targeting mitochondria, inhibiting expression of PKC-α and translocating PKC-δ. Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol. 2005, 55, 251-262.
59. Olson, E.R.; Melton, T.; Dickinson, S.E.; Dong, Z.; Alberts, D.S.; Bowden, G.T. Quercetin potentiates UVB-Induced c-Fos expression: Implications for its use as a chemopreventive agent. Cancer Prev. Res. 2010, 3, 876-884.
60. Yin, Y.; Li, W.; Son, Y.O.; Sun, L.; Lu, J.; Kim, D.; Wang, X.; Yao, H.; Wang, L.; Pratheeshkumar, P.; et al. Quercitin protects skin from UVB-induced oxidative damage. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2013, 269, 89-99.
61. Cao, H.H.; Tse, A.K.W.; Kwan, H.Y.; Yu, H.; Cheng, C.Y.; Su, T.; Fong, W.F.; Yu, Z.L. Quercetin exerts anti-melanoma activities and inhibits STAT3 signaling. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2014, 87, 424-434.
62. Casagrande, R.; Georgetti, S.R.; Verri, W.A., Jr.; Dorta, D.J.; dos Santos, A.C.; Fonseca, M.J.V. Protective effect of topical formulations containing quercetin against UVB-induced oxidative stress in hairless mice. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B 2006, 84, 21-27.
63. Lin, C.-F.; Leu, Y.-L.; Al-Suwayeh, S.A.; Ku, M.-C.; Hwang, T.-L.; Fang, J.-Y. Anti-inflammatory activity and percutaneous absorption of quercetin and its polymethoxylated compound and glycosides: The relationships to chemical structures. Eur. J. Pharm. Sci. 2012, 47, 857-864.
64. Sneha, S.; Swarnlata, S.; Kaur, C.D.; Shailendra, S. Biocompatible nanoparticles for sustained topical delivery of anticancer phytoconstituent quercetin. Pak. J. Biol. Sci. 2013, 16, 601-609.
65. Censi, R.; Martena, V.; Hoti, E.; Malaj, L.; di Martino, P. Permeation and skin retention of quercetin from microemulsions containing Transcutol® P. Drug Dev. Ind. Pharm. 2012, 38, 1128-1133.
66. Albishi, T.; John, J.A.; Al-Khalifa, A.S.; Shahidi, F. Antioxidative phenolic constituents of skins of onion varieties and their activities. J. Funct. Foods 2013, 5, 1191-1203.
67. Allen, Y.C.; Yi Charlie, C. Review: A review of the dietary flavonoid, kaempferol on human health and cancer chemoprevention. Food Chem. 2013, 138, 2099-2107.
68. Miean, K.H.; Mohamed, S. Flavonoid (myricetin, quercetin, kaempferol, luteolin, and apigenin) content of edible tropical plants. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2001, 49, 3106-3112.
69. Calderon-Montano, J.M.; Burgos-Moron, E.; Perez-Guerrero, C.; Lopez-Lazaro, M. A review on the dietary flavonoid kaempferol. Mini-Rev. Med. Chem. 2011, 11, 298-344.
70. Casagrande, F.; Darbon, J. Effects of structurally related flavonoids on cell cycle progression of human melanoma cells: Regulation of cyclin-dependent kinases CDK2 and CDK1. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2004, 61, 1205-1215.
71. Chao, Y.; Huang, C.T.; Fu, L.T.; Huang, Y.B.; Tsai, Y.H.; Wu, P.C. The effect of submicron emulsion systems on transdermal delivery of kaempferol. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 2012, 60, 1171-1175.
72. Park, S.N.; Kim, S.Y.; Lim, G.N.; Jo, N.R.; Lee, M.H. In vitro skin permeation and cellular protective effects of flavonoids isolated from Suaeda asparagoides extracts. J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 2011, 18, 680-683.
73. Lu, L.Y.; Ou, N.; Lu, Q.B. Antioxidant induces DNA damage, cell death and mutagenicity in human lung and skin normal cells. Sci. Rep. 2013, 3, 3169-3169.
74. Russo, M.; Tedesco, I.; Iacomino, G.; Palumbo, R.; Galano, G.; Russo, G.L. Dietary phytochemicals in chemoprevention of cancer. Curr. Med. Chem. Immunol. Endocr. Metab. Agents 2005, 5, 61-72.
75. Zhang, G.; Miura, Y.; Yagasaki, K. Induction of apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in cancer cells by in vivo metabolites of teas. Nutr. Cancer 2000, 38, 265-273.
76. Nihal, M.; Roelke, C.T.; Wood, G.S. Anti-melanoma effects of vorinostat in combination with polyphenolic antioxidant (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG). Pharm. Res. 2010, 27, 1103-1114.
77. Nihal, M.; Ahsan, H.; Siddiqui, I.A.; Mukhtar, H.; Ahmad, N.; Wood, G.S. (-)-Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) sensitizes melanoma cells to interferon induced growth inhibition in a mouse model of human melanoma. Cell Cycle 2009, 8, 2057-2063.
78. Chung, S.Y.; Hong, W.; Guang Xun, L.; Zhihong, Y.; Fei, G.; Huanyu, J. Review: Cancer prevention by tea: Evidence from laboratory studies. Pharm. Res. 2011, 64, 113-122.
79. Bhatia, N.; Agarwal, C.; Agarwal, R. Differential responses of skin cancer-chemopreventive agents silibinin, quercetin, and epigallocatechin 3-gallate on mitogenic signaling and cell cycle regulators in human epidermoid carcinoma A431 cells. Nutr. Cancer 2001, 39, 292-299.
80. Nandakumar, V.; Vaid, M.; Katiyar, S.K. (-)-Epigallocatechin-3-gallate reactivates silenced tumor suppressor genes, Cip1/p21 and p16INK4a, by reducing DNA methylation and increasing histones acetylation in human skin cancer cells. Carcinogenesis 2011, 32, 537-544.
81. Sevin, A.; Özta, P.; Senen, D.; Han, Ü.; Karaman, Ç.; Tarimci, N.; Kartal, M.; Erdogan, B. Effects of polyphenols on skin damage due to ultraviolet A rays: An experimental study on rats. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 2007, 21, 650-656.
82. Shukla, S.; Gupta, S. Apigenin and cancer chemoprevention. In Bioactive Foods in Promoting Health: Fruits and Vegetables; Watson, R.R., Preedy, V.R., Eds.; Elsevier: London, UK, 2010.
83. Shukla, S.; Gupta, S. Apigenin: A promising molecule for cancer prevention. Pharm. Res. 2010, 27, 962-978.
84. Das, S.; Das, J.; Paul, A.; Samadder, A.; Khuda-Bukhsh, A.R. Research article: Apigenin, a bioactive flavonoid from lycopodium lavatum, stimulates nucleotide excision repair genes to protect skin keratinocytes from ultraviolet B-induced reactive oxygen species and DNA damage. J. Acupunct. Meridian Stud. 2013, 6, 252-262.
85. Byun, S.; Park, J.; Lee, E.; Lim, S.; Yu, J.G.; Lee, S.J.; Chen, H.; Dong, Z.; Lee, K.W.; Lee, H.J. Src kinase is a direct target of apigenin against UVB-induced skin inflammation. Carcinogenesis 2013, 34, 397-405.
86. Li-Na, S.; Yong-Tai, Z.; Qin, W.; Ling, X.; Nian-Ping, F. Pharmaceutical nanotechnology: Enhanced in vitro and in vivo skin deposition of apigenin delivered using ethosomes. Int. J. Pharm. 2014, 460, 280-288.
87. Das, S.; Das, J.; Samadder, A.; Paul, A.; Khuda-Bukhsh, A.R. Strategic formulation of apigenin-loaded PLGA nanoparticles for intracellular trafficking, DNA targeting and improved therapeutic effects in skin melanoma in vitro. Toxicol. Lett. 2013, 223, 124-138.
88. Das, S.; Das, S.; Samadder, A.; Paul, A.; Khuda-Bukhsh, A.R. Efficacy of PLGA-loaded apigenin nanoparticles in Benzo[a]pyrene and ultraviolet-B induced skin cancer of mice: Mitochondria mediated apoptotic signalling cascades. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2013, 62, 670-680.
89. Huang, Z.; Hung, C.; Lin, Y.; Fang, J. In vitro and in vivo evaluation of topical delivery and potential dermal use of soy isoflavones genistein and daidzein. Int. J. Pharm. 2008, 364, 36-44.
90. Lin, J.; Tournas, J.A.; Burch, J.A.; Monteiro-Riviere, N.A.; Zielinski, J. Topical isoflavones provide effective photoprotection to skin. Photodermatol. Photoimmunol. Photomed. 2008, 24, 61-66.
91. Iovine, B.; Iannella, M.L.; Gasparri, F.; Monfrecola, G.; Bevilacqua, M.A. Synergic effect of genistein and daidzein on UVB-induced DNA damage: An effective photoprotective combination. J. Biomed. Biotechnol. 2011, doi:10.1155/2011/692846.
92. Wang, H.Z.; Zhang, Y.; Xie, L.P.; Yu, X.Y.; Zhang, R.Q. Effects of genistein and daidzein on the cell growth, cell cycle, and differentiation of human and murine melanoma cells. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2002, 13, 421-426.
93. Huang, W.Y.; Cai, Y.Z.; Zhang, Y. Natural phenolic compounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants: Potential use for cancer prevention. Nutr. Cancer 2010, 62, 1-20.
94. Chen, J.; Chang, H.W.; Kim, H.P.; Park, H. Synthesis of phospholipase A2 inhibitory biflavonoids. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 2006, 16, 2373-2375.
95. Campos, P.M.; Horinouchi, C.D.; Prudente Ada, S.; Cechinel-Filho, V.; Cabrini Dde, A.; Otuki, M.F. Effect of a Garcinia gardneriana (Planchon and Triana) Zappi hydroalcoholic extract on melanogenesis in B16F10 melanoma cells. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2013, 148, 199-204.
96. Guruvayoorappan, C.; Kuttan, G. Amentoflavone inhibits experimental tumor metastasis through a regulatory mechanism involving MMP-2, MMP-9, prolyl hydroxylase, lysyl oxidase, VEGF, ERK-1, ERK-2, STAT-1, NM23 and cytokines in lung tissues of C57BL/6 mice. Immunopharmacol. Immunotoxicol. 2008, 30, 711-727.
97. Tarallo, V.; Lepore, L.; Marcellini, M.; Dal Piaz, F.; Tudisco, L.; Ponticelli, S.; Lund, F.W.; Roepstorff, P.; Orlandi, A.; Pisano, C.; et al. The biflavonoid amentoflavone inhibits neovascularization preventing the activity of proangiogenic vascular endothelial growth factors. J. Biol. Chem. 2011, 286, 19641-19651.
98. Guruvayoorappan, C.; Kuttan, G. Effect of amentoflavone on the inhibition of pulmonary metastasis induced by B16F-10 melanoma cells in C57BL/6 mice. Integr. Cancer Ther. 2007, 6, 185-197.
99. Kalva, S.; Azhagiya Singam, E.R.; Rajapandian, V.; Saleena, L.M.; Subramanian, V. Discovery of potent inhibitor for matrix metalloproteinase-9 by pharmacophore based modeling and dynamics simulation studies. J. Mol. Graphics Modell. 2014, 49, 25-37.
100. Krinsky, N.I.; Johnson, E.J. Carotenoid actions and their relation to health and disease. Mol. Aspects. Med. 2005, 26, 459-516.
101. Rodriguez-Amaya, D.B. A Guide to Carotenoid Analysis in Foods; ILSI Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2001; pp. 1-64.
102. Vainio, H.; Rautalahti, M. An international evaluation of the cancer preventive potential of carotenoids. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 1998, 7, 725-728.
103. Stahl, W.; Sies, H. Bioactivity and protective effects of natural carotenoids. Biochim. Biophys. Acta Mol. Basis Dis. 2005, 1740, 101-107.
104. Tanaka, T.; Shnimizu, M.; Moriwaki, H. Cancer chemoprevention by carotenoids. Molecules 2012, 17, 3202-3242.
105. Payette, M.J.; Whalen, J.; Grant-Kels, J.M. Nutrition and nonmelanoma skin cancers. Clin. Dermatol. 2010, 28, 650-662.
106. Andersson, E.; Vahlquist, A.; Rosdahl, I. β-carotene uptake and bioconversion to retinol differ between human melanocytes and keratinocytes. Nutr. Cancer 2001, 39, 300-306.
107. Palozza, P.; Serini, S.; Torsello, A.; di Nicuolo, F.; Maggiano, N.; Ranelletti, F.O.; Wolf, F.I.; Calviello, G. mechanism of activation of caspase cascade during β-carotene-induced apoptosis in human tumor cells. Nutr. Cancer 2003, 47, 76-87.
108. Guruvayoorappan, C.; Kuttan, G. β-Carotene down-regulates inducible nitric oxide synthase gene expression and induces apoptosis by suppressing bcl-2 expression and activating caspase-3 and p53 genes in B16F-10 melanoma cells. Nutr. Res. 2007, 27, 336-342.
109. Guruvayoorappan, C.; Kuttan, G. Beta-carotene inhibits tumor-specific angiogenesis by altering the cytokine profile and inhibits the nuclear translocation of transcription factors in B16F-10 melanoma cells. Integr. Cancer Ther. 2007, 6, 258-270.
110. Bodzioch, M.; Dembinska-Kiec, A.; Hartwich, J.; Lapicka-Bodzioch, K.; Banas, A.; Polus, A.; Grzybowska, J.; Wybranska, I.; Dulinska, J.; Gil, D.; et al. The microarray expression analysis identifies BAX as a mediator of β-carotene effects on apoptosis. Nutr. Cancer 2005, 51, 226-235.
111. Bialy, T.L.; Rothe, M.J.; Grant-Kels, J.M. Dietary factors in the prevention and treatment of non-melanoma skin cancer and melanoma. Dermatol. Surg. 2002, 28, 1143-1152.
112. Millen, A.E.; Tucker, M.A.; Hartge, P.; Halpern, A.; Elder, D.E.; Guerry, D.T.; Holly, E.A.; Sagebiel, R.W.; Potischman, N. Diet and melanoma in a case-control study. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 2004, 13, 1042-1051.
113. Michael, A.; Hedayati, B.; Dalgleish, A.G. Disease regression in malignant melanoma: Spontaneous resolution or a result of treatment with antioxidants, green tea, and pineapple cores? A case report. Integr. Cancer Ther. 2007, 6, 77-79.
114. Hercberg, S.; Ezzedine, K.; Guinot, C.; Preziosi, P.; Galan, P.; Bertrais, S.; Estaquio, C.; Briancon, S.; Favier, A.; Latreille, J.; et al. Antioxidant supplementation increases the risk of skin cancers in women but not in men. J. Nutr. 2007, 137, 2098-2105.
115. Ezzedine, K.; Latreille, J.; Kesse-Guyot, E.; Galan, P.; Hercberg, S.; Guinot, C.; Malvy, D. Incidence of skin cancers during 5-year follow-up after stopping antioxidant vitamins and mineral supplementation. Eur. J. Cancer 2010, 46, 3316-3322.
116. Hennekens, C.H.; Buring, J.E.; Manson, J.E.; Stampfer, M.; Rosner, B.; Cook, N.R.; Belanger, C.; LaMotte, F.; Gaziano, J.M.; Ridker, P.M.; et al. Lack of effect of long-term supplementation with beta carotene on the incidence of malignant neoplasms and cardiovascular disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 1996, 334, 1145-1149.
117. Breslow, RA.; Alberg, A.J.; Helzlsouer, K.J.; Bush, T.L.; Norkus, E.P.; Morris, J.S.; Spate, V.E.; Comstock, G.W. Serological precursors of cancer: Malignant melanoma, basal and squamous cell skin cancer, and prediagnostic levels of retinol, beta-carotene, lycopene, alpha-tocopherol, and selenium. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 1995, 4, 837-842.
118. Comstock, G.W.; Helzlsouer, K.J.; Bush, T.L. Prediagnostic serum levels of carotenoids and vitamin E as related to subsequent cancer in Washington County, Maryland. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1991, 53, 260S-264S.
119. Chiang, H.-S.; Wu, W.-B.; Fang, J.-Y.; Chen, D.-F.; Chen, B.-H.; Huang, C.-C.; Chen, Y.-T.; Hung, C.-F. Lycopene inhibits PDGF-BB-induced signaling and migration in human dermal fibroblasts through interaction with PDGF-BB. Life Sci. 2007, 81, 1509-1517.
120. Wu, W.B.; Chiang, H.S.; Fang, J.Y.; Hung, C.F. Inhibitory effect of lycopene on PDGF-BB-induced signalling and migration in human dermal fibroblasts: A possible target for cancer. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 2007, 35, 1377-1378.
121. D'Orazio, N.; Gemello, E.; Gammone, M.A.; de Girolamo, M.; Ficoneri, C.; Riccioni, G. Fucoxantin: A treasure from the sea. Mar. Drugs 2012, 10, 604-616.
122. Imbs, T.I.; Ermakova, S.P.; Fedoreyev, S.A.; Anastyuk, S.D.; Zvyagintseva, T.N. Isolation of fucoxanthin and highly unsaturated monogalactosyldiacylglycerol from brown alga Fucus evanescens C Agardh and in vitro investigation of their antitumor activity. Mar. Biotechnol. 2013, 15, 606-612.
123. Kumar, S.R.; Masashi, H.; Kazuo, M. Fucoxanthin: A marine carotenoid exerting anti-cancer effects by affecting multiple mechanisms. Mar. Drugs 2013, 11, 5130-5147.
124. Kim, K.N.; Ahn, G.; Heo, S.J.; Kang, S.M.; Kang, M.C.; Yang, H.M.; Kim, D.; Roh, S.W.; Kim, S.K.; Jeon, B.T.; et al. Inhibition of tumor growth in vitro and in vivo by fucoxanthin against melanoma B16F10 cells. Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2013, 35, 39-46.
125. Chung, T.W.; Choi, H.J.; Lee, J.Y.; Jeong, H.S.; Kim, C.H.; Joo, M.; Choi, J.Y.; Han, C.W.; Kim, S.Y.; Choi, J.S.; et al. Marine algal fucoxanthin inhibits the metastatic potential of cancer cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2013, 439, 580-585.
126. Shimoda, H.; Tanaka, J.; Shan, S.J.; Maoka, T. Anti-pigmentary activity of fucoxanthin and its influence on skin mRNA expression of melanogenic molecules. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 2010, 62, 1137-1145.
127. Ju Hye, L.; Kishikawa, M.; Kumazoe, M.; Yamada, K.; Tachibana, H. Vitamin A enhances antitumor effect of a green tea polyphenol on melanoma by upregulating the polyphenol sensing molecule 67-kDa laminin receptor. PLoS One 2010, 5, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0011051.
128. Fan, J.; Eastham, L.; Varney, M.E.; Hall, A.; Adkins, N.L.; Sollars, V.E.; Georgel, P.; Niles, R.M. Silencing and re-expression of retinoic acid receptor beta2 in human melanoma. Pigm. Cell Melanoma Res. 2010, 23, 419-429.
129. Le Marchand, L.; Saltzman, B.S.; Hankin, J.H.; Wilkens, L.R.; Franke, A.A.; Morris, S.J.; Kolonel, L.N. Sun exposure, diet, and melanoma in Hawaii Caucasians. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2006, 164, 232-245.
130. Asgari, M.M.; Brasky, T.M.; White, E. Association of vitamin A and carotenoid intake with melanoma risk in a large prospective cohort. J. Invest. Dermatol. 2012, 132, 1573-1582.
131. Burnett, M.E.; Wang, S.Q. Current sunscreen controversies: A critical review. Photodermatol. Photoimmunol. Photomed. 2011, 27, 58-67.
132. Morganroth, P.A.; Lim, H.W.; Burnett, C.T. Ultraviolet radiation and the skin: An in-depth review. Am. J. Lifestyle Med. 2013, 7, 168-181.
133. Guruvayoorappan, C.; Kuttan, G. 13 cis-Retinoic acid regulates cytokine production and inhibits angiogenesis by disrupting endothelial cell migration and tube formation. J. Exp. Ther. Oncol. 2008, 7, 173-182.
134. Meyskens, F.L., Jr.; Fuller, B.B. Characterization of the effects of different retinoids on the growth and differentiation of a human melanoma cell line and selected subclones. Cancer Res. 1980, 40, 2194-2196.
135. Ribeiro, M.P.C.; Silva, F.S.G.; Paixão, J.; Santos, A.E.; Custódio, J.B.A. The combination of the antiestrogen endoxifen with all-trans-retinoic acid has anti-proliferative and anti-migration effects on melanoma cells without inducing significant toxicity in non-neoplasic cells. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2013, 715, 354-362.
136. Feskanich, D.; Willett, W.C.; Hunter, D.J.; Colditz, G.A. Dietary intakes of vitamins A, C, and E and risk of melanoma in two cohorts of women. Br. J. Cancer 2003, 88, 1381-1387.
137. Kang, J.S.; Cho, D.; Kim, Y.I.; Hahm, E.; Yang, Y.; Kim, D.; Hur, D.; Park, H.; Bang, S.; Hwang, Y.I.; et al. L-ascorbic acid (vitamin C) induces the apoptosis of B16 murine melanoma cells via a caspase-8-independent pathway. Cancer Immunol. Immunother. 2003, 52, 693-698.
138. Neena, P.; Thomas, K.; Carol, H. Reciprocal effects of ascorbate on cancer cell growth and the expression of matrix metalloproteinases and transforming growth factor-β. Cancer Lett. 2007, 256, 49-55.
139. Hahm, E.; Jin, D.H.; Kang, J.S.; Kim, Y.I.; Hong, S.W.; Lee, S.K.; Kim, H.N.; Jung, D.J.; Kim, J.E.; Shin, D.H.; et al. The molecular mechanisms of vitamin C on cell cycle regulation in B16F10 murine melanoma. J. Cell. Biochem. 2007, 102, 1002-1010.
140. Kim, H.N.; Kim, H.; Kong, J.; Bae, S.; Kim, Y.; Lee, N.; Cho, B.; Lee, S.; Kim, H.; Hwang, Y.; et al. Vitamin C down-regulates VEGF production in B16F10 murine melanoma cells via the suppression of p42/44 MAPK activation. J. Cell. Biochem. 2011, 112, 894-901.
141. Koo, S.L.; Seung, J.K.; da Jung, J.; Young, D.H.; Eun, J.K.; Eunsil, H.; Seyeon, B.; Woo, H.K.; Daejin, K.; Joo, B.C.; et al. Vitamin C suppresses proliferation of the human melanoma cell SK-MEL-2 through the inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression and the modulation of insulin-like growth factor II (IGF-II) production. J. Cell. Physiol. 2008, 216, 180-188.
142. Gandini, S.; Raimondi, S.; Gnagnarella, P.; Doré, J.F.; Maisonneuve, P.; Testori, A. Vitamin D and skin cancer: A meta-analysis. Eur. J. Cancer 2009, 45, 634-641.
143. Gandini, S.; Francesco, F.; Johanson, H.; Bonanni, B.; Testori, A. Why vitamin D for cancer patients? Ecancermedicalscience 2009, 3, 160-160.
144. Tang, J.Y.; Fu, T.; Lau, C.; Oh, D.H.; Bikle, D.D.; Asgari, M.M. Vitamin D in cutaneous carcinogenesis: Part I. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 2012, 67, doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2012.05.044.
145. Major, J.M.; Kiruthu, C.; Weinstein, S.J.; Horst, R.L.; Snyder, K.; Virtamo, J.; Albanes, D. Pre-diagnostic circulating vitamin D and risk of melanoma in men. PLoS One 2012, 7, 1-5.
146. Asgari, M.M.; Maruti, S.S.; Kushi, L.H.; White, E. A cohort study of vitamin D intake and melanoma risk. J. Invest. Dermatol. 2009, 129, 1675-1680.
147. Geyu, L.; Hongmei, N.; Qureshi, A.A.; Jiali, H. Pre-diagnostic plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and risk of non-melanoma skin cancer in women. PLoS One 2012, 7, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0035211.
148. Vinceti, M.; Malagoli, C.; Fiorentini, C.; Longo, C.; Crespi, C.M.; Albertini, G.; Ricci, C.; Lanzoni, A.; Reggiani, M.; Virgili, A.; et al. Inverse association between dietary vitamin D and risk of cutaneous melanoma in a northern Italy population. Nutr. Cancer 2011, 63, 506-513.
149. Brozyna, A.A.; Jozwicki, W.; Janjetovic, Z.J.; Slominski, A.T. Original contribution: Expression of vitamin D receptor decreases during progression of pigmented skin lesions. Hum. Pathol. 2011, 42, 618-631.
150. Tuohimaa, P.; Pukkala, E.; Scélo, G.; Olsen, J.H.; Brewster, D.H.; Hemminki, K.; Tracey, E.; Weiderpass, E.; Kliewer, E.V.; Pompe-Kirn, V.; et al. Does solar exposure, as indicated by the non-melanoma skin cancers, protect from solid cancers: Vitamin D as a possible explanation. Eur. J. Cancer 2007, 43, 1701-1712.
151. Malafa, M.P.; Fokum, F.D.; Mowlavi, A.; Abusief, M.; King, M. Vitamin E inhibits melanoma growth in mice. Surgery 2002, 131, 85-91.
152. Fairfield, K.M.; Fletcher, R.H. Vitamins for chronic disease prevention. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 2002, 287, 3116-3126.
153. Chang, P.N.; Yap, W.N.; Lee, D.T.W.; Ling, M.T.; Wong, Y.C.; Yap, Y.L. Evidence of gamma-tocotrienol as an apoptosis-inducing, invasion-suppressing, and chemotherapy drug-sensitizing agent in human melanoma cells. Nutr. Cancer 2009, 61, 357-366.
154. Ottino, P.; Duncan, J.R. Human study: Effect of vitamin E succinate on free radical formation, lipid peroxidation levels and cyclooxygenase activity in murine melanoma cells. Nutr. Res. 1997, 17, 661-676.
155. Prasad, K.N.; Edwards-Prasad, J. Effects of tocopherol (vitamin E) acid succinate on morphological alterations and growth inhibition in melanoma cells in culture. Cancer Res. 1982, 42, 550-555.
156. Ottino, P.; Duncan, J.R. The role of adenylate cyclase, cAMP and PGE2 in the in vitro growth regulation of murine melanoma cells by vitamin E. Prostaglandins Leukotrienes Essent. Fatty Acids 1996, 54, 375-383.
157. Malafa, M.P.; Fokum, F.D.; Smith, L.; Louis, A. Inhibition of angiogenesis and promotion of melanoma dormancy by vitamin E succinate. Ann. Surg. Oncol. 2002, 9, 1023-1032.
158. Pedrelli, V.F.; Lauriola, M.M.; Pigatto, P.D. Clinical evaluation of photoprotective effect by a topical antioxidants combination (tocopherols and tocotrienols). J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 2012, 26, 1449-1453.
159. Burns, E.M.; Tober, K.L.; Riggenbach, J.A.; Kusewitt, D.F.; Young, G.S.; Oberyszyn, T.M. Differential effects of topical vitamin E and C E Ferulic treatments on ultraviolet light B-induced cutaneous tumor development in Skh-1 mice. PLoS One 2013, 8, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0063809.
160. Nicolas, D.; Fabienne, D.; Véronique, P. Review: Vitamin E-based nanomedicines for anti-cancer drug delivery. J. Controlled Release 2014, 182, 33-44.
161. Banthorpe, D.V. Terpenoids. In Natural Products: Their Chemistry and Biological Significance; Mann, J., Davidson, R.S., Hobbs, J.B., Banthorpe, D.V., Harbone, J.B., Eds.; Addison Wesley Longman: Edinburgh, UK, 1994; pp. 289-359.
162. Trajković, L.M.H.; Mijatović, S.A.; Maksimović- Ivanić, D.D.; Stojanović, I.D.; Momčilović, M.B.; Tufegdzic, S.J.; Maksimović, V.M.; Marjanović, Ž.S.; Stošic-Grujičić, S.D. Anticancer properties of Ganoderma Lucidum methanol extracts in vitro and in vivo. Nutr. Cancer 2009, 61, 696-707.
163. Harhaji, L.J.; Mijatović, S.; Maksimović-Ivanić, D.; Stojanović, I.; Momčilović, M.; Maksimović, V.; Tufegdžić, S.; Marjanović, Z.; Mostarica-Stojković, M.; Vučinić, Z.; et al. Anti-tumor effect of Coriolus versicolor methanol extract against mouse B16 melanoma cells: In vitro and in vivo study. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2008, 46, 1825-1833.
164. Valiahdi, S.M.; Iranshahi, M.; Sahebkar, A. Cytotoxic activities of phytochemicals from Ferula species. Daru J. Pharm. Sci. 2013, 21, 1-7.
165. Uddin, A.N.; Labuda, I.; Burns, F.J. A novel mechanism of filaggrin induction and sunburn prevention by β-damascenone in Skh-1 mice. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2012, 265, 335-341.
166. Hammer, K.A.; Carson, C.F.; Riley, T.V.; Nielsen, J.B. A review of the toxicity of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2006, 44, 616-625.
167. Ireland, D.J.; Greay, S.J.; Hooper, C.M.; Kissick, H.T.; Filion, P.; Riley, T.V.; Beilharz, M.W. Topically applied Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil causes direct anti-cancer cytotoxicity in subcutaneous tumour bearing mice. J. Dermatol. Sci. 2012, 67, 120-129.
168. Xiao, K.; Zhang, H.J.; Xuan, L.J.; Zhang, J.; Xu, Y.M.; Bai, D.L. Stilbenoids: Chemistry and bioactivities. In Studies in Natural Products Chemistry; Rahman, A., Ed.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2008; Volume 34, pp. 453-646.
169. Shen, T.; Xie, C.F.; Wang, X.N.; Luo, H.X. Stilbenoids. In Natural Products; Ramawat, K.G., Merillon, J.M., Eds.; Springer: Berlin, Germany, 2013; pp. 1901-1949.
170. Delmas, D.; Lancon, A.; Colin, D.; Jannin, B.; Latruffe, N. Resveratrol as a chemopreventive agent: A promising molecule for fighting cancer. Curr. Drug Targets 2006, 7, 1-20.
171. Niles, R.M.; McFarland, M.; Weimer, M.B.; Redkar, A.; Fu, Y.M.; Meadows, G.G. Resveratrol is a potent inducer of apoptosis in human melanoma cells. Cancer Lett. 2003, 190, 157.
172. Gatouillat, G.; Balasse, E.; Joseph-Pietras, D.; Morjani, H.; Madoulet, C. Resveratrol induces cell-cycle disruption and apoptosis in chemoresistant B16 melanoma. J. Cell. Biochem. 2010, 110, 893-902.
173. Chen, M.C.; Chang, W.W.; Kuan, Y.D.; Lin, S.T.; Hsu, H.C.; Lee, C.H. Resveratrol inhibits LPS-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition in mouse melanoma model. Innate Immun. 2012, 18, 685-693.
174. Fang, Y.; Bradley, M.J.; Cook, K.M.; Herrick, E.J.; Nicholl, M.B. A potential role for resveratrol as a radiation sensitizer for melanoma treatment. J. Surg. Res. 2013, 183, 645-653.
175. Osmond, G.W.; Augustine, C.K.; Zipfel, P.A.; Padussis, J.; Tyler, D.S. Enhancing melanoma treatment with resveratrol. J. Surg. Res. 2012, 172, 109-115.
176. Niles, R.M.; Cook, C.P.; Meadows, G.G.; Fu, Y.M.; McLaughlin, J.L.; Rankin, G.O. Resveratrol is rapidly metabolized in athymic (Nu/Nu) mice and does not inhibit human melanoma xenograft tumor growth. J. Nutr. 2006, 136, 2542-2546.
177. Asensi, M.; Medina, I.; Ortega, A.; Carretero, J.; Baño, M.C.; Obrador, E.; Estrela, J.M. Original contribution: Inhibition of cancer growth by resveratrol is related to its low bioavailability. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2002, 33, 387-398.
178. Guan, H.; Singh, N.P.; Singh, U.P.; Nagarkatti, P.S.; Nagarkatti, M. Resveratrol prevents endothelial cells injury in high-dose interleukin-2 therapy against melanoma. PLoS One 2012, 7, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0035650.
179. Shehzad, A.; Lee, J.; Lee, Y.S. Curcumin in various cancers. Biofactors 2013, 39, 56-68.
180. Gupta, S.C.; Patchva, S.; Koh, W.; Aggarwal, B.B. Discovery of curcumin, a component of golden spice, and its miraculous biological activities. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 2012, 39, 283-299.
181. Anand, P.; Sundaram, C.; Jhurani, S.; Kunnumakkara, A.B.; Aggarwal, B.B. Curcumin and cancer: An "old-age" disease with an "age-old" solution. Cancer Lett. 2008, 267, 133-164.
182. Qiu, Y.; Yu, T.; Wang, W.; Pan, K.; Shi, D.; Sun, H. Curcumin-induced melanoma cell death is associated with mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) opening. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2014, 448, 15-21.
183. Bush, J.A.; Cheung, K.J.J., Jr.; Li, G. Curcumin induces apoptosis in human melanoma cells through a Fas Receptor/Caspase-8 Pathway Independent of p53. Exp. Cell. Res. 2001, 271, 305-314.
184. Tsai, K.D.; Yang, S.M.; Tseng, M.J.; Lin, J.C.; Hsu, J.D.; Lee, Y.J.; Cherng, J.M. Curcumin protects against UVB-induced skin cancers in SKH-1 hairless mouse: Analysis of early molecular markers in carcinogenesis. Evid. Based Complement. Alternat. Med. 2012, 2012, doi:10.1155/2012/593952.
185. Dahmke, I.N.; Backes, C.; Rudzitis-Auth, J.; Laschke, M.W.; Leidinger, P.; Menger, M.D.; Meese, E.; Mahlknecht, U. Curcumin intake affects miRNA signature in murine melanoma with mmu-miR-205-5p most significantly altered. PLoS One 2013, 8, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0081122.
186. Phillips, J.M.; Clark, C.; Herman-Ferdinandez, L.; Moore-Medlin, T.; Rong, X.H.; Gill, J.R.; Clifford, J.L.; Abreo, F.; Nathan, C.A.O. Curcumin inhibits skin squamous cell carcinoma tumor growth in vivo. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 2011, 145, 58-63.
187. Naksuriya, O.; Okonogi, S.; Schiffelers, R.M.; Hennink, W.E. Curcumin nanoformulations: A review of pharmaceutical properties and preclinical studies and clinical data related to cancer treatment. Biomaterials 2014, 35, 3365-3383.
188. Mimeault, M.; Batra, S.K. Potential applications of curcumin and its novel synthetic analogs and nanotechnology-based formulations in cancer prevention and therapy. Chin. Med. 2011, 6, doi:10.1186/1749-8546-6-31.
189. Zhao, Y.Z.; Lu, C.T.; Zhang, Y.; Xiao, J.; Zhao, Y.P.; Tian, J.L.; Xu, Y.Y.; Feng, Z.G.; Xu, C.Y. Selection of high efficient transdermal lipid vesicle for curcumin skin delivery. Int. J. Pharm. 2013, 454, 302-309.
190. Liu, C.H.; Chang, F.Y.; Hung, D.K. Terpene microemulsions for transdermal curcumin delivery: Effects of terpenes and cosurfactants. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces 2011, 82, 63-70.
191. Moorthi, C.; Kathiresan, K. Curcumin-Piperine/Curcumin-Quercetin/ Curcumin-Silibinin dual drug-loaded nanoparticulate combination therapy: A novel approach to target and treat multidrug-resistant cancers. J. Med. Hypotheses Ideas 2013, 7, 15-20.
192. Fimognari, C.; Hrelia, P. Sulforaphane as a promising molecule for fighting cancer. Mutat. Res. 2007, 635, 90-104.
193. Hamsa, T.P.; Thejass, P.; Kuttan, G. Induction of apoptosis by sulforaphane in highly metastatic B16F-10 melanoma cells. Drug Chem. Toxicol. 2011, 34, 332-340.
194. Rudolf, K.; Cervinka, M.; Rudolf, E. Sulforaphane-induced apoptosis involves p53 and p38 in melanoma cells. Apoptosis 2014, 19, 734-747.
195. Thejass, P.; Kuttan, G. Modulation of cell-mediated immune response in B16F-10 melanoma-induced metastatic tumor-bearing C57BL/6 mice by sulforaphane. Immunopharmacol. Immunotoxicol. 2007, 29, 173-186.
196. Thejass, P.; Kuttan, G. Antimetastatic activity of Sulforaphane. Life Sci. 2006, 78, 3043-3050.
197. Eylen, D.V.; Oey, I.; Hendrickx, M.; Loey, A.V. Kinetics of the stability of broccoli (Brassica oleracea cv. italica) myrosinase and isothiocyanates in broccoli juice during pressure/temperature treatments. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2007, 55, 2163-2170.
198. Do, D.P.; Pai, S.B.; Rizvi, S.A.A.; D'Souza, M.J. Development of sulforaphane-encapsulated microspheres for cancer epigenetic therapy. Int. J. Pharm. 2010, 386, 114-121.
199. Enriquez, G.G.; Rizvi, S.A.A.; D'Souza, M.J.; Do, D.P. Formulation and evaluation of drug-loaded targeted magnetic microspheres for cancer therapy. Int. J. Nanomedicine 2013, 8, 1393-1402.
200. Davids, L.M.; Kleemann, B.; Kacerovská, D.; Pizinger, K.; Kidson, S.H. Hypericin phototoxicity induces different modes of cell death in melanoma and human skin cells. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B 2008, 91, 67-76.
201. Agostinis, P.; Vantieghem, A.; Merlevede, W.; de Witte, P.A.M. Hypericin in cancer treatment: More light on the way. Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol. 2002, 34, 221-241.
202. Boiy, A.; Roelandts, R.; de Witte, P.A.M. Photodynamic therapy using topically applied hypericin: Comparative effect with methyl-aminolevulinic acid on UV induced skin tumours. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B 2011, 102, 123-131.
203. Skalkos, D.; Gioti, E.; Stalikas, C.D.; Meyer, H.; Papazoglou, T.G.; Filippidis, G. Photophysical properties of Hypericum perforatum L. extrSacts-novel photosensitizers for PDT. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B 2006, 82, 146-151.
204. Menichini, G.; Alfano, C.; Marrelli, M.; Toniolo, C.; Provenzano, E.; Statti, G.A.; Nicoletti, M.; Menichini, F.; Conforti, F. Hypericum perforatum L. subsp. perforatum induces inhibition of free radicals and enhanced phototoxicity in human melanoma cells under ultraviolet light. Cell Prolif. 2013, 46, 193-202.
205. Zhang, H.; Samadi, A.; Cohen, M.S.; Timmermann, B. Antiproliferative withanolides from the Solanaceae: A structure-activity study. Pure Appl. Chem. 2012, 84, 1353-1367.
206. Kalthur, G.; Mutalik, S.; Pathirissery, U.D. Effect of withaferin A on the development and decay of thermotolerance in B16F1 melanoma: A preliminary study. Integr. Cancer Ther. 2009, 8, 93-97.
207. Kalthur, G.; Pathirissery, U.D. Enhancement of the response of B16F1 melanoma to fractionated radiotherapy and prolongation of survival by withaferin A and/or hyperthermia. Integr. Cancer Ther. 2010, 9, 370-377.
208. Mayola, E.; Gallerne, C.; Esposti, D.D.; Martel, C.; Pervaiz, S.; Larue, L.; Debuire, B.; Lemoine, A.; Brenner, C.; Lemaire, C. Withaferin A induces apoptosis in human melanoma cells through generation of reactive oxygen species and down-regulation of Bcl-2. Apoptosis 2011, 16, 1014-1027.
209. Leyon, P.V.; Kuttan, G. Effect of Withania somnifera on B16F-10 melanoma induced metastasis in mice. Phytother. Res. 2004, 18, 118-122.
210. Greay, S.J.; Ireland, D.J.; Kissick, H.T.; Levy, A.; Beilharz, M.W.; Riley, T.V.; Carson, C.F. Induction of necrosis and cell cycle arrest in murine cancer cell lines by Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil and terpinen-4-ol. Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol. 2010, 65, 877-888.
211. Greay, S.J.; Ireland, D.J.; Kissick, H.T.; Heenan, P.J.; Carson, C.F.; Riley, T.V.; Beilharz, M.W. Inhibition of established subcutaneous murine tumour growth with topical Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil. Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol. 2010, 66, 1095-1102.
212. Calcabrini, A.; Stringaro, A.; Toccacieli, L.; Meschini, S.; Marra, M.; Colone, M.; Salvatore, G.; Mondello, F.; Arancia, G.; Molinari, A. Terpinen-4-ol, the main component of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil inhibits the in vitro growth of human melanoma cells. J. Invest. Dermatol. 2004, 122, 349-360.
213. Eok-Cheon, K.; Jeong-Ki, M.; Tae-Yoon, K.; Shin-Jeong, L.; Hyun-Ok, Y.; Sanghwa, H.; Young-Myeong, K.; Young-Guen, K. [6]-Gingerol, a pungent ingredient of ginger, inhibits angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2005, 335, 300-308.
214. Nigam, N.; Bhui, K.; Prasad, S.; George, J.; Shukla, Y. [6]-Gingerol induces reactive oxygen species regulated mitochondrial cell death pathway in human epidermoid carcinoma A431 cells. Chem. Biol. Interact. 2009, 181, 77-84.
215. Yoon, T.J.; Yoo, Y.C.; Kang, T.B.; Song, S.K.; Lee, K.B.; Her, E.; Song, K.S.; Kim, J.B. Antitumor activity of the Korean mistletoe lectin is attributed to activation of macrophages and NK cells. Arch. Pharm. Res. 2003, 26, 861-867.
216. Yoon, T.J.; Yoo, Y.C.; Kang, T.B.; Baek, Y.J.; Huh, C.S.; Song, S.K.; Lee, K.H.; Azuma, I.; Kim, J.B. Prophylactic effect of Korean mistletoe (Viscum album coloratum) extract on tumor metastasis is mediated by enhancement of NK cell activity. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 1998, 20, 163-172.
217. Yoon, T.J.; Yoo, Y.C.; Choi, O.B.; Do, M.S.; Kang, T.B.; Lee, S.W.; Azuma, I.; Kim, J.B. Inhibitory effect of Korean mistletoe (Viscum album coloratum) extract on tumour angiogenesis and metastasis of haematogenous and non-haematogenous tumour cells in mice. Cancer Lett. 1995, 97, 83-91.
218. Thies, A.; Nugel, D.; Pfuller, U.; Moll, I.; Schumacher, U. Influence of mistletoe lectins and cytokines induced by them on cell prolifertion of human melanoma cells in vitro. Toxicology 2005, 207, 105-116.
219. Van Huyen, J.D.; Delignat, S.; Bayry, J.; Kazatchkine, M.D.; Bruneval, P.; Nicoletti, A.; Kaveri, S.V. Interleukin-12 is associated with the in vivo anti-tumor effect of mistletoe extracts in B16 mouse melanoma. Cancer Lett. 2006, 243, 32-37.
220. Strüh, C.M.; Jäger, S.; Schempp, C.M.; Scheffler, A.; Martin, S.F. A novel triterpene extract from mistletoe induces rapid apoptosis in murine B16.F10 melanoma cells. Phytother. Res. 2012, 26, 1507-1512.
221. Augustin, M.; Bock, P.R.; Hanisch, J.; Karasmann, M.; Schneider, B. Safety and efficacy of the long-term adjuvant treatment of primary intermediate- to high-risk malignant melanoma (UICC/AJCC stage II and III) with a standardized fermented European mistletoe (Viscum album L.) extract. Results from a multicenter, comparative, epidemiological cohort study in Germany and Switzerland. Arzneimittel-Forsch. 2005, 55, 38-49.
222. Kirsch, A. Successful treatment of metastatic malignant melanoma with Viscum album extract (Iscador® M). J. Altern. Complement. Med. 2007, 13, 443-446.
223. Jiménez-Medina, E.; Garcia-Lora, A.; Paco, L.; Algarra, I.; Collado, A.; Garrido, F. A new extract of the plant Calendula officinalis produces a dual vitro effect: Cytotoxic anti-tumor activity and lymphocyte activation. BMC Cancer 2006, 6, doi:10.1186/1471-2407-6-119.
224. Ukiya, M.; Akihisa, T.; Yasukawa, K.; Tokuda, H.; Suzuki, T.; Kimura, Y. Anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor-promoting, and cytotoxic activities of constituents of marigold (Calendula officinalis) flowers. J. Nat. Prod. 2006, 69, 1692-1696.
225. Matić, I.Z.; Juranić, Z.; Savikin, K.; Zdunić, G.; Nadvinski, N.; Godevac, D. Chamomile and marigold tea: Chemical characterization and evaluation of anticancer activity. Phytother. Res. 2013, 27, 852-858.
226. Preethi, K.C.; Siveen, K.S.; Kuttan, R.; Kuttan, G. Inhibition of metastasis of B16F-10 melanoma cells in C57BL/6 mice by an extract of Calendula officinalis L flowers. Asian Pac. J. Cancer Prev. 2010, 11, 1773-1779.
227. Ngo, S.N.T.; Williams, D.B.; Head, R.J. Rosemary and cancer prevention: Preclinical perspectives. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2011, 51, 946-954.
228. Huang, S.C.; Ho, C.T.; Lin-Shiau, S.Y.; Lin, J.K. Carnosol inhibits the invasion of B16/F10 mouse melanoma cells by suppressing metalloproteinase-9 through down-regulating nuclear factor-kappaB and c-Jun. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2005, 69, 221-232.
229. Lee, Y.H.; Kumar, N.C.; Glickman, R.D. Modulation of photochemical damage in normal and malignant cells by naturally occurring compounds. Photochem. Photobiol. 2012, 88, 1385-1395.
230. Manu, K.A.; Kuttan, G. Ursolic acid induces apoptosis by activating p53 and caspase-3 gene expressions and suppressing NF-κB mediated activation of bcl-2 in B16F-10 melanoma cells. Int. Immunopharmacol. 2008, 8, 974-981.
231. Koh, S.J.; Tak, J.K.; Kim, S.T.; Nam, W.S.; Kim, S.Y.; Park, K.M.; Park, J.W. Sensitization of ionizing radiation-induced apoptosis by ursolic acid. Free Radic. Res. 2012, 46, 339-345.
232. Lee, Y.H.; Wang, E.; Kumar, N.; Glickman, R.D. Ursolic acid differentially modulates apoptosis in skin melanoma and retinal pigment epithelial cells exposed to UV-VIS broadband radiation. Apoptosis 2014, 19, 816-828.
233. Kanjoormana, M.; Kuttan, G. Anti angiogenic activity of ursolic acid. Integr. Cancer Ther. 2010, 9, 224-235.
234. Chandu, A.N.; Kumar, S.C.; Bhattacharjee, C.; Debnath, S. Cytotoxicity study of plant Aloe vera (Linn). Chron. Young Sci. 2012, 3, 233-235.
235. Tabolacci, C.; Lentini, A.; Mattioli, P.; Provenzano, B.; Oliverio, S.; Carlomosti, F.; Beninati, S. Antitumor properties of aloe-emodin and induction of transglutaminase 2 activity in B16-F10 melanoma cells. Life Sci. 2010, 87, 316-324.
236. Radovic, J.; Maksimovic-Ivanic, D.; Timotijevic, G.; Popadic, S.; Ramic, Z.; Trajkovic, V.; Miljkovic, D.; Stosic-Grujicic, S.; Mijatovic, S. Cell-type dependent response of melanoma cells to aloe emodin. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2012, 50, 3181-3189.
237. Tabolacci, C.; Rossi, S.; Lentini, A.; Provenzano, B.; Turcano, L.; Facchiano, F.; Beninati, S. Aloin enhances cisplatin antineoplastic activity in B16-F10 melanoma cells by transglutaminase-induced differentiation. Amino Acids 2013, 44, 293-300.
238. Al-Shawi, A.; Rasul, A.; Khan, M.; Furhan, I.; Ma, T. Eupatilin: A flavonoid compound isolated from the artemisia plant, induces apoptosis and G2/M phase cell cycle arrest in human melanoma A375 cells. Afr. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 2011, 5, 582-588.
239. Priestap, H.A.; Galvis, A.; Rivero, N.; Costantino, V.; Lopez, L.A.; Barbieri, M.A. Dehydroleucodine and dehydroparishin-B inhibit proliferation and motility of B16 melanoma cells. Phytochem. Lett. 2012, 5, 581-585.
240. Lone, S.H.; Bhat, K.A.; Naseer, S.; Rather, R.A.; Khuroo, M.A.; Tasduq, S.A. Isolation, cytotoxicity evaluation and HPLC-quantification of the chemical constituents from Artemisia amygdalina Decne. J. Chromatogr. B Biomed. Appl. 2013, 940, 135-141.
241. Zhao, J.; Zheng, X.; Newman, R.A.; Zhong, Y.; Liu, Z.J.; Nan, P. Chemical composition and bioactivity of the essential oil of Artemisia anomala from China. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2013, 25, 520-525.
242. Lee, C.; Chiu, C.; Liao, W.; Wu, P.; Chen, Y.; Huang, K.; Chou, Y.; Wen, Z.; Wang, H. Alpinia oxyphylla Miq. bioactive extracts from supercritical fluid carbon dioxide extraction. Biochem. Eng. J. 2013, 78, 101-107.
243. Lo, C.Y.; Liu, P.L.; Lin, L.C.; Chen, Y.T.; Hseu, Y.C.; Wen, Z.H.; Wang, H.M. Antimelanoma and antityrosinase from Alpinia galangal constituents. Sci. World J. 2013, 2013, doi:10.1155/2013/186505.
244. Zhang, W.; Lan, Y.; Huang, Q.; Hua, Z. Galangin induces B16F10 melanoma cell apoptosis via mitochondrial pathway and sustained activation of p38 MAPK. Cytotechnology 2013, 65, 447-455.
245. Zhang, W.; Tang, B.; Huang, Q.; Hua, Z. Galangin inhibits tumor growth and metastasis of B16F10 melanoma. J. Cell. Biochem. 2013, 114, 152-161.
246. Jonas, W.B. Advising patients on the use of complementary and alternative medicine. Appl. Psychophysiol. Biofeedback 2001, 26, 205-214.
247. Joos, S.; Glassen, K.; Musselmann, B. Herbal medicine in primary healthcare in Germany: The patient's perspective. Evid. Based Complement. Alternat. Med. 2012, doi:10.1155/2012/294638.
248. Shekelle, P.G.; Morton, S.C.; Suttorp, M.J.; Buscemi, N.; Friesen, C. Challenges in systematic reviews of Complementary and Alternative Medicine topics. Ann. Intern. Med. 2005, 142, 1042-1048.
249. Nartey, L.; Huwiler-Müntener, K.; Shang, A.; Liewald, K.; Jüni, P.; Egger, M. Matched-pair study showed higher quality of placebo-controlled trials in Western phytotherapy than conventional medicine. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 2007, 60, 787-794.
250. Kinsel, J.F.; Straus, S.E. Complementary and alternative therapeutics: Rigorous research is needed to support claims. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 2003, 43, 463-484.
251. Golden, I. Beyond randomized controlled trials: Evidence in complementary medicine. Evid. Based Complement. Altern. Med. 2012, 17, 72-75.
252. Li, X.Q.; Tao, K.M.; Zhou, Q.H.; Ling, C.Q. Scientific publications from Mainland China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong in integrative and complementary medicine journals: A ten-year literature survey. Am. J. Chin. Med. 2011, 39, 639-649.
253. Maino, D.M. Evidence Based Medicine and CAM: A review. Optom. Vis. Dev. 2012, 43, 13-17.
254. Price, A.; Grann, V.R. Portrayal of Complementary and Alternative Medicine for Cancer by Top Online News Sites. J. Altern. Complement. Med. 2012, 18, 487-493.