Replication cycle and molecular biology of the west nile virus

Viruses

Volumn 6, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 13-53

  Brinton, Margo A ^a  

^a GEORGIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Cis acting rna sequences; Conserved rna structures; Flavivirus replication; Host cell remodeling; Host factors; Nonstructural protein interactions; Nonstructural proteins; Rna protein interactions

Indexed keywords

ELONGATION FACTOR; ELONGATION FACTOR 1A; GENOMIC RNA; INTERFERON; NONSTRUCTURAL PROTEIN 1; NONSTRUCTURAL PROTEIN 2; NONSTRUCTURAL PROTEIN 3; NONSTRUCTURAL PROTEIN 4A; NONSTRUCTURAL PROTEIN 4B; NONSTRUCTURAL PROTEIN 5; POLYPROTEIN; STAT1 PROTEIN; STAT2 PROTEIN; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR 3; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ARTICLE; GENE SEQUENCE; HOST CELL; HUMAN; INTERACTIONS WITH RNA; MOLECULAR BIOLOGY; NONHUMAN; PROTEIN INTERACTION; RNA RNA INTERACTION; RNA SYNTHESIS; RNA TRANSLATION; VIRION; VIRUS ASSEMBLY; VIRUS ATTACHMENT; VIRUS ENTRY; VIRUS GENOME; VIRUS MORPHOLOGY; VIRUS RELEASE; VIRUS REPLICATION; WEST NILE FLAVIVIRUS;

HOST-PATHOGEN INTERACTIONS; MOLECULAR BIOLOGY; RNA, VIRAL; VIRAL NONSTRUCTURAL PROTEINS; VIRUS REPLICATION; WEST NILE VIRUS;

EID: 84891441339     PISSN: 19994915     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/v6010013     Document Type: Article

References (273)

1. Berthet, F.X.; Zeller, H.G.; Drouet, M.T.; Rauzier, J.; Digoutte, J.P.; Deubel, V. Extensive nucleotide changes and deletions within the envelope glycoprotein gene of Euro-African West Nile viruses. J. Gen. Virol. 1997, 78, 2293-2297.
2. Jia, X.Y.; Briese, T.; Jordan, I.; Rambaut, A.; Chi, H.C.; Mackenzie, J.S.; Hall, R.A.; Scherret, J.; Lipkin, W.I. Genetic analysis of West Nile New York 1999 encephalitis virus. Lancet 1999, 354, 1971-1972.
3. Lanciotti, R.S.; Roehrig, J.T.; Deubel, V.; Smith, J.; Parker, M.; Steele, K.; Crise, B.; Volpe, K.E.; Crabtree, M.B.; Scherret, J.H.; et al. Origin of the West Nile virus responsible for an outbreak of encephalitis in the northeastern United States. Science 1999, 286, 2333-2337.
4. Beasley, D.W.; Li, L.; Suderman, M.T.; Barrett, A.D. Mouse neuroinvasive phenotype of West Nile virus strains varies depending upon virus genotype. Virology 2002, 296, 17-23.
5. Heinz, F.X.; Purcell, M.S.; Gould, E.A.; Howard, C.R.; Houghton, M.; Moormann, R.J.M.; Rice, C.M.; Thiel, H.-J. Family Flaviviridae. In Virus Taxonomy; Regenmortel, C.F., Bishop, D.H.L., Carstens, E.B., Estes, M.K., Eds.; Academic Press: San Diego, CA, USA, 2000; pp. 860-878.
6. Murray, J.M.; Aaskov, J.G.; Wright, P.J. Processing of the dengue virus type 2 proteins prM and C-prM. J. Gen. Virol. 1993, 74, 175-182.
7. Adams, S.C.; Broom, A.K.; Sammels, L.M.; Hartnett, A.C.; Howard, M.J.; Coelen, R.J.; Mackenzie, J.S.; Hall, R.A. Glycosylation and antigenic variation among Kunjin virus isolates. Virology 1995, 206, 49-56.
8. Zhang, W.; Chipman, P.R.; Corver, J.; Johnson, P.R.; Zhang, Y.; Mukhopadhyay, S.; Baker, T.S.; Strauss, J.H.; Rossmann, M.G.; Kuhn, R.J. Visualization of membrane protein domains by cryo-electron microscopy of dengue virus. Nat. Struct. Biol. 2003, 10, 907-912.
9. Kiermayr, S.; Kofler, R.M.; Mandl, C.W.; Messner, P.; Heinz, F.X. Isolation of capsid protein dimers from the tick-borne encephalitis flavivirus and in vitro assembly of capsid-like particles. J. Virol. 2004, 78, 8078-8084.
10. Ma, L.; Jones, C.T.; Groesch, T.D.; Kuhn, R.J.; Post, C.B. Solution structure of dengue virus capsid protein reveals another fold. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2004, 101, 3414-3419.
11. Pierson, T.C.; Diamond, M.S. Flaviviruses. In Fields Virology, 6th ed.; Knipe, D.M., Howley, P.M., Eds.; Wolters Kluwer/Lippencott Williams & Wilkins: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2013; pp. 747-794.
12. Mukhopadhyay, S.; Kuhn, R.J.; Rossmann, M.G. A structural perspective of the flavivirus life cycle. Nat. Rev. 2005, 3, 13-22.
13. Lee, E.; Hall, R.A.; Lobigs, M. Common E protein determinants for attenuation of glycosaminoglycan-binding variants of Japanese encephalitis and West Nile viruses. J. Virol. 2004, 78, 8271-8280.
14. Davis, C.W.; Nguyen, H.Y.; Hanna, S.L.; Sanchez, M.D.; Doms, R.W.; Pierson, T.C. West Nile virus discriminates between DC-SIGN and DC-SIGNR for cellular attachment and infection. J. Virol. 2006, 80, 1290-1301.
15. Rios, M.; Daniel, S.; Chancey, C.; Hewlett, I.K.; Stramer, S.L. West Nile virus adheres to human red blood cells in whole blood. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2007, 45, 181-186.
16. Jemielity, S.; Wang, J.J.; Chan, Y.K.; Ahmed, A.A.; Li, W.; Monahan, S.; Bu, X.; Farzan, M.; Freeman, G.J.; Umetsu, D.T.; et al. TIM-family proteins promote infection of multiple enveloped viruses through virion-associated phosphatidylserine. PLoS pathog. 2013, 9, e1003232.
17. Chu, J.J.; Ng, M.L. Infectious entry of West Nile virus occurs through a clathrin-mediated endocytic pathway. J. Virol. 2004, 78, 10543-10555.
18. Bogachek, M.V.; Zaitsev, B.N.; Sekatskii, S.K.; Protopopova, E.V.; Ternovoi, V.A.; Ivanova, A.V.; Kachko, A.V.; Ivanisenko, V.A.; Dietler, G.; Loktev, V.B. Characterization of glycoprotein E C-end of West Nile virus and evaluation of its interaction force with alphaVbeta3 integrin as putative cellular receptor. Biochemistry 2010, 75, 472-480.
19. Lee, J.W.; Chu, J.J.; Ng, M.L. Quantifying the specific binding between West Nile virus envelope domain III protein and the cellular receptor αvβ3 integrin. J. Biol. Chem. 2006, 281, 1352-1360.
20. Schmidt, K.; Keller, M.; Bader, B.L.; Korytar, T.; Finke, S.; Ziegler, U.; Groschup, M.H. Integrins modulate the infection efficiency of West Nile virus into cells. J. Gen. Virol. 2013, 94, 1723-1733.
21. Wan, S.W.; Lin, C.F.; Lu, Y.T.; Lei, H.Y.; Anderson, R.; Lin, Y.S. Endothelial cell surface expression of protein disulfide isomerase activates β1 and β3 integrins and facilitates dengue virus infection. J. Cell. Biochem. 2012, 113, 1681-1691.
22. Medigeshi, G.R.; Hirsch, A.J.; Streblow, D.N.; Nikolich-Zugich, J.; Nelson, J.A. West Nile virus entry requires cholesterol-rich membrane microdomains and is independent of αvβ3 integrin. J. Virol. 2008, 82, 5212-5219.
23. Barrows, N.J.; Le Sommer, C.; Garcia-Blanco, M.A.; Pearson, J.L. Factors affecting reproducibility between genome-scale siRNA-based screens. J. Biomol. Screen. 2010, 15, 735-747.
24. Krishnan, M.N.; Ng, A.; Sukumaran, B.; Gilfoy, F.D.; Uchil, P.D.; Sultana, H.; Brass, A.L.; Adametz, R.; Tsui, M.; Qian, F.; et al. RNA interference screen for human genes associated with West Nile virus infection. Nature 2008, 455, 242-245.
25. Sessions, O.M.; Barrows, N.J.; Souza-Neto, J.A.; Robinson, T.J.; Hershey, C.L.; Rodgers, M.A.; Ramirez, J.L.; Dimopoulos, G.; Yang, P.L.; Pearson, J.L.; et al. Discovery of insect and human dengue virus host factors. Nature 2009, 458, 1047-1050.
26. Le Sommer, C.; Barrows, N.J.; Bradrick, S.S.; Pearson, J.L.; Garcia-Blanco, M.A. G proteincoupled receptor kinase 2 promotes flaviviridae entry and replication. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2012, 6, e1820.
27. Fernandez-Garcia, M.D.; Meertens, L.; Bonazzi, M.; Cossart, P.; Arenzana-Seisdedos, F.; Amara, A. Appraising the roles of CBLL1 and the ubiquitin/proteasome system for flavivirus entry and replication. J. Virol. 2011, 85, 2980-2989.
28. Cheng, G.; Cox, J.; Wang, P.; Krishnan, M.N.; Dai, J.; Qian, F.; Anderson, J.F.; Fikrig, E. A Ctype lectin collaborates with a CD45 phosphatase homolog to facilitate West Nile virus infection of mosquitoes. Cell 2010, 142, 714-725.
29. Chu, J.J.; Leong, P.W.; Ng, M.L. Analysis of the endocytic pathway mediating the infectious entry of mosquito-borne flavivirus West Nile into Aedes albopictus mosquito (C6/36) cells. Virology 2006, 349, 463-475.
30. Krishnan, M.N.; Sukumaran, B.; Pal, U.; Agaisse, H.; Murray, J.L.; Hodge, T.W.; Fikrig, E. Rab 5 is required for the cellular entry of dengue and West Nile viruses. J. Virol. 2007, 81, 4881-4885.
31. Van der Schaar, H.M.; Rust, M.J.; Chen, C.; van der Ende-Metselaar, H.; Wilschut, J.; Zhuang, X.; Smit, J.M. Dissecting the cell entry pathway of dengue virus by single-particle tracking in living cells. PLoS Pathog. 2008, 4, e1000244.
32. Allison, S.L.; Schalich, J.; Stiasny, K.; Mandl, C.W.; Kunz, C.; Heinz, F.X. Oligomeric rearrangement of tick-borne encephalitis virus envelope proteins induced by an acidic pH. J. Virol. 1995, 69, 695-700.
33. Heinz, F.X.; Allison, S.L. Structures and mechanisms in flavivirus fusion. Adv. Virus Res. 2000, 55, 231-269.
34. Ivanyi-Nagy, R.; Lavergne, J.P.; Gabus, C.; Ficheux, D.; Darlix, J.L. RNA chaperoning and intrinsic disorder in the core proteins of Flaviviridae. Nucleic Acids Res. 2007, 36, 712-725.
35. Pong, W.L.; Huang, Z.S.; Teoh, P.G.; Wang, C.C.; Wu, H.N. RNA binding property and RNA chaperone activity of dengue virus core protein and other viral RNA-interacting proteins. FEBS Lett. 2011, 585, 2575-2581.
36. Scherbik, S.V.; Brinton, M.A. Virus-induced Ca2+ influx extends survival of west nile virusinfected cells. J. Virol. 2010, 84, 8721-8731.
37. Urbanowski, M.D.; Hobman, T.C. The West Nile virus capsid protein blocks apoptosis through a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-dependent mechanism. J. Virol. 2013, 87, 872-881.
38. Beasley, D.W.; Li, L.; Suderman, M.T.; Barrett, A.D. West Nile virus strains differ in mouse neurovirulence and binding to mouse or human brain membrane receptor preparations. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 2001, 951, 332-335.
39. Rice, C.M.; Lenches, E.M.; Eddy, S.R.; Shin, S.J.; Sheets, R.L.; Strauss, J.H. Nucleotide sequence of yellow fever virus: Implications for flavivirus gene expression and evolution. Science 1985, 229, 726-733.
40. Brinton, M.A.; Fernandez, A.V.; Dispoto, J.H. The 3'-nucleotides of flavivirus genomic RNA form a conserved secondary structure. Virology 1986, 153, 113-121.
41. Wengler, G.; Wengler, G. The carboxy-terminal part of the NS 3 protein of the West Nile flavivirus can be isolated as a soluble protein after proteolytic cleavage and represents an RNAstimulated NTPase. Virology 1991, 184, 707-715.
42. Brinton, M.A.; Dispoto, J.H. Sequence and secondary structure analysis of the 5'-terminal region of flavivirus genome RNA. Virology 1988, 162, 290-299.
43. Rauscher, S.; Flamm, C.; Mandl, C.W.; Heinz, F.X.; Stadler, P.F. Secondary structure of the 3'-noncoding region of flavivirus genomes: Comparative analysis of base pairing probabilities. RNA 1997, 3, 779-791.
44. Lai, C.J.; Men, R.; Pethel, M.; Bray, M. Infectious RNA transcribed from stably cloned fulllength cDNA: Construction of growth-restricted dengue mutants. In Vaccines 92; Brown, F., Chanock, R.M., Ginsberg, H.S., Lerner, R.A., Eds.; Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press: Cold Spring Harbor, NY, USA, 1992; pp. 265-270.
45. Cahour, A.; Pletnev, A.; Vazielle-Falcoz, M.; Rosen, L.; Lai, C.J. Growth-restricted dengue virus mutants containing deletions in the 5' noncoding region of the RNA genome. Virology 1995, 207, 68-76.
46. Yu, L.; Markoff, L. The topology of bulges in the long stem of the flavivirus 3' stem-loop is a major determinant of RNA replication competence. J. Virol. 2005, 79, 2309-2324.
47. Davis, W.G.; Basu, M.; Elrod, E.J.; Germann, M.W.; Brinton, M.A. Identification of cis-acting nucleotides and a structural feature in West Nile virus 3'-terminus RNA that facilitate viral minus strand RNA synthesis. J. Virol. 2013, 87, 7622-7636.
48. Sztuba-Solinska, J.; Teramoto, T.; Rausch, J.W.; Shapiro, B.A.; Padmanabhan, R.; Le Grice, S.F.J. Structural complexity of Dengue virus untranslated regions: cis-Acting RNA motifs and pseudoknot interactions modulating functionality of the viral genome. Nucleic Acids Res. 2013, 41, 5075-5089.
49. Elghonemy, S.; Davis, W.G.; Brinton, M.A. The majority of the nucleotides in the top loop of the genomic 3' terminal stem loop structure are cis-acting in a West Nile virus infectious clone. Virology 2005, 331, 238-246.
50. Tilgner, M.; Deas, T.S.; Shi, P.Y. The flavivirus-conserved penta-nucleotide in the 3' stem-loop of the West Nile virus genome requires a specific sequence and structure for RNA synthesis, but not for viral translation. Virology 2005, 331, 375-386.
51. Villordo, S.M.; Gamarnik, A.V. Differential RNA sequence requirement for dengue virus replication in mosquito and mammalian cells. J. Virol. 2013, 87, 9365-9372.
52. Shi, P.Y.; Brinton, M.A.; Veal, J.M.; Zhong, Y.Y.; Wilson, W.D. Evidence for the existence of a pseudoknot structure at the 3' terminus of the flavivirus genomic RNA. Biochemistry 1996, 35, 4222-4230.
53. Gritsun, T.S.; Gould, E.A. Direct repeats in the flavivirus 3' untranslated region; a strategy for survival in the environment? Virology 2007, 358, 258-265.
54. Olsthoorn, R.C.; Bol, J.F. Sequence comparison and secondary structure analysis of the 3' noncoding region of flavivirus genomes reveals multiple pseudoknots. RNA 2001, 7, 1370-1377.
55. Manzano, M.; Reichert, E.D.; Polo, S.; Falgout, B.; Kasprzak, W.; Shapiro, B.A.; Padmanabhan, R. Identification of cis-acting elements in the 3'-untranslated region of the dengue virus type 2 RNA that modulate translation and replication. J. Biol. Chem. 2011, 286, 22521-22534.
56. Funk, A.; Truong, K.; Nagasaki, T.; Torres, S.; Floden, N.; Balmori Melian, E.; Edmonds, J.; Dong, H.; Shi, P.Y.; Khromykh, A.A. RNA structures required for production of subgenomic flavivirus RNA. J. Virol. 2010, 84, 11407-11417.
57. Clyde, K.; Harris, E. RNA secondary structure in the coding region of dengue virus type 2 directs translation start codon selection and is required for viral replication. J. Virol. 2006, 80, 2170-2182.
58. Shi, P.Y.; Li, W.; Brinton, M.A. Cell proteins bind specifically to West Nile virus minus-strand 3' stem-loop RNA. J. Virol. 1996, 70, 6278-6287.
59. Ray, D.; Shah, A.; Tilgner, M.; Guo, Y.; Zhao, Y.; Dong, H.; Deas, T.S.; Zhou, Y.; Li, H.; Shi, P.Y. West Nile virus 5'-cap structure is formed by sequential guanine N-7 and ribose 2'-O methylations by nonstructural protein 5. J. Virol. 2006, 80, 8362-8370.
60. Zhou, Y.; Ray, D.; Zhao, Y.; Dong, H.; Ren, S.; Li, Z.; Guo, Y.; Bernard, K.A.; Shi, P.Y.; Li, H. Structure and function of flavivirus NS5 methyltransferase. J. Virol. 2007, 81, 3891-3903.
61. Issur, M.; Geiss, B.J.; Bougie, I.; Picard-Jean, F.; Despins, S.; Mayette, J.; Hobdey, S.E.; Bisaillon, M. The flavivirus NS5 protein is a true RNA guanylyltransferase that catalyzes a two-step reaction to form the RNA cap structure. RNA 2009, 15, 2340-2350.
62. Egloff, M.P.; Benarroch, D.; Selisko, B.; Romette, J.L.; Canard, B. An RNA cap (nucleoside-2'- O-)-methyltransferase in the flavivirus RNA polymerase NS5: Crystal structure and functional characterization. EMBO J. 2002, 21, 2757-2768.
63. Egloff, M.P.; Decroly, E.; Malet, H.; Selisko, B.; Benarroch, D.; Ferron, F.; Canard, B. Structural and functional analysis of methylation and 5'-RNA sequence requirements of short capped RNAs by the methyltransferase domain of dengue virus NS5. J. Mol. Biol. 2007, 372, 723-736.
64. Dong, H.; Ray, D.; Ren, S.; Zhang, B.; Puig-Basagoiti, F.; Takagi, Y.; Ho, C.K.; Li, H.; Shi, P.Y. Distinct RNA elements confer specificity to flavivirus RNA cap methylation events. J. Virol. 2007, 81, 4412-4421.
65. Daffis, S.; Szretter, K.J.; Schriewer, J.; Li, J.; Youn, S.; Errett, J.; Lin, T.Y.; Schneller, S.; Zust, R.; Dong, H.; et al. 2'-O-Methylation of the viral mRNA cap evades host restriction by IFIT family members. Nature 2010, 468, 452-456.
66. Hahn, C.S.; Hahn, Y.S.; Rice, C.M.; Lee, E.; Dalgarno, L.; Strauss, E.G.; Strauss, J.H. Conserved elements in the 3' untranslated region of flavivirus RNAs and potential cyclization sequences. J. Mol. Biol. 1987, 198, 33-41.
67. Alvarez, D.E.; de Lella Ezcurra, A.L.; Fucito, S.; Gamarnik, A.V. Role of RNA structures present at the 3'UTR of dengue virus on translation, RNA synthesis, and viral replication. Virology 2005, 339, 200-212.
68. Corver, J.; Lenches, E.; Smith, K.; Robison, R.A.; Sando, T.; Strauss, E.G.; Strauss, J.H. Fine mapping of a cis-acting sequence element in yellow fever virus RNA that is required for RNA replication and cyclization. J. Virol. 2003, 77, 2265-2270.
69. Khromykh, A.A.; Meka, H.; Guyatt, K.J.; Westaway, E.G. Essential role of cyclization sequences in flavivirus RNA replication. J. Virol. 2001, 75, 6719-6728.
70. Lo, M.K.; Tilgner, M.; Bernard, K.A.; Shi, P.Y. Functional analysis of mosquito-borne flavivirus conserved sequence elements within 3' untranslated region of West Nile virus by use of a reporting replicon that differentiates between viral translation and RNA replication. J. Virol. 2003, 77, 10004-10014.
71. Basu, M.; Brinton, M.A. West Nile virus (WNV) genome RNAs with up to three adjacent mutations that disrupt long distance 5'-3' cyclization sequence basepairs are viable. Virology 2011, 412, 220-232.
72. Alvarez, D.E.; Lodeiro, M.F.; Luduena, S.J.; Pietrasanta, L.I.; Gamarnik, A.V. Long-range RNA-RNA interactions circularize the dengue virus genome. J. Virol. 2005, 79, 6631-6643.
73. Zhang, B.; Dong, H.; Stein, D.A.; Iversen, P.L.; Shi, P.Y. West Nile virus genome cyclization and RNA replication require two pairs of long-distance RNA interactions. Virology 2008, 373, 1-13.
74. Alvarez, D.E.; Filomatori, C.V.; Gamarnik, A.V. Functional analysis of dengue virus cyclization sequences located at the 5' and 3' UTRs. Virology 2008, 375, 223-235.
75. Dong, H.; Zhang, B.; Shi, P.Y. Terminal structures of West Nile virus genomic RNA and their interactions with viral NS5 protein. Virology 2008, 381, 123-135.
76. Friebe, P.; Harris, E. Interplay of RNA elements in the dengue virus 5' and 3' ends required for viral RNA replication. J. Virol. 2010, 84, 6103-6018.
77. Zhang, B.; Dong, H.; Ye, H.; Tilgner, M.; Shi, P.Y. Genetic analysis of West Nile virus containing a complete 3'CSI RNA deletion. Virology 2010, 408, 138-145.
78. Polacek, C.; Foley, J.E.; Harris, E. Conformational changes in the solution structure of the dengue virus 5' end in the presence and absence of the 3' untranslated region. J. Virol. 2009, 83, 1161-1166.
79. Friebe, P.; Shi, P.Y.; Harris, E. The 5' and 3' downstream AUG region elements are required for mosquito-borne flavivirus RNA replication. J. Virol. 2011, 85, 1900-1905.
80. Friebe, P.; Pena, J.; Pohl, M.O.; Harris, E. Composition of the sequence downstream of the dengue virus 5' cyclization sequence (dCS) affects viral RNA replication. Virology 2012, 422, 346-356.
81. Liu, Z.Y.; Li, X.F.; Jiang, T.; Deng, Y.Q.; Zhao, H.; Wang, H.J.; Ye, Q.; Zhu, S.Y.; Qiu, Y.; Zhou, X.; et al. Novel cis-acting element within the capsid-coding region enhances flavivirus viral- RNA replication by regulating genome cyclization. J. Virol. 2013, 87, 6804-6818.
82. Vashist, S.; Bhullar, D.; Vrati, S. La protein can simultaneously bind to both 3'- and 5'-noncoding regions of Japanese encephalitis virus genome. DNA Cell Biol. 2011, 30, 339-346.
83. Ivanyi-Nagy, R.; Darlix, J.L. Core protein-mediated 5'-3' annealing of the West Nile virus genomic RNA in vitro. Virus Res. 2012, 167, 226-235.
84. Gebhard, L.G.; Kaufman, S.B.; Gamarnik, A.V. Novel ATP-independent RNA annealing activity of the dengue virus NS3 helicase. PLoS One 2012, 7, e36244.
85. Villordo, S.M.; Alvarez, D.E.; Gamarnik, A.V. A balance between circular and linear forms of the dengue virus genome is crucial for viral replication. RNA 2010, 16, 2325-2335.
86. Clyde, K.; Barrera, J.; Harris, E. The capsid-coding region hairpin element (cHP) is a critical determinant of dengue virus and West Nile virus RNA synthesis. Virology 2008, 379, 314-323.
87. Iglesias, N.G.; Gamarnik, A.V. Dynamic RNA structures in the dengue virus genome. RNA Biol. 2011, 8, 249-257.
88. Lodeiro, M.F.; Filomatori, C.V.; Gamarnik, A.V. Structural and functional studies of the promoter element for dengue virus RNA replication. J. Virol. 2009, 83, 993-1008.
89. Lindenbach, B.D.; Thiel, H.J.; Rice, C.M. Flaviviridae: The viruses and their replication. In Fields Virology; Knipe, D.M., Howley, P.M., Eds.; Lippincott Williams and Wilkins: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2007; pp. 1101-1152.
90. Nowak, T.; Farber, P.M.; Wengler, G.; Wengler, G. Analyses of the terminal sequences of West Nile virus structural proteins and of the in vitro translation of these proteins allow the proposal of a complete scheme of the proteolytic cleavages involved in their synthesis. Virology 1989, 169, 365-376.
91. Lindenbach, B.D.; Murray, C.L.; Thiel, H.-J.; Rice, C.M. Flaviviridae. In Fields Virology, 6th ed.; Knipe, D.M., Howley, P.M., Eds.; Wolters Kluwer/Lippencott Williams & Wilkins: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2013; pp. 712-746.
92. Mackenzie, J.M.; Khromykh, A.A.; Jones, M.K.; Westaway, E.G. Subcellular localization and some biochemical properties of the flavivirus Kunjin nonstructural proteins NS2A and NS4A. Virology 1998, 245, 203-215.
93. Westaway, E.G.; Mackenzie, J.M.; Khromykh, A.A. Replication and gene function in Kunjin virus. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 2002, 267, 323-351.
94. Miller, S.; Sparacio, S.; Bartenschlager, R. Subcellular localization and membrane topology of the Dengue virus type 2 Non-structural protein 4B. J. Biol. Chem. 2006, 281, 8854-8863.
95. Miller, S.; Kastner, S.; Krijnse-Locker, J.; Buhler, S.; Bartenschlager, R. The non-structural protein 4A of dengue virus is an integral membrane protein inducing membrane alterations in a 2K-regulated manner. J. Biol. Chem. 2007, 282, 8873-8882.
96. Khromykh, A.A.; Sedlak, P.L.; Westaway, E.G. Cis- And trans-acting elements in flavivirus RNA replication. J. Virol. 2000, 74, 3253-3263.
97. Xie, X.; Wang, Q.Y.; Xu, H.Y.; Qing, M.; Kramer, L.; Yuan, Z.; Shi, P.Y. Inhibition of dengue virus by targeting viral NS4B protein. J. Virol. 2011, 85, 11183-11195.
98. Kummerer, B.M.; Rice, C.M. Mutations in the yellow fever virus nonstructural protein NS2A selectively block production of infectious particles. J. Virol. 2002, 76, 4773-4784.
99. Liu, W.J.; Chen, H.B.; Khromykh, A.A. Molecular and functional analyses of Kunjin virus infectious cDNA clones demonstrate the essential roles for NS2A in virus assembly and for a nonconservative residue in NS3 in RNA replication. J. Virol. 2003, 77, 7804-7813.
100. Melian, E.B.; Edmonds, J.H.; Nagasaki, T.K.; Hinzman, E.; Floden, N.; Khromykh, A.A. West Nile virus NS2A protein facilitates virus-induced apoptosis independently of interferon response. J. Gen. Virol. 2013, 94, 308-313.
101. Xie, X.; Gayen, S.; Kang, C.; Yuan, Z.; Shi, P.Y. Membrane topology and function of dengue virus NS2A protein. J. Virol. 2013, 87, 4609-4622.
102. Erbel, P.; Schiering, N.; D'Arcy, A.; Renatus, M.; Kroemer, M.; Lim, S.P.; Yin, Z.; Keller, T.H.; Vasudevan, S.G.; Hommel, U. Structural basis for the activation of flaviviral NS3 proteases from dengue and West Nile virus. Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 2006, 13, 372-373.
103. Roosendaal, J.; Westaway, E.G.; Khromykh, A.; Mackenzie, J.M. Regulated cleavages at the West Nile virus NS4A-2K-NS4B junctions play a major role in rearranging cytoplasmic membranes and Golgi trafficking of the NS4A protein. J. Virol. 2006, 80, 4623-4632.
104. Lin, M.H.; Hsu, H.J.; Bartenschlager, R.; Fischer, W.B. Membrane undulation induced by NS4A of Dengue virus: A molecular dynamics simulation study. J. Biomol. Struct. Dyn. 2013, doi:10.1080/07391102.2013.826599.
105. Stern, O.; Hung, Y.F.; Valdau, O.; Yaffe, Y.; Harris, E.; Hoffmann, S.; Willbold, D.; Sklan, E.H. An N-terminal amphipathic helix in dengue virus nonstructural protein 4A mediates oligomerization and is essential for replication. J. Virol. 2013, 87, 4080-4085.
106. Westaway, E.G.; Khromykh, A.A.; Kenney, M.T.; Mackenzie, J.M.; Jones, M.K. Proteins C and NS4B of the flavivirus Kunjin translocate independently into the nucleus. Virology 1997, 234, 31-41.
107. Liu, W.J.; Wang, X.J.; Mokhonov, V.V.; Shi, P.Y.; Randall, R.; Khromykh, A.A. Inhibition of interferon signaling by the New York 99 strain and Kunjin subtype of West Nile virus involves blockage of STAT1 and STAT2 activation by nonstructural proteins. J. Virol. 2005, 79, 1934-1942.
108. Liu, W.J.; Chen, H.B.; Wang, X.J.; Huang, H.; Khromykh, A.A. Analysis of adaptive mutations in Kunjin virus replicon RNA reveals a novel role for the flavivirus nonstructural protein NS2A in inhibition of beta interferon promoter-driven transcription. J. Virol. 2004, 78, 12225-12235.
109. Liu, W.J.; Wang, X.J.; Clark, D.C.; Lobigs, M.; Hall, R.A.; Khromykh, A.A. A single amino acid substitution in the West Nile virus nonstructural protein NS2A disables its ability to inhibit alpha/beta interferon induction and attenuates virus virulence in mice. J. Virol. 2006, 80, 2396-2404.
110. Wicker, J.A.; Whiteman, M.C.; Beasley, D.W.; Davis, C.T.; Zhang, S.; Schneider, B.S.; Higgs, S.; Kinney, R.M.; Barrett, A.D. A single amino acid substitution in the central portion of the West Nile virus NS4B protein confers a highly attenuated phenotype in mice. Virology 2006, 349, 245-253.
111. Wicker, J.A.; Whiteman, M.C.; Beasley, D.W.C.; Davis, C.T.; McGee, C.E.; Lee, J.C.; Higgs, S.; Kinney, R.M.H.; Huang, C.Y.-H.; Barrett, A.D.T. Mutational analysis of the West Nile virus NS4B protein. Virology 2012, 426, 22-33.
112. Faggioni, G.; Ciammaruconi, A.; de Santis, R.; Pomponi, A.; Scicluna, M.T.; Barbaro, K.; Masuelli, L.; Autorino, G.; Bei, R.; Lista, F. Evidence of a humoral response to a novel protein WARF4 embedded in the West Nile virus NS4B gene encoded by an alternative open reading frame. Int. J. Mol. Med. 2009, 23, 509-512.
113. Faggioni, G.; Pomponi, A.; de Santis, R.; Masuelli, L.; Ciammaruconi, A.; Monaco, F.; di Gennaro, A.; Marzocchella, L.; Sambri, V.; Lelli, R.; et al. West Nile alternative open reading frame (N-NS4B/WARF4) is produced in infected West Nile Virus (WNV) cells and induces humoral response in WNV infected individuals. Virol. J. 2012, 9, doi:10.1186/1743-422X-9-283.
114. Blitvich, B.J.; Scanlon, D.; Shiell, B.J.; Mackenzie, J.S.; Pham, K.; Hall, R.A. Determination of the intramolecular disulfide bond arrangement and biochemical identification of the glycosylation sites of the nonstructural protein NS1 of Murray Valley encephalitis virus. J. Gen. Virol. 2001, 82, 2251-2256.
115. Wallis, T.P.; Huang, C.Y.; Nimkar, S.B.; Young, P.R.; Gorman, J.J. Determination of the disulfide bond arrangement of dengue virus NS1 protein. J. Biol. Chem. 2004, 279, 20729-20741.
116. Whiteman, M.C.; Wicker, J.A.; Kinney, R.M.; Huang, C.Y.; Solomon, T.; Barrett, A.D. Multiple amino acid changes at the first glycosylation motif in NS1 protein of West Nile virus are necessary for complete attenuation for mouse neuroinvasiveness. Vaccine 2011, 29, 9702-9710.
117. Falgout, B.; Chanock, R.; Lai, C.J. Proper processing of dengue virus nonstructural glycoprotein NS1 requires the N-terminal hydrophobic signal sequence and the downstream nonstructural protein NS2a. J. Virol. 1989, 63, 1852-1860.
118. Winkler, G.; Maxwell, S.E.; Ruemmler, C.; Stollar, V. Newly synthesized dengue-2 virus nonstructural protein NS1 is a soluble protein but becomes partially hydrophobic and membraneassociated after dimerization. Virology 1989, 171, 302-305.
119. Winkler, G.; Randolph, V.B.; Cleaves, G.R.; Ryan, T.E.; Stollar, V. Evidence that the mature form of the flavivirus nonstructural protein NS1 is a dimer. Virology 1988, 162, 187-196.
120. Smith, G.W.; Wright, P.J. Synthesis of proteins and glycoproteins in dengue type 2 virusinfected vero and Aedes albopictus cells. J. Gen. Virol. 1985, 66, 559-571.
121. Flamand, M.; Megret, F.; Mathieu, M.; Lepault, J.; Rey, F.A.; Deubel, V. Dengue virus type 1 nonstructural glycoprotein NS1 is secreted from mammalian cells as a soluble hexamer in a glycosylation-dependent fashion. J. Virol. 1999, 73, 6104-6110.
122. Lee, J.M.; Crooks, A.J.; Stephenson, J.R. The synthesis and maturation of a non-structural extracellular antigen from tick-borne encephalitis virus and its relationship to the intracellular NS1 protein. J. Gen. Virol. 1989, 70, 335-343.
123. Crooks, A.J.; Lee, J.M.; Easterbrook, L.M.; Timofeev, A.V.; Stephenson, J.R. The NS1 protein of tick-borne encephalitis virus forms multimeric species upon secretion from the host cell. J. Gen. Virol. 1994, 75, 3453-3460.
124. Mason, P.W. Maturation of Japanese encephalitis virus glycoproteins produced by infected mammalian and mosquito cells. Virology 1989, 169, 354-364.
125. Blitvich, B.J.; Scanlon, D.; Shiell, B.J.; Mackenzie, J.S.; Hall, R.A. Identification and analysis of truncated and elongated species of the flavivirus NS1 protein. Virus Res. 1999, 60, 67-79.
126. Mackenzie, J.M.; Jones, M.K.; Young, P.R. Immunolocalization of the dengue virus nonstructural glycoprotein NS1 suggests a role in viral RNA replication. Virology 1996, 220, 232-240.
127. Westaway, E.G.; Mackenzie, J.M.; Kenney, M.T.; Jones, M.K.; Khromykh, A.A. Ultrastructure of Kunjin virus-infected cells: Colocalization of NS1 and NS3 with double-stranded RNA, and of NS2B with NS3, in virus-induced membrane structures. J. Virol. 1997, 71, 6650-6661.
128. Muylaert, I.R.; Chambers, T.J.; Galler, R.; Rice, C.M. Mutagenesis of the N-linked glycosylation sites of the yellow fever virus NS1 protein: Effects on virus replication and mouse neurovirulence. Virology 1996, 222, 159-168.
129. Muylaert, I.R.; Galler, R.; Rice, C.M. Genetic analysis of the yellow fever virus NS1 protein: Identification of a temperature-sensitive mutation which blocks RNA accumulation. J. Virol. 1997, 71, 291-298.
130. Macdonald, J.; Tonry, J.; Hall, R.A.; Williams, B.; Palacios, G.; Ashok, M.S.; Jabado, O.; Clark, D.; Tesh, R.B.; Briese, T.; et al. NS1 protein secretion during the acute phase of West Nile virus infection. J. Virol. 2005, 79, 13924-13933.
131. Avirutnan, P.; Zhang, L.; Punyadee, N.; Manuyakorn, A.; Puttikhunt, C.; Kasinrerk, W.; Malasit, P.; Atkinson, J.P.; Diamond, M.S. Secreted NS1 of dengue virus attaches to the surface of cells via interactions with heparan sulfate and chondroitin sulfate E. PLoS Pathog. 2007, 3, e183.
132. Chung, K.M.; Nybakken, G.E.; Thompson, B.S.; Engle, M.J.; Marri, A.; Fremont, D.H.; Diamond, M.S. Antibodies against West Nile Virus nonstructural protein NS1 prevent lethal infection through Fc gamma receptor-dependent and -independent mechanisms. J. Virol. 2006, 80, 1340-1351.
133. Wilson, J.R.; de Sessions, P.F.; Leon, M.A.; Scholle, F. West Nile virus nonstructural protein 1 inhibits TLR3 signal transduction. J. Virol. 2008, 82, 8262-8271.
134. Baronti, C.; Sire, J.; de Lamballerie, X.; Querat, G. Nonstructural NS1 proteins of several mosquito-borne Flavivirus do not inhibit TLR3 signaling. Virology 2010, 404, 319-330.
135. Chung, K.M.; Liszewski, M.K.; Nybakken, G.; Davis, A.E.; Townsend, R.R.; Fremont, D.H.; Atkinson, J.P.; Diamond, M.S. West Nile virus nonstructural protein NS1 inhibits complement activation by binding the regulatory protein factor H. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2006, 103, 19111-19116.
136. Avirutnan, P.; Fuchs, A.; Hauhart, R.E.; Somnuke, P.; Youn, S.; Diamond, M.S.; Atkinson, J.P. Antagonism of the complement component C4 by flavivirus nonstructural protein NS1. J. Exp. Med. 2010, 207, 793-806.
137. Somnuke, P.; Hauhart, R.E.; Atkinson, J.P.; Diamond, M.S.; Avirutnan, P. N-linked glycosylation of dengue virus NS1 protein modulates secretion, cell-surface expression, hexamer stability, and interactions with human complement. Virology 2011, 413, 253-264.
138. Hall, R.A.; Khromykh, A.A.; Mackenzie, J.M.; Scherret, J.H.; Khromykh, T.I. Loss of dimerisation of the nonstructural protein NS1 of Kunjin virus delays viral replication and reduces virulence in mice, but still allows secretion of NS1. Virology 1999, 264, 66-75.
139. Beasley, D.W.; Whiteman, M.C.; Zhang, S.; Huang, C.Y.; Schneider, B.S.; Smith, D.R.; Gromowski, G.D.; Higgs, S.; Kinney, R.M.; Barrett, A.D. Envelope protein glycosylation status influences mouse neuroinvasion phenotype of genetic lineage 1 West Nile virus strains. J. Virol. 2005, 79, 8339-8347.
140. Whiteman, M.C.; Li, L.; Wicker, J.A.; Kinney, R.M.; Huang, C.; Beasley, D.W.; Chung, K.M.; Diamond, M.S.; Solomon, T.; Barrett, A.D. Development and characterization of nonglycosylated E and NS1 mutant viruses as a potential candidate vaccine for West Nile virus. Vaccine 2010, 28, 1075-1083.
141. Firth, A.E.; Atkins, J.F. A conserved predicted pseudoknot in the NS2A-encoding sequence of West Nile and Japanese encephalitis flaviviruses suggests NS1' may derive from ribosomal frameshifting. Virol. J. 2009, 6, doi:10.1186/1743-422X-6-14.
142. Melian, E.B.; Hinzman, E.; Nagasaki, T.; Firth, A.E.; Wills, N.M.; Nouwens, A.S.; Blitvich, B.J.; Leung, J.; Funk, A.; Atkins, J.F.; et al. NS1' of flaviviruses in the Japanese encephalitis virus serogroup is a product of ribosomal frameshifting and plays a role in viral neuroinvasiveness. J. Virol. 2010, 84, 1641-1647.
143. Satchidanandam, V.; Uchil, P.D.; Kumar, P. Organization of flaviviral replicase proteins in virus-induced membranes: A role for NS1' in Japanese encephalitis virus RNA synthesis. Novartis Found. Symp. 2006, 277, 136-145.
144. Young, L.B.; Melian, E.B.; Khromykh, A.A. NS1' colocalizes with NS1 and can substitute for NS1 in West Nile virus replication. J. Virol. 2013, 87, 9384-9390.
145. Ye, Q.; Li, X.F.; Zhao, H.; Li, S.H.; Deng, Y.Q.; Cao, R.Y.; Song, K.Y.; Wang, H.J.; Hua, R.H.; Yu, Y.X.; et al. A single nucleotide mutation in NS2A of Japanese encephalitis-live vaccine virus (SA14-14-2) ablates NS1' formation and contributes to attenuation. J. Gen. Virol. 2012, 93, 1959-1964.
146. Sun, J.; Yu, Y.; Deubel, V. Japanese encephalitis virus NS1' protein depends on pseudoknot secondary structure and is cleaved by caspase during virus infection and cell apoptosis. Microbes Infect. 2012, 14, 930-940.
147. Winkelmann, E.R.; Widman, D.G.; Suzuki, R.; Mason, P.W. Analyses of mutations selected by passaging a chimeric flavivirus identify mutations that alter infectivity and reveal an interaction between the structural proteins and the nonstructural glycoprotein NS1. Virology 2011, 421, 96-104.
148. Bazan, J.F.; Fletterick, R.J. Detection of a trypsin-like serine protease domain in flaviviruses and pestiviruses. Virology 1989, 171, 637-639.
149. Gorbalenya, A.E.; Donchenko, A.P.; Koonin, E.V.; Blinov, V.M. N-terminal domains of putative helicases of flavi- and pestiviruses may be serine proteases. Nucleic Acids Res. 1989, 17, 3889-3897.
150. Wengler, G.; Czaya, G.; Farber, P.M.; Hegemann, J.H. In vitro synthesis of West Nile virus proteins indicates that the amino-terminal segment of the NS3 protein contains the active centre of the protease which cleaves the viral polyprotein after multiple basic amino acids. J. Gen. Virol. 1991, 72, 851-858.
151. Yusof, R.; Clum, S.; Wetzel, M.; Murthy, H.M.; Padmanabhan, R., Purified NS2B/NS3 serine protease of dengue virus type 2 exhibits cofactor NS2B dependence for cleavage of substrates with dibasic amino acids in vitro. J. Biol. Chem. 2000, 275, 9963-9969.
152. Gayen, S.; Chen, A.S.; Huang, Q.; Kang, C. West Nile Virus (WNV) protease and membrane interactions revealed by NMR spectroscopy. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2012, 423, 799-804.
153. Yu, L.; Takeda, K.; Markoff, L. Protein-protein interactions among West Nile non-structural proteins and transmembrane complex formation in mammalian cells. Virology 2013, 446, 365-377.
154. Robin, G.; Chappell, K.; Stoermer, M.J.; Hu, S.H.; Young, P.R.; Fairlie, D.P.; Martin, J.L. Structure of West Nile virus NS3 protease: Ligand stabilization of the catalytic conformation. J. Mol. Biol. 2009, 385, 1568-1577.
155. Aleshin, A.E.; Shiryaev, S.A.; Strongin, A.Y.; Liddington, R.C. Structural evidence for regulation and specificity of flaviviral proteases and evolution of the Flaviviridae fold. Protein Sci. 2007, 16, 795-806.
156. Kim, Y.M.; Gayen, S.; Kang, C.; Joy, J.; Huang, Q.; Chen, A.S.; Wee, J.L.; Ang, M.J.; Lim, H.A.; Hung, A.W.; et al. NMR analysis of a novel enzymatically active unlinked dengue NS2BNS3 protease complex. J. Biol. Chem. 2013, 288, 12891-12900.
157. Assenberg, R.; Mastrangelo, E.; Walter, T.S.; Verma, A.; Milani, M.; Owens, R.J.; Stuart, D.I.; Grimes, J.M.; Mancini, E.J. Crystal structure of a novel conformational state of the flavivirus NS3 protein: Implications for polyprotein processing and viral replication. J. Virol. 2009, 83, 12895-12906.
158. Luo, D.; Wei, N.; Doan, D.N.; Paradkar, P.N.; Chong, Y.; Davidson, A.D.; Kotaka, M.; Lescar, J.; Vasudevan, S.G. Flexibility between the protease and helicase domains of the dengue virus NS3 protein conferred by the linker region and its functional implications. J. Biol. Chem. 2010, 285, 18817-18827.
159. Gorbalenya, A.E.; Koonin, E.V.; Donchenko, A.P.; Blinov, V.M. Two related superfamilies of putative helicases involved in replication, recombination, repair and expression of DNA and RNA genomes. Nucleic Acids Res. 1989, 17, 4713-4730.
160. Wengler, G.; Wengler, G. The NS 3 nonstructural protein of flaviviruses contains an RNA triphosphatase activity. Virology 1993, 197, 265-273.
161. Wu, J.; Bera, A.K.; Kuhn, R.J.; Smith, J.L. Structure of the Flavivirus helicase: Implications for catalytic activity, protein interactions, and proteolytic processing. J. Virol. 2005, 79, 10268-10277.
162. Xu, T.; Sampath, A.; Chao, A.; Wen, D.; Nanao, M.; Chene, P.; Vasudevan, S.G.; Lescar, J. Structure of the Dengue virus helicase/nucleoside triphosphatase catalytic domain at a resolution of 2.4 A. J. Virol. 2005, 79, 10278-10288.
163. Benarroch, D.; Selisko, B.; Locatelli, G.A.; Maga, G.; Romette, J.L.; Canard, B. The RNA helicase, nucleotide 5'-triphosphatase, and RNA 5'-triphosphatase activities of Dengue virus protein NS3 are Mg2+-dependent and require a functional Walker B motif in the helicase catalytic core. Virology 2004, 328, 208-218.
164. Wang, C.C.; Huang, Z.S.; Chiang, P.L.; Chen, C.T.; Wu, H.N. Analysis of the nucleoside triphosphatase, RNA triphosphatase, and unwinding activities of the helicase domain of dengue virus NS3 protein. FEBS Lett. 2009, 583, 691-696.
165. Luo, D.; Xu, T.; Watson, R.P.; Scherer-Becker, D.; Sampath, A.; Jahnke, W.; Yeong, S.S.; Wang, C.H.; Lim, S.P.; Strongin, A.; et al. Insights into RNA unwinding and ATP hydrolysis by the flavivirus NS3 protein. EMBO J. 2008, 27, 3209-3219.
166. Incicco, J.J.; Gebhard, L.G.; Gonzalez-Lebrero, R.M.; Gamarnik, A.V.; Kaufman, S.B. Steadystate NTPase activity of Dengue virus NS3: Number of catalytic sites, nucleotide specificity and activation by ssRNA. PLoS One 2013, 8, e58508.
167. Shiryaev, S.A.; Chernov, A.V.; Aleshin, A.E.; Shiryaeva, T.N.; Strongin, A.Y. NS4A regulates the ATPase activity of the NS3 helicase: A novel cofactor role of the non-structural protein NS4A from West Nile virus. J. Gen. Virol. 2009, 90, 2081-2085.
168. Zhang, B.; Dong, H.; Zhou, Y.; Shi, P.Y. Genetic interactions among the West Nile virus methyltransferase, the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, and the 5' stem-loop of genomic RNA. J. Virol. 2008, 82, 7047-7058.
169. Henderson, B.R.; Saeedi, B.J.; Campagnola, G.; Geiss, B.J. Analysis of RNA binding by the dengue virus NS5 RNA capping enzyme. PLoS One 2011, 6, e25795.
170. Yap, L.J.; Luo, D.; Chung, K.Y.; Lim, S.P.; Bodenreider, C.; Noble, C.; Shi, P.Y.; Lescar, J. Crystal structure of the dengue virus methyltransferase bound to a 5'-capped octameric RNA. PLoS One 2010, 5, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012836.
171. Kamer, G.; Argos, P. Primary structural comparison of RNA-dependent polymerases from plant, animal and bacterial viruses. Nucleic Acids Res. 1984, 12, 7269-7282.
172. Koonin, E.V. The phylogeny of RNA-dependent RNA polymerases of positive-strand RNA viruses. J. Gen. Virol. 1991, 72, 2197-2206.
173. Brooks, A.J.; Johansson, M.; John, A.V.; Xu, Y.; Jans, D.A.; Vasudevan, S.G. The interdomain region of dengue NS5 protein that binds to the viral helicase NS3 contains independently functional importin beta 1 and importin alpha/beta-recognized nuclear localization signals. J. Biol. Chem. 2002, 277, 36399-36407.
174. Johansson, M.; Brooks, A.J.; Jans, D.A.; Vasudevan, S.G. A small region of the dengue virusencoded RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, NS5, confers interaction with both the nuclear transport receptor importin-beta and the viral helicase, NS3. J. Gen. Virol. 2001, 82, 735-745.
175. Hannemann, H.; Sung, P.Y.; Chiu, H.C.; Yousuf, A.; Bird, J.; Lim, S.P.; Davidson, A.D. Serotype-specific differences in dengue virus non-structural protein 5 nuclear localization. J. Biol. Chem. 2013, 288, 22621-22635.
176. Kumar, A.; Buhler, S.; Selisko, B.; Davidson, A.; Mulder, K.; Canard, B.; Miller, S.; Bartenschlager, R. Nuclear localization of dengue virus nonstructural protein 5 does not strictly correlate with efficient viral RNA replication and inhibition of type I interferon signaling. J. Virol. 2013, 87, 4545-4557.
177. Malet, H.; Egloff, M.P.; Selisko, B.; Butcher, R.E.; Wright, P.J.; Roberts, M.; Gruez, A.; Sulzenbacher, G.; Vonrhein, C.; Bricogne, G.; Mackenzie, J.M.; Khromykh, A.A.; Davidson, A.D.; et al. Crystal structure of the RNA polymerase domain of the West Nile virus non-structural protein 5. J. Biol. Chem. 2007, 282, 10678-10689.
178. Yap, T.L.; Xu, T.; Chen, Y.L.; Malet, H.; Egloff, M.P.; Canard, B.; Vasudevan, S.G.; Lescar, J. Crystal structure of the dengue virus RNA-dependent RNA polymerase catalytic domain at 1.85-angstrom resolution. J. Virol. 2007, 81, 4753-4765.
179. Zou, G.; Chen, Y.L.; Dong, H.; Lim, C.C.; Yap, L.J.; Yau, Y.H.; Shochat, S.G.; Lescar, J.; Shi, P.Y. Functional analysis of two cavities in flavivirus NS5 polymerase. J. Biol. Chem. 2011, 286, 14362-14372.
180. Iglesias, N.G.; Filomatori, C.V.; Gamarnik, A.V. The F1 motif of dengue virus polymerase NS5 is involved in promoter-dependent RNA synthesis. J. Virol. 2011, 85, 5745-5756.
181. Lu, G.; Gong, P. Crystal structure of the full-length Japanese encephalitis virus NS5 reveals a conserved methyltransferase-polymerase interface. PLoS Pathog. 2013, 9, e1003549.
182. Tan, C.S.; Hobson-Peters, J.M.; Stoermer, M.J.; Fairlie, D.P.; Khromykh, A.A.; Hall, R.A. An interaction between the methyltransferase and RNA dependent RNA polymerase domains of the West Nile virus NS5 protein. J. Gen. Virol. 2013, 94, 1961-1971.
183. Bussetta, C.; Choi, K.H. Dengue virus nonstructural protein 5 adopts multiple conformations in solution. Biochemistry 2012, 51, 5921-5931.
184. Ackermann, M.; Padmanabhan, R. De novo synthesis of RNA by the dengue virus RNAdependent RNA polymerase exhibits temperature dependence at the initiation but not elongation phase. J. Biol. Chem. 2001, 276, 39926-39937.
185. Guyatt, K.J.; Westaway, E.G.; Khromykh, A.A. Expression and purification of enzymatically active recombinant RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (NS5) of the flavivirus Kunjin. J. Virol. Methods 2001, 92, 37-44.
186. Selisko, B.; Dutartre, H.; Guillemot, J.C.; Debarnot, C.; Benarroch, D.; Khromykh, A.; Despres, P.; Egloff, M.P.; Canard, B. Comparative mechanistic studies of de novo RNA synthesis by flavivirus RNA-dependent RNA polymerases. Virology 2006, 351, 145-158.
187. Grun, J.B.; Brinton, M.A. Characterization of West Nile virus RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and cellular terminal adenylyl and uridylyl transferases in cell-free extracts. J. Virol. 1986, 60, 1113-1124.
188. Ranjith-Kumar, C.T.; Gajewski, J.; Gutshall, L.; Maley, D.; Sarisky, R.T.; Kao, C.C., Terminal nucleotidyl transferase activity of recombinant Flaviviridae RNA-dependent RNA polymerases: implication for viral RNA synthesis. J. Virol. 2001, 75, 8615-8623.
189. You, S.; Falgout, B.; Markoff, L.; Padmanabhan, R. In vitro RNA synthesis from exogenous dengue viral RNA templates requires long range interactions between 5'- and 3'-terminal regions that influence RNA structure. J. Biol. Chem. 2001, 276, 15581-15591.
190. Chu, P.W.; Westaway, E.G., Characterization of Kunjin virus RNA-dependent RNA polymerase: Reinitiation of synthesis in vitro. Virology 1987, 157, 330-337.
191. Lott, W.B.; Doran, M.R. Do RNA viruses require genome cyclisation for replication? Trends Biochem. Sci. 2013, 38, 350-355.
192. Keller, B.C.; Fredericksen, B.L.; Samuel, M.A.; Mock, R.E.; Mason, P.W.; Diamond, M.S.; Gale, M., Jr. Resistance to alpha/beta interferon is a determinant of West Nile virus replication fitness and virulence. J. Virol. 2006, 80, 9424-9434.
193. Laurent-Rolle, M.; Boer, E.F.; Lubick, K.J.; Wolfinbarger, J.B.; Carmody, A.B.; Rockx, B.; Liu, W.; Ashour, J.; Shupert, W.L.; Holbrook, M.R.; et al. The NS5 protein of the virulent West Nile virus NY99 strain is a potent antagonist of type I interferon-mediated JAK-STAT signaling. J. Virol. 2010, 84, 3503-3515.
194. Pulit-Penaloza, J.A.; Scherbik, S.V.; Brinton, M.A. Type 1 IFN-independent activation of a subset of interferon stimulated genes in West Nile virus Eg101-infected mouse cells. Virology 2012, 425, 82-94.
195. Gillespie, L.K.; Hoenen, A.; Morgan, G.; Mackenzie, J.M. The endoplasmic reticulum provides the membrane platform for biogenesis of the flavivirus replication complex. J. Virol. 2010, 84, 10438-10447.
196. Welsch, S.; Miller, S.; Romero-Brey, I.; Merz, A.; Bleck, C.K.; Walther, P.; Fuller, S.D.; Antony, C.; Krijnse-Locker, J.; Bartenschlager, R. Composition and three-dimensional architecture of the dengue virus replication and assembly sites. Cell Host Microbe 2009, 5, 365-375.
197. Mackenzie, J.M.; Khromykh, A.A.; Parton, R.G. Cholesterol manipulation by West Nile virus perturbs the cellular immune response. Cell Host Microbe 2007, 2, 229-239.
198. Beatman, E.; Oyer, R.; Shives, K.D.; Hedman, K.; Brault, A.C.; Tyler, K.L.; Beckham, J.D. West Nile virus growth is independent of autophagy activation. Virology 2012, 433, 262-272.
199. Vandergaast, R.; Fredericksen, B.L. West Nile virus (WNV) replication is independent of autophagy in mammalian cells. PLoS One 2012, 7, e45800.
200. McLean, J.E.; Wudzinska, A.; Datan, E.; Quaglino, D.; Zakeri, Z. Flavivirus NS4A-induced autophagy protects cells against death and enhances virus replication. J. Biol. Chem. 2011, 286, 22147-22159.
201. Xu, Z.; Waeckerlin, R.; Urbanowski, M.D.; van Marle, G.; Hobman, T.C. West Nile virus infection causes endocytosis of a specific subset of tight junction membrane proteins. PLoS One 2012, 7, e37886.
202. Medigeshi, G.R.; Hirsch, A.J.; Brien, J.D.; Uhrlaub, J.L.; Mason, P.W.; Wiley, C.; Nikolich-Zugich, J.; Nelson, J.A. West nile virus capsid degradation of claudin proteins disrupts epithelial barrier function. J. Virol. 2009, 83, 6125-6134.
203. Heaton, N.S.; Perera, R.; Berger, K.L.; Khadka, S.; Lacount, D.J.; Kuhn, R.J.; Randall, G. Dengue virus nonstructural protein 3 redistributes fatty acid synthase to sites of viral replication and increases cellular fatty acid synthesis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2010, 107, 17345-17350.
204. Courtney, S.C.; Brinton, M.A. Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA. Unpublished work, 2012.
205. Hsu, N.Y.; Ilnytska, O.; Belov, G.; Santiana, M.; Chen, Y.H.; Takvorian, P.M.; Pau, C.; van der Schaar, H.; Kaushik-Basu, N.; Balla, T.; et al. Viral reorganization of the secretory pathway generates distinct organelles for RNA replication. Cell 2010, 141, 799-811.
206. Martin-Acebes, M.A.; Blazquez, A.B.; Jimenez de Oya, N.; Escribano-Romero, E.; Saiz, J.C. West Nile virus replication requires fatty acid synthesis but is independent on phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate lipids. PLoS One 2011, 6, e24970.
207. Courtney, S.C.; Scherbik, S.V.; Stockman, B.M.; Brinton, M.A. West nile virus infections suppress early viral RNA synthesis and avoid inducing the cell stress granule response. J. Virol. 2012, 86, 3647-3657.
208. Tu, Y.C.; Yu, C.Y.; Liang, J.J.; Lin, E.; Liao, C.L.; Lin, Y.L. Blocking double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase PKR by Japanese encephalitis virus nonstructural protein 2A. J. Virol. 2012, 86, 10347-10358.
209. Elbahesh, H.; Scherbik, S.V.; Brinton, M.A. West Nile virus infection does not induce PKR activation in rodent cells. Virology 2011, 421, 51-60.
210. Katoh, H.; Okamoto, T.; Fukuhara, T.; Kambara, H.; Morita, E.; Mori, Y.; Kamitani, W.; Matsuura, Y. Japanese encephalitis virus core protein inhibits stress granule formation through an interaction with Caprin-1 and facilitates viral propagation. J. Virol. 2013, 87, 489-502.
211. Villas-Boas, C.S.; Conceicao, T.M.; Ramirez, J.; Santoro, A.B.; Da Poian, A.T.; Montero-Lomeli, M. Dengue virus-induced regulation of the host cell translational machinery. Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res. 2009, 42, 1020-1026.
212. Edgil, D.; Polacek, C.; Harris, E. Dengue virus utilizes a novel strategy for translation initiation when cap-dependent translation is inhibited. J. Virol. 2006, 80, 2976-2986.
213. Hoenninger, V.M.; Rouha, H.; Orlinger, K.K.; Miorin, L.; Marcello, A.; Kofler, R.M.; Mandl, C.W. Analysis of the effects of alterations in the tick-borne encephalitis virus 3'-noncoding region on translation and RNA replication using reporter replicons. Virology 2008, 377, 419-430.
214. Polacek, C.; Friebe, P.; Harris, E. Poly(A)-binding protein binds to the non-polyadenylated 3' untranslated region of dengue virus and modulates translation efficiency. J. Gen. Virol. 2009, 90, 687-692.
215. Wei, Y.; Qin, C.; Jiang, T.; Li, X.; Zhao, H.; Liu, Z.; Deng, Y.; Liu, R.; Chen, S.; Yu, M.; et al. Translational regulation by the 3' untranslated region of the dengue type 2 virus genome. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2009, 81, 817-824.
216. Chien, H.L.; Liao, C.L.; Lin, Y.L. FUSE binding protein 1 interacts with untranslated regions of Japanese encephalitis virus RNA and negatively regulates viral replication. J. Virol. 2011, 85, 4698-4706.
217. Fan, Y.H.; Nadar, M.; Chen, C.C.; Weng, C.C.; Lin, Y.T.; Chang, R.Y. Small noncoding RNA modulates Japanese encephalitis virus replication and translation in trans. Virol. J. 2011, 8, doi:10.1186/1743-422X-8-492.
218. Ambrose, R.L.; Mackenzie, J.M. ATF6 signaling is required for efficient West Nile virus replication by promoting cell survival and inhibition of innate immune responses. J. Virol. 2013, 87, 2206-2214.
219. Ambrose, R.L.; Mackenzie, J.M. West Nile virus differentially modulates the unfolded protein response to facilitate replication and immune evasion. J. Virol. 2011, 85, 2723-2732.
220. Medigeshi, G.R.; Lancaster, A.M.; Hirsch, A.J.; Briese, T.; Lipkin, W.I.; Defilippis, V.; Fruh, K.; Mason, P.W.; Nikolich-Zugich, J.; Nelson, J.A. West Nile virus infection activates the unfolded protein response, leading to CHOP induction and apoptosis. J. Virol. 2007, 81, 10849-10860.
221. Blackwell, J.L.; Brinton, M.A. Translation elongation factor-1 alpha interacts with the 3' stemloop region of West Nile virus genomic RNA. J. Virol. 1997, 71, 6433-6444.
222. De Nova-Ocampo, M.; Villegas-Sepulveda, N.; del Angel, R.M. Translation Elongation Factor- 1α, La, and PTB Interact with the 3' Untranslated Region of Dengue 4 Virus RNA. Virology 2002, 295, 337-347.
223. Kim, S.M.; Jeong, Y.S. Polypyrimidine tract-binding protein interacts with the 3' stem-loop region of Japanese encephalitis virus negative-strand RNA. Virus Res. 2006, 115, 131-140.
224. Paranjape, S.M.; Harris, E. Y box-binding protein-1 binds to the dengue virus 3'-untranslated region and mediates antiviral effects. J. Biol. Chem. 2007, 282, 30497-30508.
225. Ta, M.; Vrati, S. Mov34 protein from mouse brain interacts with the 3' noncoding region of Japanese encephalitis virus. J. Virol. 2000, 74, 5108-5115.
226. Yocupicio-Monroy, M.; Padmanabhan, R.; Medina, F.; del Angel, R.M. Mosquito La protein binds to the 3' untranslated region of the positive and negative polarity dengue virus RNAs and relocates to the cytoplasm of infected cells. Virology 2007, 357, 29-40.
227. Li, C.; Ge, L.L.; Li, P.P.; Wang, Y.; Sun, M.X.; Huang, L.; Ishag, H.; Di, D.D.; Shen, Z.Q.; Fan, W.X.; et al. The DEAD-box RNA helicase DDX5 acts as a positive regulator of Japanese encephalitis virus replication by binding to viral 3' UTR. Antivir. Res. 2013, 100, 487-499.
228. Gomila, R.C.; Martin, G.W.; Gehrke, L. NF90 binds the dengue virus RNA 3' terminus and is a positive regulator of dengue virus replication. PLoS One 2011, 6, e16687.
229. Yang, S.H.; Liu, M.L.; Tien, C.F.; Chou, S.J.; Chang, R.Y. Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) interaction with 3' ends of Japanese encephalitis virus RNA and colocalization with the viral NS5 protein. J. Biomed. Sci. 2009, 16, doi:10.1186/1423-0127-16-40.
230. Pastorino, B.; Nougairede, A.; Wurtz, N.; Gould, E.; de Lamballerie, X. Role of host cell factors in flavivirus infection: Implications for pathogenesis and development of antiviral drugs. Antivir. Res. 2010, 87, 281-294.
231. Blackwell, J.L.; Brinton, M.A. BHK cell proteins that bind to the 3' stem-loop structure of the West Nile virus genome RNA. J. Virol. 1995, 69, 5650-5658.
232. Riis, B.; Rattan, S.I.; Clark, B.F.; Merrick, W.C. Eukaryotic protein elongation factors. Trends Biochem. Sci. 1990, 15, 420-424.
233. Davis, W.G.; Blackwell, J.L.; Shi, P.Y.; Brinton, M.A. Interaction between the cellular protein eEF1A and the 3'-terminal stem-loop of West Nile virus genomic RNA facilitates viral minusstrand RNA synthesis. J. Virol. 2007, 81, 10172-10187.
234. Li, W.; Li, Y.; Kedersha, N.; Anderson, P.; Emara, M.; Swiderek, K.M.; Moreno, G.T.; Brinton, M.A. Cell proteins TIA-1 and TIAR interact with the 3' stem-loop of the West Nile virus complementary minus-strand RNA and facilitate virus replication. J. Virol. 2002, 76, 11989-12000.
235. Dember, L.M.; Kim, N.D.; Liu, K.Q.; Anderson, P. Individual RNA recognition motifs of TIA-1 and TIAR have different RNA binding specificities. J. Biol. Chem. 1996, 271, 2783-2788.
236. Taupin, J.L.; Tian, Q.; Kedersha, N.; Robertson, M.; Anderson, P. The RNA-binding protein TIAR is translocated from the nucleus to the cytoplasm during Fas-mediated apoptotic cell death. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1995, 92, 1629-1633.
237. Dixon, D.A.; Balch, G.C.; Kedersha, N.; Anderson, P.; Zimmerman, G.A.; Beauchamp, R.D.; Prescott, S.M. Regulation of cyclooxygenase-2 expression by the translational silencer TIA-1. J. Exp. Med. 2003, 198, 475-481.
238. Cok, S.J.; Acton, S.J.; Sexton, A.E.; Morrison, A.R. Identification of RNA-binding proteins in RAW 264.7 cells that recognize a lipopolysaccharide-responsive element in the 3-untranslated region of the murine cyclooxygenase-2 mRNA. J. Biol. Chem. 2004, 279, 8196-8205.
239. Liu, H.; Brinton, M.A. Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA. Unpublished work, 2013.
240. Emara, M.M.; Brinton, M.A. Mutation of mapped TIA-1/TIAR binding sites within the West Nile virus 3' terminal minus-strand RNA sequence in an infectious clone negatively affects viral plus-strand synthesis. J. Virol. 2008, 82, 10657-10670.
241. Kapoor, M.; Zhang, L.; Ramachandra, M.; Kusukawa, J.; Ebner, K.E.; Padmanabhan, R. Association between NS3 and NS5 proteins of dengue virus type 2 in the putative RNA replicase is linked to differential phosphorylation of NS5. J. Biol. Chem. 1995, 270, 19100-19106.
242. Cui, T.; Sugrue, R.J.; Xu, Q.; Lee, A.K.; Chan, Y.C.; Fu, J. Recombinant dengue virus type 1 NS3 protein exhibits specific viral RNA binding and NTPase activity regulated by the NS5 protein. Virology 1998, 246, 409-417.
243. Yon, C.; Teramoto, T.; Mueller, N.; Phelan, J.; Ganesh, V.K.; Murthy, K.H.; Padmanabhan, R. Modulation of the nucleoside triphosphatase/RNA helicase and 5'-RNA triphosphatase activities of Dengue virus type 2 nonstructural protein 3 (NS3) by interaction with NS5, the RNAdependent RNA polymerase. J. Biol. Chem. 2005, 280, 27412-27419.
244. Lindenbach, B.D.; Rice, C.M. Genetic interaction of flavivirus nonstructural proteins NS1 and NS4A as a determinant of replicase function. J. Virol. 1999, 73, 4611-4621.
245. Youn, S.; Li, T.; McCune, B.T.; Edeling, M.A.; Fremont, D.H.; Cristea, I.M.; Diamond, M.S. Evidence for a genetic and physical interaction between nonstructural proteins NS1 and NS4B that modulates replication of West Nile virus. J. Virol. 2012, 86, 7360-7371.
246. Scherbik, S.V.; Pulit-Penaloza, J.A.; Basu, M.; Courtney, S.C.; Brinton, M.A. Increased early RNA replication by chimeric West Nile virus W956IC leads to IPS-1 mediated activation of NFkappaB and insufficient virus-mediated counteraction of the resulting canonical type I interferon signaling. J. Virol. 2013, 87, 7952-7965.
247. Yamshchikov, V.F.; Wengler, G.; Perelygin, A.A.; Brinton, M.A.; Compans, R.W. An infectious clone of the West Nile flavivirus. Virology 2001, 281, 294-304.
248. Van Slyke, G.A.; Ciota, A.T.; Willsey, G.G.; Jaeger, J.; Shi, P.Y.; Kramer, L.D. Point mutations in the West Nile virus (Flaviviridae; Flavivirus) RNA-dependent RNA polymerase alter viral fitness in a host-dependent manner in vitro and in vivo. Virology 2012, 427, 18-24.
249. Mackenzie, J.M.; Kenney, M.T.; Westaway, E.G. West Nile virus strain Kunjin NS5 polymerase is a phosphoprotein localized at the cytoplasmic site of viral RNA synthesis. J. Gen. Virol. 2007, 88, 1163-1168.
250. Reed, K.E.; Gorbalenya, A.E.; Rice, C.M. The NS5A/NS5 proteins of viruses from three genera of the family flaviviridae are phosphorylated by associated serine/threonine kinases. J. Virol. 1998, 72, 6199-6206.
251. Laurent-Rolle, M.; Boer, E.F.; Lubick, K.J.; Wolfinbarger, J.B.; Carmody, A.B.; Rockx, B.; Liu, W.; Ashour, J.; Shupert, W.L.; Holbrook, M.R.; et al. The NS5 protein of thevirulent West Nile virus NY99 strain is a potent antagonist of type I interferon-mediated JAKSTAT signaling. J. Virol. 2010, 84, 3503-3515.
252. Morais, A.; Terzian, A.C.; Duarte, D.V.; Bronzoni, R.V.; Madrid, M.C.; Gavioli, A.F.; Gil, L.H.; Oliveira, A.G.; Zanelli, C.F.; Valentini, S.R.; et al. The eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3 subunit L protein interacts with Flavivirus NS5 and may modulate yellow fever virus replication. Virol. J. 2013, 10, doi:10.1186/1743-422X-10-205.
253. Wang, R.Y.; Huang, Y.R.; Chong, K.M.; Hung, C.Y.; Ke, Z.L.; Chang, R.Y. DNAJ homolog Hdj2 facilitates Japanese encephalitis virus replication. Virol. J. 2011, 8, doi:10.1186/1743-422X-8-471.
254. Melik, W.; Ellencrona, K.; Wigerius, M.; Hedstrom, C.; Elvang, A.; Johansson, M. Two PDZ binding motifs within NS5 have roles in Tick-borne encephalitis virus replication. Virus Res. 2012, 169, 54-62.
255. Le Breton, M.; Meyniel-Schicklin, L.; Deloire, A.; Coutard, B.; Canard, B.; de Lamballerie, X.; Andre, P.; Rabourdin-Combe, C.; Lotteau, V.; Davoust, N. Flavivirus NS3 and NS5 proteins interaction network: A high-throughput yeast two-hybrid screen. BMC Microbiol. 2011, 11, doi:10.1186/1471-2180-11-234.
256. Miorin, L.; Romero-Brey, I.; Maiuri, P.; Hoppe, S.; Krijnse-Locker, J.; Bartenschlager, R.; Marcello, A. Three-dimensional architecture of tick-borne encephalitis virus replication sites and trafficking of the replicated RNA. J. Virol. 2013, 87, 6469-6481.
257. Dokland, T.; Walsh, M.; Mackenzie, J.M.; Khromykh, A.A.; Ee, K.H.; Wang, S. West Nile virus core protein; tetramer structure and ribbon formation. Structure 2004, 12, 1157-1163.
258. Kofler, R.M.; Heinz, F.X.; Mandl, C.W. Capsid protein C of tick-borne encephalitis virus tolerates large internal deletions and is a favorable target for attenuation of virulence. J. Virol. 2002, 76, 3534-3543.
259. Khromykh, A.A.; Westaway, E.G. RNA binding properties of core protein of the flavivirus Kunjin. Arch. Virol. 1996, 141, 685-699.
260. Heinz, F.X.; Auer, G.; Stiasny, K.; Holzmann, H.; Mandl, C.; Guirakhoo, F.; Kunz, C. The interactions of the flavivirus envelope proteins: implications for virus entry and release. Arch. Virol. 1994, 9, 339-348.
261. Zhang, Y.; Corver, J.; Chipman, P.R.; Zhang, W.; Pletnev, S.V.; Sedlak, D.; Baker, T.S.; Strauss, J.H.; Kuhn, R.J.; Rossmann, M.G. Structures of immature flavivirus particles. EMBO J. 2003, 22, 2604-2613.
262. Stadler, K.; Allison, S.L.; Schalich, J.; Heinz, F.X. Proteolytic activation of tick-borne encephalitis virus by furin. J. Virol. 1997, 71, 8475-8481.
263. Kuhn, R.J.; Zhang, W.; Rossmann, M.G.; Pletnev, S.V.; Corver, J.; Lenches, E.; Jones, C.T.; Mukhopadhyay, S.; Chipman, P.R.; Strauss, E.G.; et al. Structure of dengue virus: Implications for flavivirus organization, maturation, and fusion. Cell 2002, 108, 717-725.
264. Mukhopadhyay, S.; Kim, B.S.; Chipman, P.R.; Rossmann, M.G.; Kuhn, R.J. Structure of West Nile virus. Science 2003, 302, doi:10.1126/science.1089316.
265. Zhang, Y.; Kaufmann, B.; Chipman, P.R.; Kuhn, R.J.; Rossmann, M.G. Structure of immature West Nile virus. J. Virol. 2007, 81, 6141-6144.
266. Russell, P.K.; Brandt, W.E.; Dalrymple, J.M. Chemical and antigenic structure of flaviviruses. In The Togaviruses; Schlesinger, R.W., Ed.; Academic Press: New York, NY, USA, 1980; pp. 503-529.
267. Allison, S.L.; Tao, Y.J.; O'Riordain, G.; Mandl, C.W.; Harrison, S.C.; Heinz, F.X. Two distinct size classes of immature and mature subviral particles from tick-borne encephalitis virus. J. Virol. 2003, 77, 11357-11366.
268. Xu, Z.; Anderson, R.; Hobman, T.C. The capsid-binding nucleolar helicase DDX56 is important for infectivity of West Nile virus. J. Virol. 2011, 85, 5571-5580.
269. Xu, Z.; Hobman, T.C. The helicase activity of DDX56 is required for its role in assembly of infectious West Nile virus particles. Virology 2012, 433, 226-235.
270. Hirsch, A.J.; Medigeshi, G.R.; Meyers, H.L.; DeFilippis, V.; Fruh, K.; Briese, T.; Lipkin, W.I.; Nelson, J.A. The Src family kinase c-Yes is required for maturation of West Nile virus particles. J. Virol. 2005, 79, 11943-11951.
271. Carpp, L.N.; Galler, R.; Bonaldo, M.C. Interaction between the yellow fever virus nonstructural protein NS3 and the host protein Alix contributes to the release of infectious particles. Microbes Infect. 2011, 13, 85-95.
272. Agrawal, T.; Schu, P.; Medigeshi, G.R. Adaptor protein complexes-1 and 3 are involved at distinct stages of flavivirus life-cycle. Sci. Rep. 2013, 3, doi:10.1038/srep01813.
273. Groat-Carmona, A.M.; Orozco, S.; Friebe, P.; Payne, A.; Kramer, L.; Harris, E. A novel codingregion RNA element modulates infectious dengue virus particle production in both mammalian and mosquito cells and regulates viral replication in Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. Virology 2012, 432, 511-526.