Simultaneous manipulation of multiple brain targets by green tea catechins: A potential neuroprotective strategy for Alzheimer and Parkinson diseases

CNS Neuroscience and Therapeutics

Volumn 14, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 352-365

  Mandel, Silvia A ^a,b   Amit, Tamar ^a   Weinreb, Orly ^a   Reznichenko, Lydia ^a   Youdim, Moussa B H ^a  

^a TECHNION ISRAEL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (Israel)

^b NONE   (Israel)

Author keywords

EGCG; Green tea; Iron chelators; Neuroprotection; Neurorescue; Prevention

Indexed keywords

2 METHYL 5 (3,4,5 TRIMETHOXYBENZAMIDO)DECAHYDROISOQUINOLINE; 5 (N METHYL N PROPARGYLAMINOMETHYL) 8 HYDROXYQUINOLINE; ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; ANTIOXIDANT; BETA ACTIN; CATECHIN; CLIOQUINOL; DEFEROXAMINE; DEFEROXAMINE MESYLATE; EPIGALLOCATECHIN GALLATE; FLAVONOID; GREEN TEA EXTRACT; HYPOXIA INDUCIBLE FACTOR 1; IRON CHELATING AGENT; IRON COMPLEX; NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; PROTEIN KINASE C; RASAGILINE; SECRETASE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VK 28;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY; CHOLESTEROL METABOLISM; CORPUS STRIATUM; DRUG MECHANISM; HIPPOCAMPUS; HUMAN; INCIDENCE; IRON CHELATION; LIPID METABOLISM; NERVE DEGENERATION; NEUROPROTECTION; NONHUMAN; NUCLEOTIDE SEQUENCE; PARKINSON DISEASE; REVIEW; TEA; TREATMENT RESPONSE;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; AMYLOID BETA-PROTEIN PRECURSOR; ANIMALS; ANTIOXIDANTS; BRAIN; CATECHIN; CELLS, CULTURED; HUMANS; HYPOXIA-INDUCIBLE FACTOR 1; IRON; NEUROPROTECTIVE AGENTS; PARKINSON DISEASE; PROTEIN KINASE C;

EID: 56049088324     PISSN: 17555930     EISSN: 17555949     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-5949.2008.00060.x     Document Type: Review

References (110)

1. Gutman RL RB. Rediscovering tea: An exploration of the scientific literature. HerbalGram 1996 37 : 33 48.
2. Wang ZY, Huang MT, Lou YR, Xie JG, Reuhl KR, Newmark HL, Ho CT, Yang CS, Conney AH. Inhibitory effects of black tea, green tea, decaffeinated black tea, and decaffeinated green tea on ultraviolet B light-induced skin carcinogenesis in 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene-initiated SKH-1 mice. Cancer Res 1994 54 : 3428 3455.
3. Yang CS, Wang ZY. Tea and cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1993 85 : 1038 1049.
4. Khokhar S, Magnusdottir SG. Total phenol, catechin, and caffeine contents of teas commonly consumed in the United kingdom. J Agric Food Chem 2002 50 : 565 570.
5. Higdon JV, Frei B. Tea catechins and polyphenols: Health effects, metabolism, and antioxidant functions. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2003 43 : 89 143.
6. Mandel SA, Avramovich-Tirosh Y, Reznichenko L, Zheng H, Weinreb O, Amit T, Youdim MB. Multifunctional activities of green tea catechins in neuroprotection. Neurosignals 2005 14 : 46 60.
7. Khan N, Mukhtar H. Tea polyphenols for health promotion. Life Sci 2007 81 : 519 533.
8. Kuriyama S, Shimazu T, Ohmori K, Kikuchi N, Nakaya N, Nishino Y, Tsubono Y, Tsuji I. Green tea consumption and mortality due to cardiovascular disease, cancer, and all causes in Japan: The Ohsaki study. JAMA 2006 296 : 1255 1265.
9. Li C, Allen A, Kwagh J, Doliba NM, Qin W, Najafi H, Collins HW, Matschinsky FM, Stanley CA, Smith TJ. Green tea polyphenols modulate insulin secretion by inhibiting glutamate dehydrogenase. J Biol Chem 2006 281 : 10214 10221.
10. Anderson RA, Polansky MM. Tea enhances insulin activity. J Agric Food Chem 2002 50 : 7182 7186.
11. Waltner-Law ME, Wang XL, Law BK, Hall RK, Nawano M, Granner DK. Epigallocatechin gallate, a constituent of green tea, represses hepatic glucose production. J Biol Chem 2002 277 : 34933 34940.
12. Kuriyama S, Hozawa A, Ohmori K, Shimazu T, Matsui T, Ebihara S, Awata S, Nagatomi R, Arai H, Tsuji I. Green tea consumption and cognitive function: A cross-sectional study from the Tsurugaya Project 1. Am J Clin Nutr 2006 83 : 355 361.
13. Checkoway H, Powers K, Smith-Weller T, Franklin GM, Longstreth WT Jr., Swanson PD. Parkinson's disease risks associated with cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and caffeine intake. Am J Epidemiol 2002 155 : 732 738.
14. Hu G, Bidel S, Jousilahti P, Antikainen R, Tuomilehto J. Coffee and tea consumption and the risk of Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2007 22 : 2242 2248.
15. Dauer W, Przedborski S. Parkinson's disease: Mechanisms and models. Neuron 2003 39 : 889 909.
16. Mandel S, Grunblatt E, Riederer P, Gerlach M, Levites Y, Youdim MBH. Neuroprotective strategies in Parkinson's disease: An update on progress. CNS Drugs 2003 17 : 729 762.
17. Riederer P, Sofic E, Rausch WD, Schmidt B, Reynolds GP, Jellinger K, Youdim MB. Transition metals, ferritin, glutathione, and ascorbic acid in parkinsonian brains. J Neurochem 1989 52 : 515 520.
18. Fahn S, Cohen G. The oxidant stress hypothesis in Parkinson's disease: Evidence supporting it. Ann Neurol 1992 32 : 804 812.
19. Gerlach M, Ben-Shachar D, Riederer P, Youdim MB. Altered brain metabolism of iron as a cause of neurodegenerative diseases? J Neurochem 1994 63 : 793 807.
20. Berg D, Gerlach M, Youdim MB, Double KL, Zecca L, Riederer P, Becker G. Brain iron pathways and their relevance to Parkinson's disease. J Neurochem 2001 79 : 225 236.
21. Jellinger KA. Recent developments in the pathology of Parkinson's disease. J Neural Transm Suppl 2002 62 : 347 376.
22. Sayre LM, Perry G, Harris PL, Liu Y, Schubert KA, Smith MA. In situ oxidative catalysis by neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques in Alzheimer's disease: A central role for bound transition metals. J Neurochem 2000 74 : 270 279.
23. Vanhoutte G, Dewachter I, Borghgraef P, Van Leuven F, Van der Linden A. Noninvasive in vivo MRI detection of neuritic plaques associated with iron in APP[V717I] transgenic mice, a model for Alzheimer's disease. Magn Reson Med 2005 53 : 607 613.
24. Connor JR, Snyder BS, Beard JL, Fine RE, Mufson EJ. Regional distribution of iron and iron-regulatory proteins in the brain in aging and Alzheimer's disease. J Neurosci Res 1992 31 : 327 335.
25. Halliwell B. Role of free radicals in the neurodegenerative diseases: therapeutic implications for antioxidant treatment. Drugs Aging 2001 18 : 685 716.
26. Sayre LM, Smith MA, Perry G. Chemistry and biochemistry of oxidative stress in neurodegenerative disease. Curr Med Chem 2001 8 : 721 738.
27. Berg D. In vivo detection of iron and neuromelanin by transcranial sonography - a new approach for early detection of substantia nigra damage. J Neural Transm 2006 113 : 775 780.
28. Lovell MA, Robertson JD, Teesdale WJ, Campbell JL, Markesbery WR. Copper, iron and zinc in Alzheimer's disease senile plaques. J Neurol Sci 1998 158 : 47 52.
29. Pinero DJ, Hu J, Connor JR. Alterations in the interaction between iron regulatory proteins and their iron responsive element in normal and Alzheimer's diseased brains. Cell Mol Biol (Noisy-Le-Grand) 2000 46 : 761 776.
30. Van der Schyf CJ, Gal S, Geldenhuys WJ, Youdim MB. Multifunctional neuroprotective drugs targeting monoamine oxidase inhibition, iron chelation, adenosine receptors, and cholinergic and glutamatergic action for neurodegenerative diseases. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2006 15 : 873 886.
31. Lee S, Suh S, Kim S. Protective effects of the green tea polyphenol (-)-epigallocatechin gallate against hippocampal neuronal damage after transient global ischemia in gerbils. Neurosci Lett 2000 287 : 191 194.
32. Sutherland BA, Shaw OM, Clarkson AN, Jackson DM, Sammut IA, Appleton I. Neuroprotective effects of (-)-epigallocatechin gallate after hypoxia-ischemia-induced brain damage: Novel mechanisms of action. FASEB J 2004 19 : 258 260.
33. Aktas O, Prozorovski T, Smorodchenko A, Savaskan NE, Lauster R, Kloetzel PM, Infante-Duarte C, Brocke S, Zipp F. Green tea epigallocatechin-3-gallate mediates T cellular NF-kappa B inhibition and exerts neuroprotection in autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Immunol 2004 173 : 5794 5800.
34. Koh SH, Lee SM, Kim HY, Lee KY, Lee YJ, Kim HT, Kim J, Kim MH, Hwang MS, Song C, Yang KW, Lee KW, Kim SH, Kim OH. The effect of epigallocatechin gallate on suppressing disease progression of ALS model mice. Neurosci Lett 2006 395 : 103 107.
35. Levites Y, Weinreb O, Maor G, Youdim MBH, Mandel S. Green tea polyphenol (-)- epigallocatechin-3-gallate prevents N-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6- tetrahydropyridine- induced dopaminergic neurodegeneration. J Neurochem 2001 78 : 1073 1082.
36. Haque AM, Hashimoto M, Katakura M, Tanabe Y, Hara Y, Shido O. Long-term administration of green tea catechins improves spatial cognition learning ability in rats. J Nutr 2006 136 : 1043 1047.
37. Haque AM, Hashimoto M, Katakura M, Hara Y, Shido O. Green tea catechins prevent cognitive deficits caused by Abeta(1-40) in rats. J Nutr Biochem 2008 19 : 619 626.
38. Rezai-Zadeh K, Shytle D, Sun N, Mori T, Hou H, Jeanniton D, Ehrhart J, Townsend K, Zeng J, Morgan D, Hardy J, Town T, Tan J. Green tea epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) modulates amyloid precursor protein cleavage and reduces cerebral amyloidosis in Alzheimer transgenic mice. J Neurosci 2005 25 : 8807 8814.
39. Levites Y, Amit T, Youdim MBH, Mandel S. Involvement of protein kinase C activation and cell survival/cell cycle genes in green tea polyphenol (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate neuroprotective action. J Biol Chem 2002 277 : 30574 30580.
40. Choi YT, Jung CH, Lee SR, Bae JH, Baek WK, Suh MH, Park J, Park CW, Suh SI. The green tea polyphenol (-)-epigallocatechin gallate attenuates beta- amyloid-induced neurotoxicity in cultured hippocampal neurons. Life Sci 2001 70 : 603 614.
41. Mandel S, Reznichenko L, Amit T, Youdim MB. Green tea polyphenol (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate protects rat PC12 cells from apoptosis induced by serum withdrawal independent of P13-Akt pathway. Neurotox Res 2003 5 : 419 424.
42. Levites Y, Amit T, Mandel S, Youdim MBH. Neuroprotection and neurorescue against amyloid beta toxicity and PKC-dependent release of non-amyloidogenic soluble precusor protein by green tea polyphenol (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate. FASEB J 2003 17 : 952 954.
43. Ban JY, Jeon SY, Bae K, Song KS, Seong YH. Catechin and epicatechin from Smilacis chinae rhizome protect cultured rat cortical neurons against amyloid beta protein (25-35)-induced neurotoxicity through inhibition of cytosolic calcium elevation. Life Sci 2006 79 : 2251 2259.
44. Reznichenko L, Amit T, Youdim MB, Mandel S. Green tea polyphenol (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate induces neurorescue of long-term serum-deprived PC12 cells and promotes neurite outgrowth. J Neurochem 2005 93 : 1157 1167.
45. Sagi Y, Mandel S, Amit T, Youdim MB. Activation of tyrosine kinase receptor signaling pathway by rasagiline facilitates neurorescue and restoration of nigrostriatal dopamine neurons in post-MPTP-induced parkinsonism. Neurobiol Dis 2007 25 : 35 44.
46. Weinreb O, Amit T, Youdim MB. A novel approach of proteomics and transcriptomics to study the mechanism of action of the antioxidant-iron chelator green tea polyphenol (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate. Free Radic Biol Med 2007 43 : 546 556.
47. Weinreb O, Amit T, Youdim MB. The application of proteomics for studying the neurorescue activity of the polyphenol (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate. Arch Biochem Biophys 2008 476 : 52 60.
48. Nanjo F, Goto K, Seto R, Suzuki M, Sakai M, Hara Y. Scavenging effects of tea catechins and their derivatives on 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical. Free Radic Biol Med 1996 21 : 895 902.
49. Salah N, Miller NJ, Paganga G, Tijburg L, Bolwell GP, Rice-Evans C. Polyphenolic flavanols as scavengers of aqueous phase radicals and as chain-breaking antioxidants. Arch Biochem Biophy 1995 322 : 339 346.
50. Levites Y, Youdim MBH, Maor G, Mandel S. Attenuation of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) activation and cell death by tea extracts in neuronal cultures. Biochem Pharmacol 2002 63 : 21 29.
51. Guo Q, Zhao B, Li M, Shen S, Xin W. Studies on protective mechanisms of four components of green tea polyphenols against lipid peroxidation in synaptosomes. Biochim Biophys Acta 1996 1304 : 210 222.
52. Owuor ED, Kong AN. Antioxidants and oxidants regulated signal transduction pathways. Biochem Pharmacol 2002 64 : 765 770.
53. Mann GE, Rowlands DJ, Li FY, de Winter P, Siow RC. Activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase by dietary isoflavones: Role of NO in Nrf2-mediated antioxidant gene expression. Cardiovasc Res 2007 75 : 261 274.
54. Kalfon L, Youdim MB, Mandel SA. Green tea polyphenol (-)- epigallocatechin-3-gallate promotes the rapid protein kinase C- and proteasome-mediated degradation of Bad: Implications for neuroprotection. J Neurochem 2007 100 : 992 1002.
55. Berra E, Municio MM, Sanz L, Frutos S, Diaz-Meco MT, Moscat J. Positioning atypical protein kinase C isoforms in the UV-induced apoptotic signaling cascade. Mol Cell Biol 1997 17 : 4346 4354.
56. Durkin JP, Tremblay R, Chakravarthy B, Mealing G, Morley P, Small D, Song D. Evidence that the early loss of membrane protein kinase C is a necessary step in the excitatory amino acid-induced death of primary cortical neurons. J Neurochem 1997 68 : 1400 1412.
57. Vianna MR, Barros DM, Silva T, Choi H, Madche C, Rodrigues C, Medina JH, Izquierdo I. Pharmacological demonstration of the differential involvement of protein kinase C isoforms in short- and long-term memory formation and retrieval of one-trial avoidance in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2000 150 : 77 84.
58. Lange-Asschenfeldt C, Raval AP, Dave KR, Mochly-Rosen D, Sick TJ, Perez-Pinzon MA. Epsilon protein kinase C mediated ischemic tolerance requires activation of the extracellular regulated kinase pathway in the organotypic hippocampal slice. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2004 24 : 636 645.
59. Cordey M, Gundimeda U, Gopalakrishna R, Pike CJ. Estrogen activates protein kinase C in neurons: Role in neuroprotection. J Neurochem 2003 84 : 1340 1348.
60. Han YS, Zheng WH, Bastianetto S, Chabot JG, Quirion R. Neuroprotective effects of resveratrol against beta-amyloid-induced neurotoxicity in rat hippocampal neurons: Involvement of protein kinase C. Br J Pharmacol 2004 141 : 997 1005.
61. Schroeter H, Bahia P, Spencer JP, Sheppard O, Rattray M, Cadenas E, Rice-Evans C, Williams RJ. (-)Epicatechin stimulates ERK-dependent cyclic AMP response element activity and up-regulates GluR2 in cortical neurons. J Neurochem 2007 101 : 1596 1606.
62. Weinreb O, Mandel S, Youdim MBH. cDNA gene expression profile homology of antioxidants and their anti-apoptotic and pro-apoptotic activities in human neuroblastoma cells. FASEB J 2003 17 : 935 937.
63. 2+/calmodulin- dependent protein kinase II, and redox state are involved in epigallocatechin gallate-induced phospholipase D activation in human astroglioma cells. Eur J Biochem 2004 271 : 3470 3480.
64. Mandel S, Maor G, Youdim MB. Iron and alpha-synuclein in the substantia nigra of MPTP-treated mice: effect of neuroprotective drugs R-apomorphine and green tea polyphenol (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate. J Mol Neurosci 2004 24 : 401 416.
65. Reznichenko L, Amit T, Zheng H, Avramovich-Tirosh Y, Youdim MB, Weinreb O, Mandel S. Reduction of iron-regulated amyloid precursor protein and beta-amyloid peptide by (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate in cell cultures: implications for iron chelation in Alzheimer's disease. J Neurochem 2006 97 : 527 536.
66. Selkoe DJ. The molecular pathology of Alzheimer's disease. Neuron 1991 6 : 487 498.
67. Mattson MP, Barger SW, Furukawa K, Bruce AJ, Wyss-Coray T, Mark RJ, Mucke L. Cellular signaling roles of TGF beta, TNF alpha and beta APP in brain injury responses and Alzheimer's disease. Brain Res Rev 1997 23 : 47 61.
68. Small DH, Nurcombe V, Reed G, Clarris H, Moir R, Beyreuther K, Masters CL. A heparin-binding domain in the amyloid protein precursor of Alzheimer's disease is involved in the regulation of neurite outgrowth. J Neurosci 1994 14 : 2117 2127.
69. Morimoto T, Ohsawa I, Takamura C, Ishiguro M, Kohsaka S. Involvement of amyloid precursor protein in functional synapse formation in cultured hippocampal neurons. J Neurosci Res 1998 51 : 185 195.
70. Choi DS, Wang D, Yu GQ, Zhu G, Kharazia VN, Paredes JP, Chang WS, Deitchman JK, Mucke L, Messing RO. PKCepsilon increases endothelin converting enzyme activity and reduces amyloid plaque pathology in transgenic mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006 103 : 8215 8220.
71. Takeuchi A, Irizarry MC, Duff K, Saido TC, Hsiao Ashe K, Hasegawa M, Mann DM, Hyman BT, Iwatsubo T. Age-related amyloid beta deposition in transgenic mice overexpressing both Alzheimer mutant presenilin 1 and amyloid beta precursor protein Swedish mutant is not associated with global neuronal loss. Am J Pathol 2000 157 : 331 339.
72. Ben-Shachar D, Eshel G, Finberg JP, Youdim MB. The iron chelator desferrioxamine (Desferal) retards 6-hydroxydopamine-induced degeneration of nigrostriatal dopamine neurons. J Neurochem 1991 56 : 1441 1444.
73. Kaur D, Yantiri F, Rajagopalan S, Kumar J, Mo JQ, Boonplueang R, Viswanath V, Jacobs R, Yang L, Beal MF, DiMonte D, Volitaskis I, Ellerby L, Cherny RA, Bush AI, Andersen JK. Genetic or pharmacological iron chelation prevents MPTP-induced neurotoxicity in vivo: A novel therapy for Parkinson's disease. Neuron 2003 37 : 899 909.
74. Ritchie CW, Bush AI, Mackinnon A, Macfarlane S, Mastwyk M, MacGregor L, Kiers L, Cherny R, Li QX, Tammer A, Carrington D, Mavros C, Volitakis I, Xilinas M, Ames D, Davis S, Beyreuther K, Tanzi RE, Masters CL. Metal-protein attenuation with iodochlorhydroxyquin (clioquinol) targeting Abeta amyloid deposition and toxicity in Alzheimer disease: A pilot phase 2 clinical trial. Arch Neurol 2003 60 : 1685 1691.
75. Cherny RA, Atwood CS, Xilinas ME, Gray DN, Jones WD, McLean CA, Barnham KJ, Volitakis I, Fraser FW, Kim Y, Huang X, Goldstein LE, Moir RD, Lim JT, Beyreuther K, Zheng H, Tanzi RE, Masters CL, Bush AI. Treatment with a copper-zinc chelator markedly and rapidly inhibits beta-amyloid accumulation in Alzheimer's disease transgenic mice. Neuron 2001 30 : 665 676.
76. Aouad F, Florence A, Zhang Y, Collins F, Henry C, Ward RJ, Crichton RR. Evaluation of new iron chelators and their therapeutic potential. Inorganica Chim Acta 2002 339 : 470 480.
77. Zheng H, Weiner LM, Bar-Am O, Epsztejn S, Cabantchik ZI, Warshawsky A, Youdim MB, Fridkin M. Design, synthesis, and evaluation of novel bifunctional iron-chelators as potential agents for neuroprotection in Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and other neurodegenerative diseases. Bioorg Med Chem 2005 13 : 773 783.
78. Zhu W, Xie W, Pan T, Xu P, Fridkin M, Zheng H, Jankovic J, Youdim MB, Le W. Prevention and restoration of lactacystin-induced nigrostriatal dopamine neuron degeneration by novel brain-permeable iron chelators. FASEB J 2007 21 : 3835 3844.
79. Abd El Mohsen MM, Kuhnle G, Rechner AR, Schroeter H, Rose S, Jenner P, Rice-Evans CA. Uptake and metabolism of epicatechin and its access to the brain after oral ingestion. Free Radic Biol Med 2002 33 : 1693 1702.
80. Suganuma M, Okabe S, Oniyama M, Tada Y, Ito H, Fujiki H. Wide distribution of [3H](-)-epigallocatechin gallate, a cancer preventive tea polyphenol, in mouse tissue. Carcinogenesis 1998 19 : 1771 1776.
81. Grinberg LN, Newmark H, Kitrossky N, Rahamim E, Chevion M, Rachmilewitz EA. Protective effects of tea polyphenols against oxidative damage to red blood cells. Biochem Pharmacol 1997 54 : 973 978.
82. Kumamoto M, Sonda T, Nagayama K, Tabata M. Effects of pH and metal ions on antioxidative activities of catechins. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2001 65 : 126 132.
83. Zecca L, Youdim MB, Riederer P, Connor JR, Crichton RR. Iron, brain ageing and neurodegenerative disorders. Nat Rev Neurosci 2004 5 : 863 873.
84. Bush AI. The metallobiology of Alzheimer's disease. Trends Neurosci 2003 26 : 207 214.
85. Shin RW, Kruck TP, Murayama H, Kitamoto T. A novel trivalent cation chelator Feralex dissociates binding of aluminum and iron associated with hyperphosphorylated tau of Alzheimer's disease. Brain Res 2003 961 : 139 146.
86. Frackowiak J, Sukontasup T, Potempska A, Mazur-Kolecka B. Lysosomal deposition of Abeta in cultures of brain vascular smooth muscle cells is enhanced by iron. Brain Res 2004 1002 : 67 75.
87. Castellani RJ, Honda K, Zhu X, Cash AD, Nunomura A, Perry G, Smith MA. Contribution of redox-active iron and copper to oxidative damage in Alzheimer disease. Ageing Res Rev 2004 3 : 319 326.
88. Atwood CS, Obrenovich ME, Liu T, Chan H, Perry G, Smith MA, Martins RN. Amyloid-beta: A chameleon walking in two worlds: A review of the trophic and toxic properties of amyloid-beta. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 2003 43 : 1 16.
89. House E, Collingwood J, Khan A, Korchazkina O, Berthon G, Exley C. Aluminium, iron, zinc and copper influence the in vitro formation of amyloid fibrils of Abeta42 in a manner which may have consequences for metal chelation therapy in Alzheimer's disease. J Alzheimers Dis 2004 6 : 291 301.
90. Ostrerova-Golts N, Petrucelli L, Hardy J, Lee JM, Farer M, Wolozin B. The A53T alpha-synuclein mutation increases iron-dependent aggregation and toxicity. J Neurosci 2000 20 : 6048 6054.
91. Turnbull S, Tabner BJ, El-Agnaf OM, Moore S, Davies Y, Allsop D. Alpha-synuclein implicated in Parkinson's disease catalyses the formation of hydrogen peroxide in vitro. Free Radic Biol Med 2001 30 : 1163 1170.
92. Ono K, Yoshiike Y, Takashima A, Hasegawa K, Naiki H, Yamada M. Potent anti-amyloidogenic and fibril-destabilizing effects of polyphenols in vitro: Implications for the prevention and therapeutics of Alzheimer's disease. J Neurochem 2003 87 : 172 181.
93. Ono K, Yamada M. Antioxidant compounds have potent anti-fibrillogenic and fibril-destabilizing effects for alpha-synuclein fibrils in vitro. J Neurochem 2006 97 : 105 115.
94. Ehrnhoefer DE, Bieschke J, Boeddrich A, Herbst M, Masino L, Lurz R, Engemann S, Pastore A, Wanker EE. EGCG redirects amyloidogenic polypeptides into unstructured, off-pathway oligomers. Nat Struct Mol Biol 2008 15 : 558 566.
95. Baum L, Ng A. Curcumin interaction with copper and iron suggests one possible mechanism of action in Alzheimer's disease animal models. J Alzheimers Dis 2004 6 : 367 377 discussion 443-449.
96. Rogers JT, Randall JD, Cahill CM, Eder PS, Huang X, Gunshin H, Leiter L, McPhee J, Sarang SS, Utsuki T, Greig NH, Lahiri DK, Tanzi RE, Bush AI, Giordano T, Gullans SR. An iron-responsive element type II in the 5′-untranslated region of the Alzheimer's amyloid precursor protein transcript. J Biol Chem 2002 277 : 45518 45528.
97. Rogers JT, Lahiri DK. Metal and inflammatory targets for Alzheimer's disease. Curr Drug Targets 2004 5 : 535 551.
98. Mandel S, Amit T, Bar-Am O, Youdim MB. Iron dysregulation in Alzheimer's disease: Multimodal brain permeable iron chelating drugs, possessing neuroprotective-neurorescue and amyloid precursor protein-processing regulatory activities as therapeutic agents. Prog Neurobiol 2007 82 : 348 360.
99. Friedlich AL, Tanzi RE, Rogers JT. The 5′-untranslated region of Parkinson's disease alpha-synuclein messengerRNA contains a predicted iron responsive element. Mol Psychiatr 2007 12 : 222 223.
100. 2-regulated prolyl hydroxylation. Science 2001 292 : 468 472.
101. Minchenko O, Opentanova I, Caro J. Hypoxic regulation of the 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase gene family (PFKFB-1-4) expression in vivo. FEBS Lett 2003 554 : 264 270.
102. Siddiq A, Ayoub IA, Chavez JC, Aminova L, Shah S, LaManna JC, Patton SM, Connor JR, Cherny RA, Volitakis I, Bush AI, Langsetmo I, Seeley T, Gunzler V, Ratan RR. Hypoxia-inducible factor prolyl 4-hydroxylase inhibition. A target for neuroprotection in the central nervous system. J Biol Chem 2005 280 : 41732 41743.
103. Zaman K, Ryu H, Hall D, O'Donovan K, Lin KI, Miller MP, Marquis JC, Baraban JM, Semenza GL, Ratan RR. Protection from oxidative stress-induced apoptosis in cortical neuronal cultures by iron chelators is associated with enhanced DNA binding of hypoxia-inducible factor-1 and ATF-1/CREB and increased expression of glycolytic enzymes, p21(waf1/cip1), and erythropoietin. J Neurosci 1999 19 : 9821 9830.
104. Thomas R, Kim MH. Epigallocatechin gallate inhibits HIF-1alpha degradation in prostate cancer cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2005 334 : 543 548.
105. Zhou YD, Kim YP, Li XC, Baerson SR, Agarwal AK, Hodges TW, Ferreira D, Nagle DG. Hypoxia-inducible factor-1 activation by (-)-epicatechin gallate: Potential adverse effects of cancer chemoprevention with high-dose green tea extracts. J Nat Prod 2004 67 : 2063 2069.
106. Hanson ES, Leibold EA. Regulation of the iron regulatory proteins by reactive nitrogen and oxygen species. Gene Expr 1999 7 : 367 376.
107. Wang J, Pantopoulos K. The pathway for IRP2 degradation involving 2-oxoglutarate-dependent oxygenase(s) does not require the E3 ubiquitin ligase activity of pVHL. Biochim Biophys Acta 2005 1743 : 79 85.
108. Templeton DM, Liu Y. Genetic regulation of cell function in response to iron overload or chelation. Biochim Biophys Acta 2003 1619 : 113 124.
109. Sharp FR, Bernaudin M. HIF1 and oxygen sensing in the brain. Nat Rev Neurosci 2004 5 : 437 448.
110. Mandel S, Weinreb O, Reznichenko L, Kalfon L, Amit T. Green tea catechins as brain-permeable, non toxic iron chelators to "iron out iron" from the brain. J Neural Transm Suppl 2006 71 : 249 257.