Reproductive and developmental effects of phthalate diesters in females

Critical Reviews in Toxicology

Volumn 43, Issue 3, 2013, Pages 200-219

  Kay, Vanessa R ^a   Chambers, Christina ^b   Foster, Warren G ^a  

^a MCMASTER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SAN DIEGO   (United States)

Author keywords

Breast cancer; Developmental; Endometriosis; Fertility; Hormones; Phthalates; Pregnancy; Puberty; Reproductive

Indexed keywords

BIOLOGICAL MARKER; DI (2 ETHYLHEXYL) PHTHALATE; DI CYCLOHEXYL PHTHALATE; DI ISODECYL PHTHALATE; DI ISONONYL PHTHALATE; DIHEPTYL PHTHALATED; DIISOBUTYLPHTHALATE; ESTROGEN; MONO 3 CARBOXYPROPYL PHTHALATE; MONOMETHYL PHTHALATE; PHTHALIC ACID DIALLYL ESTER; PHTHALIC ACID DIBUTYL ESTER; PHTHALIC ACID DIETHYL ESTER; PHTHALIC ACID DIHEXYL ESTER; PHTHALIC ACID DIMETHYL ESTER; PHTHALIC ACID DIOCTYL ESTER; PHTHALIC ACID DIPENTYL ESTER; PHTHALIC ACID DIPROPYL ESTER; PHTHALIC ACID ESTER; PHTHALIC ACID ISOBUTYL ESTER; PLASTICIZER; PROGESTERONE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

BREAST CANCER; BREAST DEVELOPMENT; ENDOMETRIOSIS; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; FEMALE FERTILITY; FEMALE GENITAL SYSTEM; FOOD INTAKE; GESTATIONAL AGE; HEAD CIRCUMFERENCE; HEALTH HAZARD; HUMAN; LEIOMYOMA; NONHUMAN; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; PRECOCIOUS PUBERTY; PREGNANCY OUTCOME; PUBERTY; REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH; REVIEW; SEXUAL MATURATION;

ANIMALS; BREAST NEOPLASMS; EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT; ENDOMETRIOSIS; ESTERS; FEMALE; HUMANS; PHTHALIC ACIDS; PLASTICIZERS; PREGNANCY; PRENATAL EXPOSURE DELAYED EFFECTS; REPRODUCTION;

EID: 84874502008     PISSN: 10408444     EISSN: 15476898     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3109/10408444.2013.766149     Document Type: Review

References (148)

1. Anonymous (1997a). Reproductive toxicology: di-n-hexylphthalate. Environ Health Perspect, 105, 251-2.
2. Anonymous (1997b). Reproductive toxicology: Diethylphthalate. Environ Health Perspect, 105, 245-6.
3. Anonymous (1997c). Reproductive toxicology: diethylhexyl phthalate. Environ Health Perspect, 105, 241-2.
4. Anonymous (1997d). Reproductive toxicology: diethylhexyl phthalate, juvenile exposure, mice. Environ Health Perspect, 105, 243-4.
5. Adamsson A, Salonen V, Paranko J, Toppari J. (2009). Effects of maternal exposure to di-isononylphthalate (DINP) and 1, 1-dichloro-2, 2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene (p, p'-DDE) on steroidogenesis in the fetal rat testis and adrenal gland. Reprod Toxicol, 28, 66-74.
6. Adibi JJ, Hauser R, Williams PL, et al. (2009). Maternal urinary metabolites of Di-(2-Ethylhexyl) phthalate in relation to the timing of labor in a US multicenter pregnancy cohort study. Am J Epidemiol, 169, 1015-24.
7. Alam MS, Andrina BB, Tay TW, Tsunekawa N, et al. (2010). Single administration of di(n-butyl) phthalate delays spermatogenesis in prepubertal rats. Tissue Cell, 42, 129-35.
8. Anas MK, Suzuki C, Yoshioka K, Iwamura S. (2003). Effect of mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate on bovine oocyte maturation in vitro. Reprod Toxicol, 17, 305-10. (Pubitemid 36626952)
9. Aschengrau A, Coogan PF, Quinn M, Cashins LJ. (1998). Occupational exposure to estrogenic chemicals and the occurrence of breast cancer: an exploratory analysis. Am J Ind Med, 34, 6-14. (Pubitemid 28240774)
10. Ashby J, Tinwell H, Lefevre PA, et al. (1997). Normal sexual development of rats exposed to butyl benzyl phthalate from conception to weaning. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol, 26, 102-18. (Pubitemid 27421508)
11. Aso S, Ehara H, Miyata K, et al. (2005). A two-generation reproductive toxicity study of butyl benzyl phthalate in rats. J Toxicol Sci, 30, 39-58. (Pubitemid 44661500)
12. Barlow NJ, Foster PM. (2003). Pathogenesis of male reproductive tract lesions from gestation through adulthood following in utero exposure to Di(n-butyl) phthalate. Toxicol Pathol, 31, 397-410. (Pubitemid 36897236)
13. Barr DB, Silva MJ, Kato K, et al. (2003). Assessing human exposure to phthalates using monoesters and their oxidized metabolites as biomarkers. Environ Health Perspect, 111, 1148-51. (Pubitemid 36939393)
14. Blount BC, Silva MJ, Caudill SP, et al. (2000). Levels of seven urinary phthalate metabolites in a human reference population. Environ Health Perspect, 108, 979-82.
15. Boberg J, Christiansen S, Axelstad M, et al. (2011). Reproductive and behavioral effects of diisononyl phthalate (DINP) in perinatally exposed rats. Reprod Toxicol, 31, 200-9.
16. Boberg J, Metzdorff S, Wortziger R, et al. (2008). Impact of diisobutyl phthalate and other PPAR agonists on steroidogenesis and plasma insulin and leptin levels in fetal rats. Toxicology, 250, 75-81.
17. Boekelheide K, Kleymenova E, Liu K, et al. (2009). Dose-dependent effects on cell proliferation, seminiferous tubules, and male germ cells in the fetal rat testis following exposure to di(n-butyl) phthalate. Microsc Res Tech, 72, 629-38.
18. Bonilla E, Del MJ. (2010). Deregulation of the Sod1 and Nd1 genes in mouse fetal oocytes exposed to mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP). Reprod Toxicol, 30, 387-92.
19. Borch J, Axelstad M, Vinggaard AM, Dalgaard, M. (2006). Diisobutyl phthalate has comparable anti-androgenic effects to di-n-butyl phthalate in fetal rat testis. Toxicol Lett, 163, 183-90.
20. Burdorf A, Brand T, Jaddoe VW, et al. (2011). The effects of work-related maternal risk factors on time to pregnancy, preterm birth and birth weight: the Generation R Study. Occup Environ Med, 68, 197-204.
21. Calafat AM, McKee RH. (2006). Integrating biomonitoring exposure data into the risk assessment process: phthalates [diethyl phthalate and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate] as a case study. Environ Health Perspect, 114, 1783-9. (Pubitemid 44718287)
22. Carruthers CM, Foster PM. (2005). Critical window of male reproductive tract development in rats following gestational exposure to di-n-butyl phthalate. Birth Defects Res B Dev Reprod Toxicol, 74, 277-85. (Pubitemid 40944312)
23. Chou YY, Huang PC, Lee CC, et al. (2009). Phthalate exposure in girls during early puberty. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab, 22, 69-77.
24. Cobellis L, Latini G, De FC, et al. (2003). High plasma concentrations of di-(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate in women with endometriosis. Hum Reprod, 18, 1512-15. (Pubitemid 36840962)
25. Colon I, Caro D, Bourdony CJ, Rosario O. (2000). Identification of phthalate esters in the serum of young Puerto Rican girls with premature breast development. Environ Health Perspect, 108, 895-900.
26. Dalman A, Eimani H, Sepehri H, et al. (2008). Effect of mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) on resumption of meiosis, in vitro maturation and embryo development of immature mouse oocytes. Biofactors, 33, 149-55.
27. Dalsenter PR, Santana GM, Grande SW, et al. (2006). Phthalate affect the reproductive function and sexual behavior of male Wistar rats. Hum Exp Toxicol, 25, 297-303. (Pubitemid 44064963)
28. Davis BJ, Maronpot RR, Heindel JJ. (1994a). Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate suppresses estradiol and ovulation in cycling rats. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 128, 216-23. (Pubitemid 24330842)
29. Davis BJ, Weaver R, Gaines LJ, Heindel JJ. (1994b). Mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate suppresses estradiol production independent of FSH-cAMP stimulation in rat granulosa cells. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 128, 224-8. (Pubitemid 24330843)
30. Ema, M. (2002). Antiandrogenic effects of dibutyl phthalate and its metabolite, monobutyl phthalate, in rats. Congenit Anom (Kyoto), 42, 297-308.
31. Ema M, Amano H, Itami T, Kawasaki, H. (1993a). Teratogenic evaluation of di-n-butyl phthalate in rats. Toxicol Lett, 69, 197-203.
32. Ema M, Harazono A, Miyawaki E, Ogawa Y. (1996a). Characterization of developmental toxicity of mono-n-benzyl phthalate in rats. Reprod Toxicol, 10, 365-72. (Pubitemid 26368193)
33. Ema M, Harazono A, Miyawaki E, Ogawa Y. (1996b). Developmental toxicity of mono-n-benzyl phthalate, one of the major metabolites of the plasticizer n-butyl benzyl phthalate, in rats. Toxicol Lett, 86, 19-25. (Pubitemid 26168336)
34. Ema M, Itami T, Kawasaki H. (1993b). Teratogenic phase specificity of butyl benzyl phthalate in rats. Toxicology, 79, 11-19.
35. Ema M, Kurosaka R, Amano H, Ogawa Y. (1995). Developmental toxicity evaluation of mono-n-butyl phthalate in rats. Toxicol Lett, 78, 101-6.
36. Ema M, Kurosaka R, Amano H, Ogawa Y. (1994). Embryolethality of butyl benzyl phthalate during early pregnancy in rats. Reprod Toxicol, 8, 231-6. (Pubitemid 2096840)
37. Ema M, Kurosaka R, Harazono A, et al. (1996c). Phase specificity of developmental toxicity after oral administration of mono-n-butyl phthalate in rats. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol, 31, 170-6. (Pubitemid 26295324)
38. Ema M, Miyawaki E. (2001a). Adverse effects on development of the reproductive system in male offspring of rats given monobutyl phthalate, a metabolite of dibutyl phthalate, during late pregnancy. Reprod Toxicol, 15, 189-94. (Pubitemid 32377810)
39. Ema M, Miyawaki E. (2001b). Effects of monobutyl phthalate on reproductive function in pregnant and pseudopregnant rats. Reprod Toxicol, 15, 261-7. (Pubitemid 32552932)
40. Ema M, Miyawaki E. (2002). Effects on development of the reproductive system in male offspring of rats given butyl benzyl phthalate during late pregnancy. Reprod Toxicol, 16, 71-6. (Pubitemid 34303393)
41. Ema M, Miyawaki E, Hirose A, Kamata, E. (2003). Decreased anogenital distance and increased incidence of undescended testes in fetuses of rats given monobenzyl phthalate, a major metabolite of butyl benzyl phthalate. Reprod Toxicol, 17, 407-12. (Pubitemid 36875180)
42. Ema M, Miyawaki E, Kawashima K. (1998). Reproductive effects of butyl benzyl phthalate in pregnant and pseudopregnant rats. Reprod Toxicol, 12, 127-32. (Pubitemid 29109394)
43. Ema M, Miyawaki E, Kawashima K. (1999). Developmental effects of plasticizer butyl benzyl phthalate after a single administration in rats. J Appl Toxicol, 19, 357-65. (Pubitemid 29452581)
44. Ema M, Miyawaki E, Kawashima K. (2000). Effects of dibutyl phthalate on reproductive function in pregnant and pseudopregnant rats. Reprod Toxicol, 14, 13-19. (Pubitemid 30144025)
45. Fisher JS, Macpherson S, Marchetti N, Sharpe RM. (2003). Human 'testicular dysgenesis syndrome': a possible model using in-utero exposure of the rat to dibutyl phthalate. Hum Reprod, 18, 1383-94. (Pubitemid 36840943)
46. Frederiksen H, Sorensen K, Mouritsen A, et al. (2012). High urinary phthalate concentration associated with delayed pubarche in girls. Int J Androl, 35, 216-26.
47. Fujii S, Yabe K, Furukawa M, et al. (2005). A two-generation reproductive toxicity study of diethyl phthalate (DEP) in rats. J Toxicol Sci, 30, 97-116. (Pubitemid 44661503)
48. Fulcher SM, Willoughby CR, Heath JA, et al. (2001). Developmental toxicity of di-(C(7)-C(9) alkyl) phthalate and di-(C(9)-C(11) alkyl) phthalate in the rat. Reprod Toxicol, 15, 95-102. (Pubitemid 32057609)
49. Grande SW, Andrade AJ, Talsness CE, et al. (2006). A dose-response study following in utero and lactational exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate: effects on female rat reproductive development. Toxicol Sci, 91, 247-54.
50. Grande SW, Andrade AJ, Talsness CE, et al. (2007). A dose-response study following in utero and lactational exposure to di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP): reproductive effects on adult female offspring rats. Toxicology, 229, 114-22. (Pubitemid 44889269)
51. Gray Jr LE, Barlow NJ, Howdeshell KL, et al. (2009). Transgenerational effects of di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in the male CRL:CD(SD) rat: added value of assessing multiple offspring per litter. Toxicol Sci, 110, 411-25.
52. Gray Jr LE, Laskey J, Ostby J. (2006). Chronic di-n-butyl phthalate exposure in rats reduces fertility and alters ovarian function during pregnancy in female Long-Evans hooded rats. Toxicol Sci, 93, 189-95. (Pubitemid 44288262)
53. Gray Jr LE, Ostby J, Furr J, et al. (2000). Perinatal exposure to the phthalates DEHP, BBP, and DINP, but not DEP, DMP, or DOTP, alters sexual differentiation of the male rat. Toxicol Sci, 58, 350-65. (Pubitemid 32042433)
54. Guerra MT, Scarano WR, de Toledo FC, et al. (2010). Reproductive development and function of female rats exposed to di-eta-butyl-phthalate (DBP) in utero and during lactation. Reprod Toxicol, 29, 99-105.
55. Gunnarsson D, Leffler P, Ekwurtzel E, et al. (2008). Mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate stimulates basal steroidogenesis by a cAMP-independent mechanism in mouse gonadal cells of both sexes. Reproduction, 135, 693-703. (Pubitemid 351698616)
56. Gupta RK, Singh JM, Leslie TC, et al. (2010). Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate inhibit growth and reduce estradiol levels of antral follicles in vitro. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 242, 224-30.
57. Hannas BR, Furr J, Lambright CS, et al. (2011). Dipentyl phthalate dosing during sexual differentiation disrupts fetal testis function and postnatal development of the male Sprague-Dawley rat with greater relative potency than other phthalates. Toxicol Sci, 120, 184-93.
58. Harris CA, Henttu P, Parker MG, Sumpter JP. (1997). The estrogenic activity of phthalate esters in vitro. Environ Health Perspect, 105, 802-11. (Pubitemid 27487770)
59. Hauser R, Duty S, Godfrey-Bailey L, Calafat AM. (2004). Medications as a source of human exposure to phthalates. Environ Health Perspect, 112, 751-3. (Pubitemid 38628406)
60. Hayashi K, Nakae A, Fukushima Y, et al. (2010). Contamination of rice by etofenprox, diethyl phthalate and alkylphenols: effects on first delivery and sperm count in mice. J Toxicol Sci, 35, 49-55.
61. Heindel JJ, Gulati DK, Mounce RC, et al. (1989). Reproductive toxicity of three phthalic acid esters in a continuous breeding protocol. Fundam Appl Toxicol, 12, 508-18. (Pubitemid 19104345)
62. Hernandez-Diaz S, Mitchell AA, Kelley KE, et al. (2009). Medications as a potential source of exposure to phthalates in the U.S. population. Environ Health Perspect, 117, 185-9.
63. Hirosawa N, Yano K, Suzuki Y, Sakamoto Y. (2006). Endocrine disrupting effect of di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate on female rats and proteome analyses of their pituitaries. Proteomics, 6, 958-71. (Pubitemid 43260220)
64. Hoshino N, Iwai M, Okazaki Y. (2005). A two-generation reproductive toxicity study of dicyclohexyl phthalate in rats. J Toxicol Sci, 30, 79-96. (Pubitemid 44661502)
65. Huang PC, Kuo PL, Chou YY, et al. (2009). Association between prenatal exposure to phthalates and the health of newborns. Environ Int, 35, 14-20.
66. Huang PC, Tsai EM, Li WF, et al. (2010). Association between phthalate exposure and glutathione S-transferase M1 polymorphism in adeno-myosis, leiomyoma and endometriosis. Hum Reprod, 25, 986-94.
67. Hushka LJ, Waterman SJ, Keller LH, et al. (2001). Two-generation reproduction studies in Rats fed di-isodecyl phthalate. Reprod Toxicol, 15, 153-69. (Pubitemid 32377808)
68. Ito Y, Nakajima T. (2008). PPARalpha-and DEHP-Induced Cancers. PPAR Res, 20, 759-66.
69. Itoh H, Iwasaki M, Hanaoka T, et al. (2009). Urinary phthalate monoesters and endometriosis in infertile Japanese women. Sci Total Environ, 408, 37-42.
70. Jarfelt K, Dalgaard M, Hass U, et al. (2005). Antiandrogenic effects in male rats perinatally exposed to a mixture of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate. Reprod Toxicol, 19, 505-15. (Pubitemid 40313606)
71. Jiang J, Ma L, Yuan L, et al. (2007). Study on developmental abnormalities in hypospadiac male rats induced by maternal exposure to di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP). Toxicology, 232, 286-93. (Pubitemid 46441619)
72. Jobling S, Reynolds T, White R, et al. (1995). Avariety ofenvironmentally persistent chemicals. including some phthalate plasticizers, are weakly estrogenic. Environ Health Perspect, 103, 582-7.
73. Kim SH, Chun S, Jang JY, et al. (2011). Increased plasma levels of phthalate esters in women with advanced-stage endometriosis: a prospective case-control study. Fertil Steril, 95, 357-9.
74. Klimisch HJ, Gamer AO, Hellwig J, et al. (1992). Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate: a short-term repeated inhalation toxicity study including fertility assessment. Food Chem Toxicol, 30, 915-19. (Pubitemid 23014789)
75. Koch HM, Calafat AM. (2009). Human body burdens of chemicals used in plastic manufacture. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, 364, 2063-78.
76. Kurata Y, Makinodan F, Shimamura N, Katoh M. (2012). Metabolism of di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP): comparative study in juvenile and fetal marmosets and rats. J Toxicol Sci, 37, 33-49.
77. Laskey JW, Berman, E. (1993). Steroidogenic assessment using ovary culture in cycling rats: effects of bis(2-diethylhexyl)phthalate on ovarian steroid production. Reprod Toxicol, 7, 25-33.
78. Latini G, De FC, Presta G, et al. (2003). In utero exposure to di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate and duration of human pregnancy. Environ Health Perspect, 111, 1783-5. (Pubitemid 37419903)
79. Lee KY, Shibutani M, Takagi H, et al. (2004). Diverse developmental toxicity of di-n-butyl phthalate in both sexes of rat offspring after maternal exposure during the period from late gestation through lactation. Toxicology, 203, 221-38. (Pubitemid 39200952)
80. Lenie, S. & Smitz, J. (2009). Steroidogenesis-disrupting compounds can be effectively studied for major fertility-related endpoints using in vitro cultured mouse follicles. Toxicol Lett, 185, 143-52.
81. Lomenick JP, Calafat AM, Melguizo Castro MS, et al. (2010). Phthalate exposure and precocious puberty in females. J Pediatr, 156, 221-5.
82. Lopez-Carrillo L, Hernandez-Ramirez RU, Calafat AM, et al. (2010). Exposure to phthalates and breast cancer risk in northern Mexico. Environ Health Perspect, 118, 539-44.
83. Lovekamp TN, Davis BJ. (2001). Mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate suppresses aromatase transcript levels and estradiol production in cultured rat granulosa cells. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 172, 217-24. (Pubitemid 32406029)
84. Lovekamp-Swan T, Jetten AM, Davis BJ. (2003). Dual activation of PPARalpha and PPARgamma by mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in rat ovarian granulosa cells. Mol Cell Endocrinol, 201, 133-41. (Pubitemid 36434289)
85. Ma M, Kondo T, Ban S, et al. (2006). Exposure of prepubertal female rats to inhaled di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate affects the onset of puberty and postpubertal reproductive functions. Toxicol Sci, 93, 164-71. (Pubitemid 44288259)
86. McKee RH. (2004). Phthalate exposure and early thelarche. Environ Health Perspect, 112, A541-3.
87. McKee RH, Pavkov KL, Trimmer GW, et al. (2006). An assessment of the potential developmental and reproductive toxicity of di-isoheptyl phthalate in rodents. Reprod Toxicol, 21, 241-52. (Pubitemid 43294552)
88. Meeker JD, Hu H, Cantonwine DE, et al. (2009). Urinary phthalate metabolites in relation to preterm birth in Mexico city. Environ Health Perspect, 117, 1587-92.
89. Moore RW, Rudy TA, Lin TM, et al. (2001). Abnormalities of sexual development in male rats with in utero and lactational exposure to the antiandrogenic plasticizer Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate. Environ Health Perspect, 109, 229-37. (Pubitemid 32331513)
90. Moral R, Santucci-Pereira J, Wang R, Russo IH, Lamartiniere CA, Russo J. (2011). In utero exposure to butyl benzyl phthalate induces modifications in the morphology and the gene expression profile of the mammary gland: an experimental study in rats. Environ Health, 10, 5. doi: 10.1186/1476-069X-10-5.
91. Moyer B, Hixon ML. (2012). Reproductive effects in F1 adult females exposed in utero to moderate to high doses of mono-2-ethylhexylphthalate (MEHP). Reprod Toxicol, 34, 43-50.
92. Mylchreest E, Cattley RC, Foster PM. (1998). Male reproductive tract malformations in rats following gestational and lactational exposure to Di(n-butyl) phthalate: an antiandrogenic mechanism? Toxicol Sci, 43, 47-60. (Pubitemid 28255935)
93. Mylchreest E, Wallace DG, Cattley RC, Foster PM. (2000). Dose-dependent alterations in androgen-regulated male reproductive development in rats exposed to di(n-butyl) phthalate during late gestation. Toxicol Sci, 55, 143-51. (Pubitemid 30252445)
94. Nagao T, Ohta R, Marumo H, et al. (2000). Effect of butyl benzyl phthalate in Sprague-Dawley rats after gavage administration: a two-generation reproductive study. Reprod Toxicol, 14, 513-32.
95. Oishi S. (1985). Reversibility of testicular atrophy induced by Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in rats. Environ Res, 36, 160-9. (Pubitemid 15166903)
96. Peters JM, Taubeneck MW, Keen CL, Gonzalez FJ. (1997). Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate induces a functional zinc deficiency during pregnancy and teratogenesis that is independent of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha. Teratology, 56, 311-16. (Pubitemid 28035177)
97. Peters JW, Cook RM. (1973). Effect of phthalate esters on reproduction in rats. Environ Health Perspect, 3, 91-4.
98. Philippat C, Mortamais M, Chevrier C, et al. (2012). Exposure to phthalates and phenols during pregnancy and offspring size at birth. Environ Health Perspect, 120, 464-70.
99. Piersma AH, Verhoef A, te Biesebeek JD, et al. (2000). Developmental toxicity of butyl benzyl phthalate in the rat using a multiple dose study design. Reprod Toxicol, 14, 417-25.
100. Pocar P, Fiandanese N, Secchi C, et al. (2012). Exposure to di(2-ethyl-hexyl) phthalate (DEHP) in utero and during lactation causes long-term pituitary-gonadal axis disruption in male and female mouse offspring. Endocrinology, 153, 937-48.
101. Qiao L, Zheng L, Cai D. (2007). Study on the di-n-butyl phthalate and di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate level of girl serum related with precocious puberty in Shanghai. Wei Sheng Yan Jiu, 36, 93-95.
102. Rais-Bahrami K, Nunez S, Revenis ME, et al. (2004). Follow-up study of adolescents exposed to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) as neonates on extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) support. Environ Health Perspect, 112, 1339-40. (Pubitemid 39294975)
103. Reddy BS, Rozati R, Reddy BV, Raman NV. (2006a). Association of phthalate esters with endometriosis in Indian women. BJOG, 113, 515-20.
104. Reddy BS, Rozati R, Reddy S, et al. (2006b). High plasma concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls and phthalate esters in women with endometriosis: a prospective case control study. Fertil Steril, 85, 775-9. (Pubitemid 43261586)
105. Rhodes C, Orton TC, Pratt IS, et al. (1986). Comparative pharmacokin-etics and subacute toxicity of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) in rats and marmosets: extrapolation of effects in rodents to man. Environ Health Perspect, 65, 299-307.
106. Rusyn I, Corton JC. (2012). Mechanistic considerations for human relevance of cancer hazard of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate. Mutat Res, 750, 141-58.
107. Saffarini CM, Heger NE, Yamasaki H, et al. (2012). Induction and persistence of abnormal testicular germ cells following gestational exposure to di-(n-butyl) phthalate in p53-null Mice. J Androl, 33, 505-13.
108. Saillenfait AM, Gallissot F, Sabate JP. (2009a). Differential developmental toxicities of di-n-hexyl phthalate and dicyclohexyl phthalate administered orally to rats. J Appl Toxicol, 29, 510-21.
109. Saillenfait AM, Gallissot F, Sabate JP. (2008a). Evaluation of the developmental toxicity of diallyl phthalate administered orally to rats. Food Chem Toxicol, 46, 2150-6.
110. Saillenfait AM, Roudot AC, Gallissot F, Sabate JP. (2011a). Prenatal developmental toxicity studies on di-n-heptyl and di-n-octyl phthalates in Sprague-Dawley rats. Reprod Toxicol, 32, 268-76.
111. Saillenfait AM, Roudot AC, Gallissot F, et al. (2011b). Developmental toxic potential of di-n-propyl phthalate administered orally to rats. J Appl Toxicol, 31, 36-44.
112. Saillenfait AM, Sabate JP, Gallissot F. (2009b). Effects of in utero exposure to di-n-hexyl phthalate on the reproductive development of the male rat. Reprod Toxicol, 28, 468-76.
113. Saillenfait AM, Sabate JP, Gallissot F. (2008b). Diisobutyl phthalate impairs the androgen-dependent reproductive development of the male rat. Reprod Toxicol, 26, 107-15.
114. Saillenfait AM, Sabate JP, Gallissot F. (2006). Developmental toxic effects of diisobutyl phthalate, the methyl-branched analogue of di-n-butyl phthalate, administered by gavage to rats. Toxicol Lett, 165, 39-46. (Pubitemid 43867176)
115. Saillenfait AM, Sabate JP, Gallissot F. (2003). Comparative embry-otoxicities of butyl benzyl phthalate, mono-n-butyl phthalate and mono-benzyl phthalate in mice and rats: in vivo and in vitro observations. Reprod Toxicol, 17, 575-83. (Pubitemid 37337381)
116. Salazar V, Castillo C, Ariznavarreta C, et al. (2004). Effect oforal intake of dibutyl phthalate on reproductive parameters of Long Evans rats and pre-pubertal development of their offspring. Toxicology, 205, 131-7. (Pubitemid 39349160)
117. Schmidt JS, Schaedlich K, Fiandanese N, et al. (2012). Di(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate (DEHP) impairs female fertility and promotes adipogenesis in C3H/N mice. Environ Health Perspect, 120, 1123-9.
118. Sekiguchi S, Ito S, Suda M, Honma T. (2006). Involvement of thyroxine in ovarian toxicity of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate. Ind Health, 44, 274-9. (Pubitemid 43736084)
119. Seth PK, Srivastava SP, Agarwal DK, Chandra SV. (1976). Effect of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) on rat gonads. Environ Res, 12, 131-8.
120. Shirota M, Saito Y, Imai K, et al. (2005). Influence of di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate on fetal testicular development by oral administration to pregnant rats. J Toxicol Sci, 30, 175-94. (Pubitemid 41305776)
121. Struve MF, Gaido KW, Hensley JB, et al. (2009). Reproductive toxicity and pharmacokinetics of di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) following dietary exposure of pregnant rats. Birth Defects Res B Dev Reprod Toxicol, 86, 345-54.
122. Suzuki Y, Niwa M, Yoshinaga J, et al. (2010). Prenatal exposure to phthalate esters and PAHs and birth outcomes. Environ Int, 36, 699-704.
123. Svechnikova I, Svechnikov K, Soder O. (2007). The influence of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate on steroidogenesis by the ovarian granu-losa cells of immature female rats. J Endocrinol, 194, 603-9. (Pubitemid 47471228)
124. Tabacova S, Little R, Balabaeva L. (1999). Maternal exposure to phthalates and complications of pregnancy. Epidemiology, 10, S127.
125. Takai R, Hayashi S, Kiyokawa J, et al. (2009). Collaborative work on evaluation of ovarian toxicity. Two-or four-week repeated dose studies and fertility study of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) in female rats. J Toxicol Sci, 34, SP111-19.
126. Tanaka T. (2002). Reproductive and neurobehavioural toxicity study of bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) administered to mice in the diet. Food Chem Toxicol, 40, 1499-506. (Pubitemid 35245212)
127. Tanaka T. (2003). Effects of bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) on secondary sex ratio of mice in a cross-mating study. Food Chem Toxicol, 41, 1429-32. (Pubitemid 37289193)
128. Toft G, Jonsson BA, Lindh CH, et al. (2012). Association between pregnancy loss and urinary phthalate levels around the time of conception. Environ Health Perspect, 120, 458-63.
129. Tomita I, Nakamura Y, Yagi Y, Tutikawa K. (1982). Teratogenicity/ fetotoxicity of DEHP in mice. Environ Health Perspect, 45, 71-5. (Pubitemid 13223102)
130. Tomonari Y, Kurata Y, David RM, et al. (2006). Effect of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) on genital organs from juvenile common marmosets: I. Morphological and biochemical investigation in 65-week toxicity study. J Toxicol Environ Health A, 69, 1651-72. (Pubitemid 44147857)
131. Treinen KA, Dodson WC, Heindel JJ. (1990). Inhibition of FSH-stimulated cAMP accumulation and progesterone production by mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in rat granulosa cell cultures. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 106, 334-40.
132. Tyl RW, Price CJ, Marr MC, Kimmel, CA. (1988). Developmental toxicity evaluation of dietary di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate in Fischer 344 rats and CD-1 mice. Fundam Appl Toxicol, 10, 395-412. (Pubitemid 18097029)
133. Uriu-Adams JY, Kevin RC, Nguyen LK, et al. (2001). Effect of butyl benzyl phthalate on reproduction and zinc metabolism. Toxicology, 159, 55-68. (Pubitemid 32201882)
134. Walvoord EC. (2010). The timing of puberty: is it changing? Does it matter? J Adolesc Health, 47, 433-9.
135. Wang W, Craig ZR, Basavarajappa MS, et al. (2012a). Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate inhibits growth of mouse ovarian antral follicles through an oxidative stress pathway. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 258, 288-95.
136. Wang W, Craig ZR, Basavarajappa MS, et al. (2012b). Mono (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate induces oxidative stress and inhibits growth of mouse ovarian antral follicles. Biol Reprod, 87, 152.
137. Ward JM, Peters JM, Perella CM, Gonzalez FJ. (1998). Receptor and nonreceptor-mediated organ-specific toxicity of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha-null mice. Toxicol Pathol, 26, 240-6. (Pubitemid 28155330)
138. Waterman SJ, Keller LH, Trimmer GW, et al. (2000). Two-generation reproduction study in rats given di-isononyl phthalate in the diet. Reprod Toxicol, 14, 21-36. (Pubitemid 30144026)
139. Weuve J, Hauser R, Calafat AM, et al. (2010). Association of exposure to phthalates with endometriosis and uterine leiomyomata: findings from NHANES, 1999-2004. Environ Health Perspect, 118, 825-32.
140. Whyatt RM, Adibi JJ, Calafat AM, et al. (2009). Prenatal di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate exposure and length of gestation among an inner-city cohort. Pediatrics, 124, e1213-20.
141. Willoughby CR, Fulcher SM, Creasy DM, et al. (2000). Two-generation reproduction toxicity studies of di-(C(7)-C(9) alkyl) phthalate and di-(C(9)-C(11) alkyl) phthalate in the rat. Reprod Toxicol, 14, 427-50.
142. Wine RN, Li LH, Barnes LH, et al. (1997). Reproductive toxicity of di-n-butylphthalate in a continuous breeding protocol in Sprague-Dawley rats. Environ Health Perspect, 105, 102-7. (Pubitemid 27142062)
143. Wittassek M, Koch HM, Angerer J, Bruning T. (2011). Assessing exposure to phthalates-the human biomonitoring approach. Mol Nutr Food Res, 55, 7-31.
144. Wolff MS, Engel SM, Berkowitz GS, et al. (2008). Prenatal phenol and phthalate exposures and birth outcomes. Environ Health Perspect, 116, 1092-7.
145. Wolff MS, Teitelbaum SL, Pinney SM, et al. (2010). Investigation of relationships between urinary biomarkers of phytoestrogens, phthalates, and phenols and pubertal stages in girls. Environ Health Perspect, 118, 1039-46.
146. 0-DDE in Sprague-Dawley rats. Toxicol Lett, 189, 14-20.
147. Zhang Y, Jiang X, Chen B. (2004). Reproductive and developmental toxicity in F1 Sprague-Dawley male rats exposed to di-n-butyl phthalate in utero and during lactation and determination of its NOAEL. Reprod Toxicol, 18, 669-76. (Pubitemid 38829381)
148. Zhang Y, Lin L, Cao Y, et al. (2009). Phthalate levels and low birth weight: a nested case-control study of Chinese newborns. J Pediatr, 155, 500-4.