Inflammatory-mediated injury and repair in the traumatically injured spinal cord

Current Pharmaceutical Design

Volumn 11, Issue 10, 2005, Pages 1223-1236

  Jones, T B ^a   McDaniel, E E ^a   Popovich, P G ^a  

^a OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Immunology; Inflammation; Neuroprotection; Pathology; Spinal cord injury

Indexed keywords

3 ACETOXYMETHYL 2 (2 CARBOXY 1 PYRROLIDINYLCARBONYL) 7ALPHA METHOXY 8 OXO 5 THIA 1 AZABICYCLO[4.2.0]OCT 2 ENE 5,5 DIOXIDE; 5 (4 FLUOROPHENYL) 1 [(4 METHYLSULFONYL)PHENYL] 3 TRIFLUOROMETHYLPYRAZOLE; ACETAMIDE; ACTIVATED PROTEIN C; ALLOPURINOL; AMINOGUANIDINE; ANTISENSE OLIGONUCLEOTIDE; CHLORMETHINE; CLODRONIC ACID; COLCHICINE; CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE; CYCLOSPORIN A; EGLIN C; GLUCOCORTICOID; ILOMASTAT; ILOPROST; INTERCELLULAR ADHESION MOLECULE 1 ANTIBODY; INTERLEUKIN 1 RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; INTERLEUKIN 6 ANTIBODY; METHYLPREDNISOLONE; MINOCYCLINE; N (2 CYCLOHEXYLOXY 4 NITROPHENYL)METHANESULFONAMIDE; N(G) METHYLARGININE; N(G) NITROARGININE METHYL ESTER; PROSTAGLANDIN E1; SIVELESTAT; TACROLIMUS; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA ANTIBODY; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY; CELL SURVIVAL; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; HUMAN; IMMUNE SYSTEM; IMMUNOSTIMULATION; IN VITRO STUDY; IN VIVO STUDY; INFLAMMATION; INFLAMMATORY CELL; INNATE IMMUNITY; LEUKOCYTE FUNCTION; LEUKOCYTE MIGRATION; LYMPHOCYTE ACTIVATION; MACROPHAGE; MEDIATOR; MICROGLIA; MOTOR PERFORMANCE; NERVE SPROUTING; NEUROPROTECTION; NEUTROPHIL; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REMYELINIZATION; REVIEW; SPINAL CORD INJURY; T LYMPHOCYTE; TISSUE REPAIR;

ANIMALS; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION MEDIATORS; SPINAL CORD INJURIES; WOUND HEALING;

EID: 16244384670     PISSN: 13816128     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/1381612053507468     Document Type: Review

References (212)

1. Rosenberg LJ, Wrathall JR. Quantitative analysis of acute axonal pathology in experimental spinal cord contusion. J Neurotrauma 1997; 14(11): 823-838.
2. Noble LJ, Wrathall JR. Correlative analyses of lesion development and functional status after graded spinal cord contusive injuries in the rat. Exp Neurol 1989; 103: 34-40.
3. Balentine JD. Pathology of experimental spinal cord trauma. II. Ultrastructure of axons and myelin. Lab Invest 1978; 39(3): 254-266.
4. Nashmi R, Fehlings MG. Changes in axonal physiology and morphology after chronic compressive injury of the rat thoracic spinal cord. Neuroscience 2001; 104(1): 235-251.
5. Blight AR. Delayed demyelination and macrophage invasion: a candidate for secondary cell damage in spinal cord injury. Cent Nerv Syst Trauma 1985; 2(4): 299-315.
6. Blight AR, Decrescito V. Morphometric analysis of experimental spinal cord injury in the cat: the relation of injury intensity to survival of myelinated axons. Neuroscience 1986; 19(1): 321-341.
7. Blight AR. Miracles and molecules -progress in spinal cord repair. Nat Neurosci 2002; 5 Suppl: 1051-1054.
8. Demopoulos HB, Flamm ES, Pietronigro DD, Seligman ML. The free radical pathology and the microcirculation in the major central nervous system disorders. Acta Physiol Scand Suppl 1980; 492: 91-119.
9. Taoka Y, Naruo M, Koyanagi E, Urakado M, Inoue M. Superoxide radicals play important roles in the pathogenesis of spinal cord injury. Paraplegia 1995; 33(8): 450-453.
10. Heinecke JW. Tyrosyl radical production by myeloperoxidase: a phagocyte pathway for lipid peroxidation and dityrosine cross-linking of proteins. Toxicology 2002; 177(1): 11-22.
11. Selmaj KW, Raine CS. Tumor necrosis factor mediates myelin and oligodendrocyte damage in vitro. Ann Neurol 1988; 23(4): 339-346.
12. Young W. Secondary injury mechanisms in acute spinal cord injury. J Emerg Med 1993; 11 (1): 13-22.
13. Bethea JR, Dietrich WD. Targeting the host inflammatory response in traumatic spinal cord injury. Curr Opin Neurol 2002; 15(3): 355-360.
14. Guth L, Zhang Z, Steward O. The unique histopathological responses of the injured spinal cord. Implications for neuroprotective therapy. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1999; 890: 366-384.
15. Schwartz M, Kipnis J. Protective autoimmunity: regulation and prospects for vaccination after brain and spinal cord injuries. Trends Mol Med 2001; 7(6): 252-258.
16. Basso DM, Beattie MS, Bresnahan JC. Graded histological and locomotor outcomes after spinal cord contusion using the NYU weight-drop device versus transection. Exp Neurol 1996; 139(2):244-256.
17. Behrmann DL, Bresnahan JC, Beattie MS, Shah BR. Spinal cord injury produced by consistent mechanical displacement of the cord in rats: behavioral and histologic analysis. J Neurotrauma 1992; 9(3): 197-217.
18. Bracken MB, Shepard MJ, Collins WF, Holford TR, Young W, Baskin DS, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of methylprednisolone or naloxone in the treatment of acute spinal-cord injury. Results of the Second National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study. N Engl J Med 1990; 322: 1405-1411.
19. Bracken MB, Shepard MJ, Collins WF, Jr., Holford TR, Baskin DS, Eisenberg HM, et al. Methylprednisolone or naloxone treatment after acute spinal cord injury: 1-year follow-up data: Results of the second National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study. J Neurosurg 1992; 76: 23-31.
20. Braughler JM, Hall ED, Means ED, Waters TR, Anderson DK. Evaluation of an intensive methylprednisolone sodium succinate dosing regimen in experimental spinal cord injury. J Neurosurg 1987; 67: 102-105.
21. Bartholdi D, Schwab ME. Methylprednisolone inhibits early inflammatory processes but not ischemic cell death after experimental spinal cord lesion in the rat. Brain Res 1995; 672(1-2): 177-186.
22. Oudega M, Vargas CG, Weber AB, Kleitman N, Bunge MB. Long-term effects of methylprednisolone following transection of adult rat spinal cord. Eur J Neurosci 1999; 11 (7): 2453-2464.
23. Hsu CY, Dimitrijevic MR. Methylprednisolone in spinal cord injury: the possible mechanism of action. J Neurotrauma 1990; 7(3): 115-119.
24. Behrmann DL, Bresnahan JC, Beattie MS. Modeling of acute spinal cord injury in the rat: neuroprotection and enhanced recovery with methylprednisolone, U-74006F and YM-14673. Exp Neurol 1994; 126(1): 61-75.
25. Faden AI, Jacobs TP, Patrick DH, Smith MT. Megadose corticosteroid therapy following experimental traumatic spinal injury. J Neurosurg 1984; 60: 712-717.
26. George ER, Scholten DJ, Buechler CM, Jordan-Tibbs J, Mattice C, Albrecht RM. Failure of methylprednisolone to improve the outcome of spinal cord injuries. Am Surg 1995; 61(8): 659-663.
27. Hurlbert RJ. Methylprednisolone for acute spinal cord injury: an inappropriate standard of care. J Neurosurg 2000; 93(1 Suppl): 1-7.
28. Bakalash S, Kessler A, Mizrahi T, Nussenblatt R, Schwartz M. Antigenic specificity of immunoprotective therapeutic vaccination for glaucoma. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2003; 44(8): 3374-3381.
29. Carlson SL, Parrish ME, Springer JE, Doty K, Dossett L. Acute inflammatory response in spinal cord following impact injury. Exp Neurol 1998; 151(1): 77-88.
30. Schnell L, Fearn S, Klassen H, Schwab ME, Perry VH. Acute inflammatory responses to mechanical lesions in the CNS: differences between brain and spinal cord. Eur J Neurosci 1999; 11(10): 3648-3658.
31. Nelson E, Gertz SD, Rennels ML, Ducker TB, Blaumanis OR. Spinal cord injury. The role of vascular damage in the pathogenesis of central hemorrhagic necrosis. Arch Neurol 1977; 34(6): 332-333.
32. Tator CH, Felilings MG. Review of the secondary injury theory of acute spinal cord trauma with emphasis on vascular mechanisms. J Neurosurg 1991; 75(1): 15-26.
33. Goodman JH, Bingham WG Jr, Hunt WE. Platelet aggregation in experimental spinal cord injury. Ultrastructural observations. Arch Neurol 1979; 36(4): 197-201.
34. Kreutzberg GW. Microglia: a sensor for pathological events in the CNS. Trends Neurosci 1996; 19(8): 312-318.
35. Popovich PG. Immunological regulation of neuronal degeneration and regeneration in the injured spinal cord. Prog Brain Res 2000; 128: 43-58.
36. Giulian D, Lachman LB. Interleukin-1 stimulation of astroglial proliferation after brain injury. Science 1985; 228(4698): 497-499.
37. Bartholdi D, Schwab ME. Expression of pro- inflammatory cytokine and chemokine mRNA upon experimental spinal cord injury in mouse: an in situ hybridization study. Eur J Neurosci 1997; 9(7): 1422-1438.
38. Ma M, Wei T, Boring L, Charo IF, Ransohoff RM, Jakeman LB. Monocyte recruitment and myelin removal are delayed following spinal cord injury in mice with CCR2 chemokine receptor deletion. J Neurosci Res 2002; 68(6): 691-702.
39. McTigue DM, Tani M, Krivacic K, Chernosky A, Kelner GS, Maciejewski D, et al. Selective chemokine mRNA accumulation in the rat spinal cord after contusion injury. J Neurosci Res 1998; 53(3): 368-376.
40. Means ED, Anderson DK. Neuronophagia by leukocytes in experimental spinal cord injury. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1983; 42(6): 707-719.
41. Popovich PG, Wei P, Stokes BT. Cellular inflammatory response after spinal cord injury in Sprague- Dawley and Lewis rats. J Comp Neurol 1997; 377(3): 443-464.
42. Blight AR. Macrophages and inflammatory damage in spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 1992; 9 Suppl 1: S83-S91.
43. Sroga JM, Jones TB, Kigerl KA, McGaughy VM, Popovich PG. Rats and mice exhibit distinct inflammatory reactions after spinal cord injury. J Comp Neurol 2003; 462(2): 223-240.
44. Popovich PG, Jones TB. Manipulating neuroinflammatory reactions in the injured spinal cord: back to basics. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2003; 24(1): 13-17.
45. Hickey WF, Hsu BL, Kimura H. T-lymphocyte entry into the central nervous system. J Neurosci Res 1991; 28(2): 254-260.
46. Palladini G, Grossi M, Maleci A, Lauro GM, Guidetti B. Immunocomplexes in rat and rabbit spinal cord after injury. Exp Neurol 1987; 95(3): 639-651.
47. Rodriguez M, Miller DJ, Lennon VA. Immunoglobulins reactive with myelin basic protein promote CNS remyelination. Neurology 1996; 46(2): 538-545.
48. Huang DW, McKerracher L, Braun PE, David S. A therapeutic vaccine approach to stimulate axon regeneration in the adult mammalian spinal cord. Neuron 1999; 24(3): 639-647.
49. Allen AR. Surgery of experimental lesion of spinal cord equivalent to crush injury or fracture dislocation of spinal column. A preliminary report. JAMA 1911; 57: 870-880.
50. Blight AR. Effects of silica on the outcome from experimental spinal cord injury: implication of macrophages in secondary tissue damage. Neuroscience 1994; 60(1): 263-273.
51. Giulian D, Robertson C. Inhibition of mononuclear phagocytes reduces ischemic injury in the spinal cord. Ann Neurol 1990; 27(1): 33-42.
52. Giulian D, Corpuz M, Chapman S, Mansouri M, Robertson C. Reactive mononuclear phagocytes release neurotoxins after ischemic and traumatic injury to the central nervous system. J Neurosci Res 1993; 36(6): 681-693.
53. Windle WF. Regeneration of axons in the vertebrate central nervous system. Physiol Rev 1956; 36: 427-440.
54. Berry M, Riches AC. An immunological approach to regeneration in the central nervous system. Br Med Bull 1974; 30(2): 135-140.
55. Feringa ER, Johnson RD, Wendt JS. Spinal cord regeneration in rats after immunosuppressive treatment. Theoretic considerations and histologic results. Arch Neurol 1975; 32(10): 676-683.
56. Feringa ER, Nelson KR, Vahising HL, Dauser RC. Spinal cord regeneration in rats made immunologically unresponsive to CNS antigens. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1979; 42(7): 642-648.
57. Nash HH, Borke RC, Anders JJ. Ensheathing cells and methylprednisolone promote axonal regeneration and functional recovery in the lesioned adult rat spinal cord. J Neurosci 2002; 22(16): 7111-7120.
58. Taoka Y, Okajima K, Uchiba M, Johno M. Methylprednisolone reduces spinal cord injury in rats without affecting tumor necrosis factor-alpha production. J Neurotrauma 2001; 18(5): 533-543.
59. Naso WB, Perot PL Jr, Cox RD. The neuroprotective effect of high-dose methylprednisolone in rat spinal cord hemisection. Neurosci Lett 1995; 189(3): 176-178.
60. Chikawa T, Ikata T, Katoh S, Hamada Y, Kogure K, Fukuzawa K. Preventive effects of lecithinized superoxide dismutase and methylprednisolone on spinal cord injury in rats: transcriptional regulation of inflammatory and neurotrophic genes. J Neurotrauma 2001; 18(1): 93-103.
61. Zhang XY, Zhou CS, Jin AM, Guo AL, Tian J. Role of antisense oligodeoxynucleotide of inducible nitric oxide synthase in the apoptosis and p-p38 MAPK signal transduction in rat neurons after spinal cord injury. Di Yi Jun Yi Da Xue Xue Bao 2003; 23(6): 578-80, 583.
62. Satake K, Matsuyama Y, Kamiya M, Kawakami H, Iwata H, Adachi K, et al. Nitric oxide via macrophage iNOS induces apoptosis following traumatic spinal cord injury. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 2000; 85(1-2): 114-122.
63. Lee YB, Yune TY, Baik SY, Shin YH, Du S, Rhim H, et al. Role of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in neuronal and glial apoptosis after spinal cord injury. Exp Neurol 2000; 166(1): 190-195.
64. Sharma HS, Sjoquist PO, Alm P. A new antioxidant compound H-290151 attenuates spinal cord injury induced expression of constitutive and inducible isoforms of nitric oxide synthase and edema formation in the rat. Acta Neurochir Suppl 2003; 86: 415-420.
65. Sugawara T, Lewen A, Gasche Y, Yu F, Chan PH. Overexpression of SOD1 protects vulnerable motor neurons after spinal cord injury by attenuating mitochondrial cytochrome c release. FASEB J 2002; 16(14): 1997-1999.
66. Nakauchi K, Ikata T, Katoh S, Hamada Y, Tsuchiya K, Fukuzawa K. Effects of lecithinized superoxide dismutase on rat spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 1996; 13(10): 573-582.
67. Hains BC, Yucra JA, Hulsebosch CE. Reduction of pathological and behavioral deficits following spinal cord contusion injury with the selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor NS-398. J Neurotrauma 2001; 18(4): 409-423.
68. Resnick DK, Graham SH, Dixon CE, Marion DW. Role of cyclooxygenase 2 in acute spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 1998; 15(12): 1005-1013.
69. Wells JE, Hurlbert RJ, Fehlings MG, Yong VW. Neuroprotection by minocycline facilitates significant recovery from spinal cord injury in mice. Brain 2003; 126(Pt 7): 1628-1637.
70. Diaz-Ruiz A, Rios C, Duarte I, Correa D, Guizar-Sahagun G, Grijalva I, et al. Cyclosporin-A inhibits lipid peroxidation after spinal cord injury in rats. Neurosci Lett 1999; 266(1): 61-64.
71. Nottingham S, Knapp P, Springer J. FK506 treatment inhibits caspase-3 activation and promotes oligodendroglial survival following traumatic spinal cord injury. Exp Neurol 2002; 177(1): 242-251.
72. Madsen JR, MacDonald P, Irwin N, Goldberg DE, Yao GL, Meiri KF, et al. Tacrolimus (FK506) increases neuronal expression of GAP-43 and improves functional recovery after spinal cord injury in rats. Exp Neurol 1998; 154(2): 673-683.
73. Tonai T, Shiba K, Taketani Y, Ohmoto Y, Murata K, Muraguchi M, et al. A neutrophil elastase inhibitor (ONO-5046) reduces neurologic damage after spinal cord injury in rats. J Neurochem 2001; 78(5): 1064-1072.
74. Tuna M, Polar S, Erman T, Ildan F, Gocer AI, Tuna N, et al. Effect of anti-rat interleukin-6 antibody after spinal cord injury in the rat: inducible nitric oxide synthase expression, sodium- and potassium-activated, magnesium-dependent adenosine-5′-triphosphatase and superoxide dismutase activation, and ultrastructural changes. J Neurosurg 2001; 95(1 Suppl): 64-73.
75. Nesic O, Xu GY, McAdoo D, High KW, Hulsebosch C, Perez-Pol R. IL-1 receptor antagonist prevents apoptosis and caspase-3 activation after spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 2001; 18(9): 947-956.
76. Ghirnikar RS, Lee YL, Eng LF. Chemokine antagonist infusion attenuates cellular infiltration following spinal cord contusion injury in rat. J Neurosci Res 2000; 59(1): 63-73.
77. Ghirnikar RS, Lee YL, Eng LF. Chemokine antagonist infusion promotes axonal sparing after spinal cord contusion injury in rat. J Neurosci Res 2001; 64(6): 582-589.
78. Guth L, Zhang Z, Roberts E. Key role for pregnenolone in combination therapy that promotes recovery after spinal cord injury. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994; 91(25): 12308-12312.
79. Konno, H, Yamamoto T, Iwasaki Y, Suzuki H, Saito T, Terunuma H. Wallerian degeneration induces Ia-antigen expression in the rat brain. J Neuroimmunol 1989; 25(2-3): 151-159.
80. Crowe MJ, Bresnahan JC, Shuman SL, Masters JN, Beattie MS. Apoptosis and delayed degeneration after spinal cord injury in rats and monkeys [published erratum appears in Nat Med 1997 Feb;3(2): 240]. Nat Med 1997; 3(1): 73-76.
81. Li GL, Farooque M, Holtz A, Olsson Y. Apoptosis of oligodendrocytes occurs for long distances away from the primary injury after compression trauma to rat spinal cord. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1999; 98(5): 473-480.
82. Katoh S, Ikata T, Tsubo M, Hamada Y, el Masry WS. Possible implication of leukocytes in secondary pathological changes after spinal cord injury. Injury 1997; 28(3): 215-217.
83. Pearse DD, Chatzipanteli K, Marcillo AE, Bunge MB, Dietrich WD. Comparison of iNOS inhibition by antisense and pharmacological inhibitors after spinal cord injury. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2003; 62(11): 1096-1107.
84. Zhang Z, Krebs CJ, Guth L. Experimental analysis of progressive necrosis after spinal cord trauma in the rat: etiological role of the inflammatory response. Exp Neurol 1997; 143(1): 141-152.
85. Chatzipanteli K, Garcia R, Marcillo AE, Loor KE, Kraydieh S, Dietrich WD. Temporal and segmental distribution of constitutive and inducible nitric oxide synthases after traumatic spinal cord injury: effect of aminoguanidine treatment. J Neurotrauma 2002; 19(5): 639-651.
86. Goussev S, Hsu JY, Lin Y, Tjoa T, Maida N, Werb Z, et al. Differential temporal expression of matrix metalloproteinases after spinal cord injury: relationship to revascularization and wound healing. J Neurosurg 2003; 99(2 Suppl): 188-197.
87. Noble LJ, Donovan F, Igarashi T, Goussev S, Werb Z. Matrix metalloproteinases limit functional recovery after spinal cord injury by modulation of early vascular events. J Neurosci 2002; 22(17): 7526-7535.
88. Pan JZ, Ni L, Sodhi A, Aguanno A, Young W, Hart RP. Cytokine activity contributes to induction of inflammatory cytokine mRNAs in spinal cord following contusion. J Neurosci Res 2002; 68(3): 315-322.
89. Taoka Y, Okajima K, Uchiba M, Murakami K, Harada N, Johno M, et al. Reduction of spinal cord injury by administration of iloprost, a stable prostacyclin analog. J Neurosurg 1997; 86(6): 1007-1011.
90. Taoka Y, Okajima K, Uchiba M, Murakami K, Harada N, Johno M, et al. Activated protein C reduces the severity of compression-induced spinal cord injury in rats by inhibiting activation of leukocytes. J Neurosci 1998; 18(4): 1393-1398.
91. Naruo S, Okajima K, Taoka Y, Uchiba M, Nakamura T, Okabe H, et al. Prostaglandin E1 reduces compression trauma-induced spinal cord injury in rats mainly by inhibiting neutrophil activation. J Neurotrauma 2003; 20(2): 221-228.
92. Taoka Y, Okajima K, Murakami K, Johno M, Naruo M. Role of neutrophil elastase in compression-induced spinal cord injury in rats. Brain Res 1998; 799(2): 264-269.
93. Hamada Y, Ikata T, Katoh S, Nakauchi K, Niwa M, Kawai Y, et al. Involvement of an intercellular adhesion molecule 1-dependent pathway in the pathogenesis of secondary changes after spinal cord injury in rats. J Neurochem 1996; 66(4): 1525-1531.
94. Segal JL, Gonzales E, Yousefi S, Jamshidipour L, Brunnemann SR. Circulating levels of IL-2R, ICAM-1, and IL-6 in spinal cord injuries. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1997; 78(1): 44-47.
95. Farooque M, Isaksson J, Olsson Y. Improved recovery after spinal cord trauma in ICAM-1 and P-selectin knockout mice. Neuroreport 1999; 10(1): 131-134.
96. Farooque M, Isaksson J, Olsson Y. White matter preservation after spinal cord injury in I CAM- 1/P-selectin-deficient mice. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 2001; 102(2): 132-140.
97. Mahon PJ, Weaver LC, Dekaban GA. Inhibition of monocyte/macrophage migration to a spinal cord injury site by an antibody to the integrin alphaD: a potential new anti- inflammatory treatment. Exp Neurol 2000; 166(1): 52-64.
98. Taoka Y, Okajima K, Uchiba M, Murakami K, Kushimoto S, Johno M, et al. Role of neutrophils in spinal cord injury in the rat. Neuroscience 1997; 79(4): 1177-1182.
99. Popovich PG, Guan Z, Wei P, Huitinga I, van Rooijen N, Stokes BT. Depletion of hematogenous macrophages promotes partial hindlimb recovery and neuroanatomical repair after experimental spinal cord injury. Exp Neurol 1999; 158(2): 351-365.
100. Popovich PG, Hickey WF. Bone marrow chimeric rats reveal the unique distribution of resident and recruited macrophages in the contused rat spinal cord. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2001; 60(7):676-685.
101. Popovich PG. Inflammation and repair of the injured spinal cord: lessons from peripheral wound healing and evolution. In: Bondy SC, Campbell A, editors. Inflammatory Events in Neurodegeneration. Prominent Press 2001: 276-290.
102. van der Laan LJ, Ruuls SR, Weber KS, Lodder IJ, Dopp EA, Dijkstra CD. Macrophage phagocytosis of myelin in vitro determined by flow cytometry: phagocytosis is mediated by CR3 and induces production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and nitric oxide. J Neuroimmunol 1996; 70(2): 145-152.
103. Norris DA, Weston WL, Sams WM, Jr. The effect of immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory drugs on monocyte function in vitro. J Lab Clin Med 1977; 90(3): 569-580.
104. Hurst NP, French JK, Bell AL, Nuki G, O'Donnell ML, Betts WH, et al. Differential effects of mepacrine, chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine on superoxide anion generation, phospholipid methylation and arachidonic acid release by human blood monocytes. Biochem Pharmacol 1986; 35(18): 3083-3089.
105. Yune TY, Chang MJ, Kim SJ, Lee YB, Shin SW, Rhim H, et al. Increased production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha induces apoptosis after traumatic spinal cord injury in rats. J Neurotrauma 2003; 20(2): 207-219.
106. Blight AR, Cohen TI, Saito K, Heyes MP. Quinolinic acid accumulation and functional deficits following experimental spinal cord injury. Brain 1995; 11 8(Pt 3): 735-752.
107. Sinz EH, Kochanek PM, Heyes MP, Wisniewski SR, Bell MJ, Clark RS, et al. Quinolinic acid is increased in CSF and associated with mortality after traumatic brain injury in humans. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 1998; 18(6): 610-615.
108. Boutin H, LeFeuvre RA, Horai R, Asano M, Iwakura Y, Rothwell NJ. Role of IL-1alpha and IL-1beta in ischemic brain damage. J Neurosci 2001; 21(15): 5528-5534.
109. Relton JK, Rothwell NJ. Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist inhibits ischaemic and excitotoxic neuronal damage in the rat. Brain Res Bull 1992; 29(2): 243-246.
110. Loddick SA, Rothwell NJ. Neuroprotective effects of human recombinant interleukin-1 receptor antagonist in focal cerebral ischaemia in the rat. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 1996; 16(5): 932-940.
111. Relton JK, Martin D, Thompson RC, Russell DA. Peripheral administration of Interleukin-1 Receptor antagonist inhibits brain damage after focal cerebral ischemia in the rat. Exp Neurol 1996; 138(2): 206-213.
112. Martin D, Near SL. Protective effect of the interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra) on experimental allergic encephalomyelitis in rats. J Neuroimmunol 1995; 61(2): 241-245.
113. Popovich PG, Reinhard JF Jr, Flanagan EM, Stokes BT. Elevation of the neurotoxin quinolinic acid occurs following spinal cord trauma. Brain Res 1994; 633(1-2):348-352.
114. Xu J, Kim GM, Ahmed SH, Xu J, Yan P, Xu XM, et al. Glucocorticoid receptor-mediated suppression of activator protein-1 activation and matrix metalloproteinase expression after spinal cord injury. J Neurosci 2001; 21(1): 92-97.
115. Xu J, Fan G, Chen S, Wu Y, Xu XM, Hsu CY. Methylprednisolone inhibition of TNF-alpha expression and NF-kB activation after spinal cord injury in rats. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 1998; 59(2): 135-142.
116. Bethea JR, Castro M, Keane RW, Lee TT, Dietrich WD, Yezierski RP. Traumatic spinal cord injury induces nuclear factor-kappaB activation. J Neurosci 1998; 18(9): 3251-3260.
117. Popovich PG, Streit WJ, Stokes BT. Differential expression of MHC class II antigen in the contused rat spinal cord. J Neurotrauma 1993; 10(1): 37-46.
118. Bechmann I, Peter S, Beyer M, Gimsa U, Nitsch R. Presence of B7 - 2 (CD86) and lack of B7 - 1 (CD(80) on myelin phagocytosing MHC-II-positive rat microglia is associated with nondestructive immunity in vivo. FASEB J 2001; 15(6): 1086-1088.
119. Butovsky O, Hauben E, Schwartz M. Morphological aspects of spinal cord autoimunne neuroprotection: colocalization of T cells with B7 - 2 (CD86) and prevention of cyst formation. FASEB J 2001; 15(6): 1065-1067.
120. Naparstek Y, Cohen IR, Fuks Z, Vlodavsky I. Activated T lymphocytes produce a matrix-degrading heparan sulphate endoglycosidase. Nature 1984; 310(5974): 241-244.
121. Yarom Y, Naparstek Y, Lev-Ram V, Holoshitz J, Ben Nun A, Cohen IR. Immunospecific inhibition of nerve conduction by T lymphocytes reactive to basic protein of myelin. Nature 1983; 303(5914): 246-247.
122. Koller H, Siebler M, Hartung HP. Immunologically induced electrophysiological dysfunction: implications for inflammatory diseases of the CNS and PNS. Prog Neurobiol 1997; 52(1): 1-26.
123. Giuliani F, Goodyer CG, Antel JP, Yong VW. Vulnerability of Human Neurons to T Cell-Mediated Cytotoxicity. J Immunol 2003; 171(1): 368-379.
124. Serpe CJ, Kohm AP, Huppenbauer CB, Sanders VM, Jones KJ. Exacerbation of facial motoneuron loss after facial nerve transection in severe combined immunodeficient (scid) mice. J Neurosci 1999; 19(11): RC7.
125. Lodge PA, Sriram S. Regulation of microglial activation by TGF-beta, IL-10, and CSF-1. J Leukoc Biol 1996; 60(4): 502-508.
126. Popovich PG, Horner PJ, Mullin BB, Stokes BT. A quantitative spatial analysis of the blood-spinal cord barrier. I. Permeability changes after experimental spinal contusion injury. Exp Neurol 1996; 142(2): 258-275.
127. Streit WJ, Semple-Rowland SL, Hurley SD, Miller RC, Popovich PG, Stokes BT. Cytokine mRNA profiles in contused spinal cord and axotomized facial nucleus suggest a beneficial role for inflammation and gliosis. Exp Neurol 1998; 152(1): 74-87.
128. Streit WJ, Hurley SD, McGraw TS, Semple-Rowland SL. Comparative evaluation of cytokine profiles and reactive gliosis supports a critical role for interleukin-6 in neuron-glia signaling during regeneration. J Neurosci Res 2000; 61(1): 10-20.
129. Dusart I, Schwab ME. Secondary cell death and the inflammatory reaction after dorsal hemisection of the rat spinal cord. Eur J Neurosci 1994; 6(5): 712-724.
130. Springer JE, Azbill RD, Knapp PE. Activation of the caspase-3 apoptotic cascade in traumatic spinal cord injury. Nature Med 2000; 5(8): 943-946.
131. Liu XZ, Xu XM, Hu R, Du C, Zhang SX, McDonald JW, et al. Neuronal and glial apoptosis after traumatic spinal cord injury. J Neurosci 1997; 17(14): 5395-5406.
132. Shuman SL, Bresnahan JC, Beattie MS. Apoptosis of microglia and oligodendrocytes after spinal cord contusion in rats. J Neurosci Res 1997; 50(5): 798-808.
133. McTigue DM, Wei P, Stokes BT. Proliferation of NG2-positive cells and altered oligodendrocyte numbers in the contused rat spinal cord. J Neurosci 2001; 21(10): 3392-3400.
134. Totoiu MO, McTigue DM, Glaser JH, Nistor GI, Keirstead HS. Demyelination as a secondary degenerative event of spinal cord contusion. Soc Neurosci Abst San Diego, CA. 2001.
135. Loy DN, Crawford CH, Darnall JB, Burke DA, Onifer SM, Whittemore SR. Temporal progression of angiogenesis and basal lamina deposition after contusive spinal cord injury in the adult rat. J Comp Neurol 2002; 445(4): 308-324.
136. Lemons ML, Howland DR, Anderson DK. Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan immunoreactivity increases following spinal cord injury and transplantation. Exp Neurol 1999; 160(1): 51-65.
137. Lemons ML, Sandy JD, Anderson DK, Howland DR. Intact aggrecan and fragments generated by both aggrecanse and metalloproteinase-like activities are present in the developing and adult rat spinal cord and their relative abundance is altered by injury. J Neurosci 2001; 21(13): 4772-4781.
138. Casella GT, Marcillo A, Bunge MB, Wood PM. New vascular tissue rapidly replaces neural parenchyma and vessels destroyed by a contusion injury to the rat spinal cord. Exp Neurol 2002; 173(1): 63-76.
139. Blight AR. Morphometric analysis of blood vessels in chronic experimental spinal cord injury: hypervascularity and recovery of function. J Neurol Sci 1991; 106(2): 158-174.
140. Hill CE, Beattie MS, Bresnahan JC. Degeneration and sprouting of identified descending supraspinal axons after contusive spinal cord injury in the rat. Exp Neurol 2001; 171(1): 153-169.
141. Zhang Z, Guth L. Experimental spinal cord injury: Wallerian degeneration in the dorsal column is followed by revascularization, glial proliferation, and nerve regeneration. Exp Neurol 1997; 147(1): 159-171.
142. Kil K, Zang YC, Yang D, Markowski J, Fuoco GS, Vendetti GC, et al. T cell responses to myelin basic protein in patients with spinal cord injury and multiple sclerosis. J Neuroimmunol 1999; 98(2): 201-207.
143. Jones TB, Basso DM, Sodhi A, Pan JZ, Hart RP, MacCallum RC, et al. Pathological CNS autoimmune disease triggered by traumatic spinal cord injury: implications for autoimmune vaccine therapy. J Neurosci 2002; 22(7): 2690-2700.
144. Huitinga I, van Rooijen N, De Groot CJ, Uitdehaag BM, Dijkstra CD. Suppression of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis in Lewis rats after elimination of macrophages. J Exp Med 1990; 172(4): 1025-1033.
145. Bauer J, Ruuls SR, Huitinga I, Dijkstra CD. The role of macrophage subpopulations in autoimmune disease of the central nervous system. Histochem J 1996; 28(2): 83-97.
146. Rossi CP, Delcroix M, Huitinga I, McAllister A, van Rooijen N, Claassen E, et al. Role of macrophages during Theiler's virus infection. J Virol 1997; 71(4): 3336-3340.
147. Gimsa U, Peter SV, Lehmann K, Bechmann I, Nitsch R. Axonal damage induced by invading T cells in organotypic central nervous system tissue in vitro: involvement of microglial cells. Brain Pathol 2000; 10(3): 365-377.
148. Alberati-Giani D, Ricciardi-Castagnoli P, Kohler C, Cesura AM. Regulation of the kynurenine metabolic pathway by interferongamma in murine cloned macrophages and microglial cells. J Neurochem 1996; 66(3): 996-1004.
149. Ding AH, Nathan CF, Stuehr DJ. Release of reactive nitrogen intermediates and reactive oxygen intermediates from mouse peritoneal macrophages. Comparison of activating cytokines and evidence for independent production. J Immunol 1988; 141: 2407-2412.
150. Frei K, Siepl C, Groscurth P, Bodmer S, Schwerdel C, Fontana A. Antigen presentation and tumor cytotoxicity by interferoil-gamma-treated microglial cells. Eur J Immunol 1987; 17(9): 1271-1278.
151. Dufour JH, Dziejman M, Liu MT, Leung JH, Lane TE, Luster AD. IFN-gamma-inducible protein 10 (IP-10; CXCL10)-deficient mice reveal a role for IP-10 in effector T cell generation and trafficking. J Immunol 2002; 168(7): 3195-3204.
152. Gonzalez R, Glaser J, Liu MT, Lane TE, Keirstead HS. Reducing inflammation decreases secondary degeneration and functional deficit after spinal cord injury. Exp Neurol 2003; 184(1): 456-463.
153. Ibarra A, Correa D, Willms K, Merchant MT, Gui, zar-Sahagun G, et al. Effects of cyclosporin-A on immune response, tissue protection and motor function of rats subjected to spinal cord injury. Brain Res 2003; 979(1-2): 165-178.
154. Bavetta S, Hamlyn PJ, Burnstock G, Lieberman AR, Anderson PN. The effects of FK506 on dorsal column axons following spinal cord injury in adult rats: neuroprotection and local regeneration. Exp Neurol 1999; 158(2): 382-393.
155. Fee D, Crumbaugh A, Jacques T, Herdrich B, Sewell D, Auerbach D, et al. Activated/effector CD4+ T cells exacerbate acute damage in the central nervous system following traumatic injury. J Neuroimmunol 2003; 136(1-2): 54-66.
156. Lazarov-Spiegler O, Rapalino O, Agranov G, Schwartz M. Restricted inflammatory reaction in the CNS: a key impediment to axonal regeneration? Mol Med Today 1998; 4(8): 337-342.
157. Perry VH, Brown MC, Gordon S. The macrophage response to central and peripheral nerve injury. A possible role for macrophages in regeneration. J Exp Med 1987; 165(4): 1218-1223.
158. Avellino AM, Hart D, Dailey AT, MacKinnon M, Ellegala D, Kliot M. Differential macrophage responses in the peripheral and central nervous system during wallerian degeneration of axons. Exp Neurol 1995; 136(2): 183-198.
159. Lazarov-Spiegler O, Solomon AS, Zeev-Brann AB, Hirschberg DL, Lavie V, Schwartz M. Transplantation of activated macrophages overcomes central nervous system regrowth failure. FASEB J 1996; 10(11): 1296-1302.
160. Lotan M, Schwartz M. Cross talk between the immune system and the nervous system in response to injury: implications for regeneration. FASEB J 1994; 8(13): 1026-1033.
161. Smith ME, van der MK, Somera FP. Macrophage and microglial responses to cytokines in vitro: phagocytic activity, proteolytic enzyme release, and free radical production. J Neurosci Res 1998; 54(1): 68-78.
162. Fehlings MG, Tator CH. The relationships among the severity of spinal cord injury, residual neurological function, axon counts, and counts of retrogradely labeled neurons after experimental spinal cord injury. Exp Neurol 1995; 132(2): 220-228.
163. Raivich G, Moreno-Flores MT, Moller JC, Kreutzberg GW. Inhibition of posttraumatic microglial proliferation in a genetic model of macrophage colony-stimulating factor deficiency in the mouse. Eur J Neurosci 1994; 6(10): 1615-1618.
164. Batchelor PE, Liberatore GT, Wong JY, Porritt MJ, Frerichs F, Donnan GA, et al. Activated macrophages and microglia induce dopaminergic sprouting in the injured striatum and express brain-derived neurotrophic factor and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor. J Neurosci 1999; 19(5): 1708-1716.
165. Vass K, Lassmann H. Intrathecal application of interferon gamma. Progressive appearance of MHC antigens within the rat nervous system. Am J Pathol 1990; 137(4): 789-800.
166. Andersson PB, Perry VH, Gordon S. The acute inflammatory response to lipopolysaccharide in CNS parenchyma differs from that in other body tissues. Neuroscience 1992; 48(1): 169-186.
167. Kim WG, Mohney RP, Wilson B, Jeohn GH, Liu B, Hong JS. Regional difference in susceptibility to lipopolysaccharide-induced neurotoxicity in the rat brain: role of microglia. J Neurosci 2000; 20(16): 6309-6316.
168. Stern EL, Quan N, Proescholdt MG, Herkenham M. Spatiotemporal induction patterns of cytokine and related immune signal molecule mRNAs in response to intrastriatal injection of lipopolysaccharide. J Neuroimmunol 2000; 109(2): 245-260.
169. Giulian D, Baker TJ, Shih LC, Lachman LB. Interleukin 1 of the central nervous system is produced by ameboid microglia. J Exp Med 1986; 164(2): 594-604.
170. Giulian D, Woodward J, Young DG, Krebs JF, Lachman LB. Interleukin-1 injected into mammalian brain stimulates astrogliosis and neovascularization. J Neurosci 1988; 8(7): 2485-2490.
171. del Rey A, Klusman I, Besedovsky HO. Cytokines mediate protective stimulation of glucocorticoid output during autoimmunity: involvement of IL-1. Am J Physiol 1998; 275(4 Pt 2): R1146-R1151.
172. Herx LM, Rivest S, Yong VW. Central nervous system-initiated inflammation and neurotrophism in trauma: IL-1 beta is required for the production of ciliary neurotrophic factor. J Immunol 2000; 165(4): 2232-2239.
173. Nadeau S, Rivest S. Glucocorticoids Play a Fundamental Role in Protecting the Brain during Innate Immune Response. J Neurosci 2003; 23(13): 5536-5544.
174. Mason JL, Suzuki K, Chaplin DD, Matsushima GK. Interleukin-1beta promotes repair of the CNS. J Neurosci 2001; 21(18): 7046-7052.
175. Arnett HA, Mason J, Marino M, Suzuki K, Matsushima GK, Ting JP. TNF alpha promotes proliferation of oligodendrocyte progenitors and remyelination. Nat Neurosci 2001; 4(11): 1116-1122.
176. Schwartz M, Solomon A, Lavie V, Ben Bassat S, Belkin M, Cohen A. Tumor necrosis factor facilitates regeneration of injured central nervous system axons. Brain Res 1991; 545(1-2): 334-338.
177. Zajicek JP, Wing M, Scolding NJ, Compston DA. Interactions between oligodendrocytes and microglia. A major role for complement and tumour necrosis factor in oligodendrocyte adherence and killing. Brain 1992; 115 ( Pt 6): 1611-1631.
178. Gregersen R, Lambertsen K, Finsen B. Microglia and macrophages are the major source of tumor necrosis factor in permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion in mice. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2000; 20(1): 53-65.
179. Bruce AJ, Boling W, Kindy MS, Peschon J, Kraemer PJ, Carpenter MK, et al. Altered neuronal and microglial responses to excitotoxic and ischemic brain injury in mice lacking TNF receptors. Nat Med 1996; 2(7): 788-794.
180. Liu J, Marino MW, Wong G, Grail D, Dunn A, Bettadapura J, et al. TNF is a potent anti-inflammatory cytokine in autoimmune-mediated demyelination. Nat Med 1998; 4(1): 78-83.
181. Scherbel U, Raghupathi R, Nakamura M, Saatman KE, Trojanowski JQ, Neugebauer E, et al. Differential acute and chronic responses of tumor necrosis factor- deficient mice to experimental brain injury. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999; 96(15): 8721-8726.
182. Kim GM, Xu J, Xu J, Song SK, Yan P, Ku G, et al. Tumor necrosis factor receptor deletion reduces nuclear factor-kappaB activation, cellular inhibitor of apoptosis protein 2 expression, and functional recovery after traumatic spinal cord injury. J Neurosci 2001; 21(17): 6617-6625.
183. Tan J, Town T, Saxe M, Paris D, Wu Y, Mullan M. Ligation of microglial CD40 results in p44/42 mitogen-activated protein kinase-dependent TNF-alpha production that is opposed by TGF-beta 1 and IL-10. J Immunol 1999; 163(12): 6614-6621.
184. Prewitt CM, Niesman IR, Kane CJ, Houle JD. Activated macrophage/microglial cells can promote the regeneration of sensory axons into the injured spinal cord. Exp Neurol 1997; 148(2): 433-443.
185. Rabchevsky AG, Streit WJ. Grafting of cultured microglial cells into the lesioned spinal cord of adult rats enhances neurite outgrowth. J Neurosci Res 1997; 47(1): 34-48.
186. Novikova LN, Novikov LN, Kellerth JO. Survival effects of BDNF and NT-3 on axotomized rubrospinal neurons depend on the temporal pattern of neurotrophin administration. Eur J Neurosci 2000; 12(2): 776-780.
187. McTigue DM, Horner PJ, Stokes BT, Gage FH. Neurotrophin-3 and brain-derived neurotrophic factor induce oligodendrocyte proliferation and myelination of regenerating axons in the contused adult rat spinal cord. J Neurosci 1998; 18(14): 5354-5365.
188. Elkabes S, DiCicco-Bloom EM, Black IB. Brain microglia/macrophages express neurotrophins that selectively regulate microglial proliferation and function. J Neurosci 1996; 16(8): 2508-2521.
189. Nakajima K, Kikuchi Y, Ikoma E, Honda S, Ishikawa M, Liu Y, et al. Neurotrophins regulate the function of cultured microglia. Glia 1998; 24(3): 272-289.
190. Schmitt AB, Buss A, Breuer S, Brook GA, Pech K, Martin D, et al. Major histocompatibility complex class II expression by activated microglia caudal to lesions of descending tracts in the human spinal cord is not associated with a T cell response. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 2000; 100(5): 528-536.
191. Yan P, Liu N, Kim GM, Xu J, Xu J, Li Q, et al. Expression of the type 1 and type 2 receptors for tumor necrosis factor after traumatic spinal cord injury in adult rats. Exp Neurol 2003; 183(2): 286-297.
192. Bohatschek M, Kloss CU, Hristova M, Pfeffer K, Raivich G. Microglial major histocompatibility complex glycoprotein-1 in the axotomized facial motor nucleus: Regulation and role of tumor necrosis factor receptors 1 and 2. J Comp Neurol 2004; 470(4): 382-399.
193. Raivich G, Bohatschek M, Werner A, Jones LL, Galiano M, Kloss CU, et al. Lymphocyte infiltration in the injured brain: role of proinflammatory cytokines. J Neurosci Res 2003; 72(6): 726-733.
194. Raivich G, Liu ZQ, Kloss CU, Labow M, Bluethmann H, Bohatschek M. Cytotoxic potential of proinflammatory cytokines: combined deletion of TNF receptors TNFR1 and TNFR2 prevents motoneuron cell death after facial axotomy in adult mouse. Exp Neurol 2002; 178(2): 186-193.
195. Guth L, Zhang Z, DiProspero NA, Joubin K, Fitch MT. Spinal cord injury in the rat: treatment with bacterial lipopolysaccharide and indomethacin enhances cellular repair and locomotor function. Exp Neurol 1994; 126(1): 76-87.
196. Serpe CJ, Sanders VM, Jones KJ. Kinetics of facial motoneuron loss following facial nerve transection in severe combined immunodeficient mice. J Neurosci Res 2000; 62(2): 273-278.
197. Moalem G, Leibowitz-Amit R, Yoles E, Mor F, Cohen IR, Schwartz M. Autoimmune T cells protect neurons from secondary degeneration after central nervous system axotomy. Nature Medicine 1999; 5(1): 49-55.
198. Moalem G, Yoles E, Leibowitz-Amit R, Muller-Gilor S, Mor F, Cohen IR, et al. Autoimmune T cells retard the loss of function in injured rat optic nerves. J Neuroimmunol 2000; 106(1-2): 189-197.
199. Hauben E, Butovsky O, Nevo U, Yoles E, Moalem G, Agranov E, et al. Passive or Active Immunization with Myelin Basic Protein Promotes Recovery from Spinal Cord Contusion. J Neurosci 2000; 20(17): 6421-6430.
200. Hauben E, Agranov E, Gothilf A, Nevo U, Cohen A, Smimov I, et al. Posttraumatic therapeutic vaccination with modified myelin self-antigen prevents complete paralysis while avoiding autoimmune disease. J Clin Invest 2001; 108(4): 591-599.
201. Hofstetter HH, Sewell DL, Liu F, Sandor M, Forsthuber T, Lehmann PV, et al. Autoreactive T cells promote post-traumatic healing in the central nervous system. J Neuroimmunol 2003; 134(1-2): 25-34.
202. Moalem G, Gdalyahu A, Shani Y, Otten U, Lazarovici P, Cohen IR, et al. Production of neurotrophins by activated T cells: implications for neuroprotective autoimmunity. J Autoimmun 2000; 15(3): 331-345.
203. Kerschensteiner M, Gallmeier E, Behrens L, Leal VV, Misgeld T, Klinkert WE, et al. Activated human T cells, B cells, and monocytes produce brain-derived neurotrophic factor in vitro and in inflammatory brain lesions: a neuroprotective role of inflammation? J Exp Med 1999; 189(5): 865-870.
204. Agnello D, Villa P, Ghezzi P. Increased tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-6 production in the central nervous system of interleukin-10-deficient mice. Brain Res 2000; 869(1-2): 241-243.
205. Cottrez F, Groux H. Regulation of TGF-beta response during T cell activation is modulated by IL-10. J Immunol 2001; 167(2): 773-778.
206. Fiorentino DF, Zlotnik A, Mosmann TR, Howard M, O'Garra A. IL-10 inhibits cytokine production by activated macrophages. J Immunol 1991; 147(11): 3815-3822.
207. Brewer KL, Bethea JR, Yezierski RP. Neuroprotective effects of interleukin-10 following excitotoxic spinal cord injury. Exp Neurol 1999; 159(2): 484-493.
208. Bethea JR, Nagashima H, Acosta MC, Briceno C, Gomez F, Marcillo AE, et al. Systemically administered interleukin-10 reduces tumor necrosis factor- alpha production and significantly improves functional recovery following traumatic spinal cord injury in rats. J Neurotrauma 1999; 16(10): 851-863.
209. Tyor WR, Avgeropoulos N, Ohlandt G, Hogan EL. Treatment of spinal cord impact injury in the rat with transforming growth factor-beta. J Neurol Sci 2002; 200(1-2): 33-41.
210. Famularo G, Mosca L, Minisola G, Trinchieri V, De Simone C. Probiotic lactobacilli: a new perspective for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. Curr Pharm Design 2003; 9(24): 1973-80.
211. Kleinau S. The impact of Fc receptors on the development of autoimmune diseases. Curr Pharm Design 2003; 9(23): 1861-70.
212. Mehta NM, Malootian A, Gilligan JP. Calcitonin for osteoporosis and bone pain. Curr Pharm Design 2003; 9(32): 2659-76.