Neuroprotective Strategies in Alzheimer's Disease

NeuroRx

Volumn 1, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 117-127

  Longo, Frank M ^a   Massa, Stephen M ^b,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c VETERANS AFFAIRS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Alzheimer; amyloid; neuroprotection; neurotrophin; stress kinase

Indexed keywords

ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; AMYLOID BETA PROTEIN; ANTIOXIDANT; CASPASE; CEP 1347; CLIOQUINOL; HUMANIN; MEMANTINE; MINOCYCLINE; NERVE GROWTH FACTOR; NEUROTROPHIN; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; TALSACLIDINE; TAU PROTEIN; VALPROIC ACID; NEUROPROTECTIVE AGENT;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; AMYOTROPHIC LATERAL SCLEROSIS; APOPTOSIS; ARTICLE; CHOLINERGIC SYSTEM; CLINICAL TRIAL; COGNITIVE DEFECT; ENZYME INHIBITION; EXCITOTOXICITY; HUMAN; NERVE CELL PLASTICITY; NERVE DEGENERATION; NEUROPROTECTION; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PARKINSON DISEASE; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; PROTEIN PHOSPHORYLATION; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; ANIMAL; BRAIN; DRUG EFFECT; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; ANIMALS; BRAIN; HUMANS; NEUROPROTECTIVE AGENTS; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

EID: 15344345621     PISSN: 15455343     EISSN: 15455351     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1602/neurorx.1.1.117     Document Type: Article

References (117)

1. Golde T. Alzheimer disease therapy: can the amyloid cascade be halted?. J Clin Invest 111 (2003) 11-18
2. Selkoe D., and Schenk D. Alzheimer's disease: molecular understanding predicts amyloid-based therapies. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 43 (2003) 545-584
3. Golde T. Inflammation takes on Alzheimer disease. Nat Med 8 (2002) 936-938
4. McGeer P., and McGeer E. Local neuroinflammation and the progression of Alzheimer's disease. J Neurovirol 8 (2002) 529-538
5. Brookmeyer R., Gray S., and Kawas C. Projections of Alzheimer's disease in the United States and the public health impact of delaying disease onset. Am J Public Health 88 (1998) 1337-1342
6. Hake AM, Scherer P., On the brink of the pandemic: epidemiology and risk factors for Alzheimer's. Paper presented at the World Alzheimer's Congress, Washington, D.C., July 9-18, 2000
7. Hardy J., and Selkoe D. The amyloid hypothesis of Alzheimer's disease: progress and problems on the road to therapeutics. Science 297 (2002) 353-356
8. Holtzman D., Bales K., Paul S., and DeMattos R. Aβ immunization and anti-Aβ antibodies: potential therapies for the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Adv Drug Delivery Rev 54 (2002) 1603-1613
9. Smith M., Casadesus G., Joseph J., and Perry G. Amyloid-β and θ serve antioxidant functions in the aging and Alzheimer brain. Free Radic Biol Med 9 (2002) 1194-1199
10. Plant L., Boyle J., Smith I., Peers C., and Pearson H. The production of amyloid β peptide is a critical requirement for the viability of central neurons. J Neurosci 23 (2003) 5531-5535
11. Yankner B. The pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Is amyloid β-protein the beginning of the end?. Ann NY Acad Sci 924 (2000) 26-28
12. Yankner B., Caceres A., and Duffy L. Nerve growth factor potentiates the neurotoxicity of β-amyloid. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 87 (1990) 9020-9023
13. Takahashi R., Milner T., Li F., Nam E., Edgar M., Yamaguchi H., et al. Intraneuronal Alzheimer Aβ42 accumulates in multivesicular bodies and is associated with synaptic pathology. Am J Path 161 (2002) 1869-1879
14. Zhang Y., McLaughlin R., Goodyer C., and LeBlanc A. Selective cytotoxicity of intracellular amyloid β peptide1-41 through p53 and Bax in cultured primary human neurons. J Cell Biol 156 (2002) 519-529
15. Kawasumi M., Hashimoto Y., Chiba T., Kanekura K., Yamagishi Y., Ishizaka M., et al. Molecular mechanisms for neuronal cell death by Alzheimer's amyloid precursor protein-relevant insults. Neurosignals 11 (2002) 236-250
16. Tran M., Yamada K., and Nabeshima T. Amyloid β-peptide induces cholinergic dysfunction and cognitive deficits: a minireview. Peptides 23 (2002) 1271-1283
17. Bozyczko-Coyne D., O'Kane T., Wu Z., Dobrzanski P., Murthy S., Vaught J., and Scott R. CEP-1347/KT-7515, as an inhibitor of SAPK/JNK pathway activation, promotes survival and blocks multiple events associated with Aβ-induced cortical neuron apoptosis. J Neurochem 77 (2001) 849-863
18. Bozyczko-Coyne D., Saporito M., and Hudkins R. Targeting the JNK pathway for therapeutic benefit in CNS disease. Curr Drug Target CNS Neurol Disord 1 (2002) 31-49
19. Morishima Y., Gotoh Y., Zieg J., Barrett T., Takano H., Flavell R., Davis R., Shirasaki Y., and Greenberg M. β-amyloid induces neuronal apoptosis via a mechanism that involves the c-Jun N-terminal kinase pathway and the induction of Fas ligand. J Neurosci 21 (2001) 7551-7560
20. Fogarty M., Downer E., and Campbell V. A role for c-Jun N-terminal kinase 1 (JNK1), but not JNK2, in the β-amyloid-mediated stabilization of protein p53 and induction of the apoptotic cascade in cultured cortical neurons. Biochem J 371 (2003) 789-798
21. Shoji M., Iwakami N., Takeuchi S., Waragai M., Suzuki M., Kanazawa I., Lippa C., Ono S., and Okazawa H. JNK activation is associated with intracellular β-amyloid accumulation. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 85 (2000) 221-233
22. Zhu X., Raina A., Rottkamp C., Aliev G., Peggy G., Boux H., and Smith M. Activation and redistribution of c-Jun N-terminal kinase/stress activated protein kinase in degenerating neurons in Alzheimer's disease. J Neurochem 76 (2001) 435-441
23. Pei J., Braak E., Braak H., Grundke-Iqbal I., Iqbal K., Winbald B., and Cowburn R. Localization of active forms of C-jun kinase (JNK) and p38 kinase in Alzheimer's disease brains at different stages of neurofibrillary degeneration. J Alzheimers Dis 3 (2001) 41-48
24. Savage M., Lin Y., Ciallella J., Flood D., and Scott R. Activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase and p38 in an Alzheimer's disease model is associated with amyloid deposition. J Neurosci 22 (2002) 3376-3385
25. Troy C., Rabacchi S., Xu Z., Maroney A., Connors T., Shelanski M., and Greene L. β-Amyloid-induced neuronal apoptosis requires c-Jun N-terminal kinase activation. J Neurochem 77 (2001) 157-164
26. Wei W., Wang X., and Kusiak J. Signaling events in amyloid β-peptide-induced neuronal death and insulin growth factor I protection. J Biol Chem 277 (2002) 17649-17656
27. Marques C., Keil U., Bonert A., Steiner B., Hass C., Muller W., and Eckert A. Neurotoxic mechanisms caused by the Alzheimer's disease-linked Swedish APP mutation: oxidative stress, caspases and JNK pathway. J Biol Chem 278 (2003) 28294-28302
28. MAPK. Exp Neurol 180 (2003) 144-155
29. Harris C., Deshmukh M., Tsui-Pierchala B., Maroney A., and Johnson E. Inhibition of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase signaling pathway by the mixed lineage kinase inhibitor CEP-1347 preserves metabolism and growth of trophic factor-deprived neurons. J Neurosci 22 (2002) 103-113
30. Trojanowski J., and Lee V. The role of tau in Alzheimer's disease. Med Clin North Am 86 (2002) 615-627
31. Alvarez G., Munoz-Montano J., Satrustegui J., Avila J., Bogonez E., and Diaz-Nido J. Regulation of tau phosphorylation and protection against β-amyloid-induced neurodegeneration by lithium. Possible implications for Alzheimer's disease. Bipolar Disorder 4 (2002) 153-165
32. Gozes I. Tau as a drug target in Alzheimer's disease. J Mol Neurosci 19 (2002) 337-338
33. Chen G., Huang L., Jiang Y., and Manji H. The mood-stabilizing agent valproate inhibits the activity of glycogen synthase kinase-3. J Neurochem 72 (1999) 1327-1330
34. Loy R., and Tariot P. Neuroprotective properties of valproate: potential benefit for AD and tauopathies. J Mol Neurosci 19 (2002) 303-307
35. Sato S., Tatebayashi Y., Akagi T., Chui D., Murayama M., Miyasaka T., et al. Aberrant tau phosphorylation by glycogen synthase kinase-3β and JNK3 induces oligomeric tau fibrils in COS-7 cells. J Biol Chem 277 (2002) 42060-42065
36. Michaelis M., Chen Y., Hill S., Reiff E., Georg G., Rice A., and Audus K. Amyloid peptide toxicity and microtubule-stabilizing drugs. J Mol Neurosci 19 (2002) 101-105
37. Roth K. Caspases, apoptosis, and Alzheimer disease: causation, correlation, and confusion. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 60 (2001) 829-838
38. Rohn T., Rissman R., Head E., and Cotman C. Caspase activation in the Alzheimer's disease brain: tortuous and torturous. Drug News Perspect 15 (2002) 549-557
39. Yuan J., and Yankner B. Apoptosis in the nervous system. Nature 407 (2000) 802-809
40. Ivins K., Thornton P., Rohn T., and Cotman C. Neuronal apoptosis induced by β-amyloid is mediated by caspase-8. Neurobiol Dis 6 (1999) 440-449
41. Allen J., Eldadah B., Huang X., Knoblach S., and Faden A. Multiple caspases are involved in β-amyloid-induced neuronal apoptosis. J Neurosci Res 65 (2001) 45-53
42. Deshmukh M., Vasilakos J., Deckwerth T., Lampe P., Shivers B., and Johnson Jr. E. Genetic and metabolic status of NGF-deprived sympathetic neurons saved by an inhibitor of ICE family proteases. J Cell Biol 135 (1996) 1341-1354
43. Dore S., Kar S., and Quirion R. Insulin-like growth factor I protects and rescues hippocampal neurons against β-amyloid- and human amylin-induced toxicity. Proc Natl Acad Sci 94 (1997) 4772-4777
44. Mattson M., Tomaselli K., and Rydel R. Calcium-destabilizing and neurodegenerative effects of aggregated β-amyloid peptide are attenuated by basic FGF. Brain Res 621 (1997) 35-49 1993a
45. Fitzpatrick J., Mize A., Wade C., Harris J., Shapiro R., and Dorsa D. Estrogen-mediated neuroprotection against β-amyloid toxicity requires expression of estrogen receptor α or β and activation of the MAPK pathway. J Neurochem 82 (2002) 674-682
46. Gozes I., and Brenneman D. A new concept in the pharmacology of neuroprotection. J Mol Neurosci 14 (2000) 61-68
47. Niikura T., Hashimoto Y., Tajima H., and Nishimoto I. Death and survival of neuronal cells exposed to Alzheimer's insults. J Neurosci Res 70 (2002) 380-391
48. Vicario-Abejon C., Owens D., McKay R., and Segal M. Role of neurotrophins in central synapse formation and stabilization. Nat Rev Neurosci 3 (2002) 965-974
49. Selkoe D. Alzheimer's disease is a synaptic failure. Science 298 (2002) 789-791
50. Sofroniew M., Howe C., and Mobley W. Nerve growth factor signaling, neuroprotection, and neural repair. Annu Rev Neurosci 24 (2001) 1217-1281
51. Chao M. Neurotrophins and their receptors: a convergence point for many signaling pathways. Nature Rev 4 (2003) 299-309
52. Mufson E., and Kordower J. Cortical neurons express nerve growth factor receptors in advanced age and Alzheimer's disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci 89 (1992) 569-573
53. Drake C., Milner T., and Patterson S. Ultrastructural localization of full-length trkB immunoreactivity in rat hippocampus suggests multiple roles in modulating activity-dependent synaptic plasticity. J Neurosci 19 (1999) 8009-8026
54. Savaskan E., Muller-Spahn F., Olivieri G., Bruttel S., Otten U., Rosenberg C., Hulette C., and Hock C. Alterations in trkA, trkB and trk C receptor immunoreactivities in parietal cortex and cerebellum in Alzheimer's disease. Eur Neurol 44 (2000) 172-180
55. Pitts A., and Miller M. Expression of nerve growth factor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and neurotrophin-3 in the somatosensory cortex of the mature rat: coexpression with high-affinity neurotrophin receptors. J Comp Neurol 418 (2000) 241-254
56. NTR expression in hippocampus neurons containing hyperphosphorylated θ in Alzheimer patients. Exp Neurol 178 (2002) 104-111
57. Park H.-S., Kim M.-S., Huh S.-H., Park J., Chung J., Kang S., and Choi E.-J. Akt (protein kinase B) negatively regulates SEK1 by means of protein phosphorylation. J Biol Chem 277 (2002) 2573-2578
58. Dugan L., Creedon D., Johnson E., and Holtzman D. Rapid suppression of free radical formation by nerve growth factor involves the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94 (1997) 4086-4091
59. Roux P., and Barker P. Neurotrophin signaling through the p75 neurotrophin receptor. Prog Neurobiol 67 (2002) 203-233
60. NTR. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 14 (2003) 224-239
61. Dobrowsky R., and Carter B. Coupling of the p75 neurotrophin receptor to sphingolipid signaling. Ann NY Acad Sci 845 (1998) 32-45
62. Fahnestock M., Michalski B., Xu B., and Coughlin M. The precursor pro-nerve growth factor is the predominant form of nerve growth factor in brain and is increased in Alzheimer's disease. Mol Cell Neurosci 18 (2001) 210-220
63. NTR. Curr Opin Neurobiol 12 (2002) 260-267
64. Longo F., Manthorpe M., Xie Y., and Varon S. Synthetic NGF peptide derivatives prevent neuronal death via a p75 receptor-dependent mechanism. J Neurosci Res 48 (1997) 1-17
65. Tuszynski M. Growth-factor gene therapy for neurodegenerative disorders. Lancet Neurol 1 (2002) 51-57
66. Robner S., Ueberham U., Schliebs R., Perez-Polo J., and Bigl V. The regulation of amyloid precursor protein metabolism by cholinergic mechanisms and neurotrophin receptor signaling. Prog Neurobiol 56 (1998) 541-569
67. Mufson E., Kroin J., Sendera T., and Sobreviela T. Distribution and retrograde transport of trophic factors in the central nervous system: functional implications for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Prog Neurobiol 57 (1999) 451-484
68. Cooper J., Salehi A., Delcroix J., Howe C., Belichenko P., Chua-Couzens J., et al. Failed retrograde transport of NGF in a mouse model of Down syndrome: reversal of cholinergic neurodegenerative phenotype following NGF infusion. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98 (2001) 10439-10444
69. Salehi A., Delcroix J., and Mobley W. Traffic at the intersection of neurotrophic factor signaling and neurodegeneration. Trends Neurosci 26 (2003) 73-80
70. Capsoni S., Giannotta S., and Cattaneo A. β-amyloid plaques in a model for sporadic Alzheimer's disease based on transgenic anti-nerve growth factor antibodies. Mol Cell Neurosci 21 (2002) 15-28
71. Pizzo D., Winkler J., Sidiqi I., Waite J., and Thal L. Modulation of sensory inputs and ectopic presence of Schwann cells depend upon the route and duration of nerve growth factor administration. Exp Neurol 178 (2002) 91-103
72. Eriksdotter J., Nordberg A., Amberla K., Backman L., Ebendal T., Meyerson B., Olson L., et al. Intracerebroventricular infusion of nerve growth factor in three patients with Alzheimer's disease. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 9 (1998) 246-257
73. Xie Y., and Longo F. Neurotrophin small-molecule mimetics. Prog Brain Res 128 (2000) 333-347
74. Saragovi H., and Gehring K. Development of pharmacological agents for targeting neurotrophins and their receptors. Trends Pharmacol Sci 21 (2000) 93-98
75. Massa S., Xie Y., and Longo F. Alzheimer's therapeutics: neurotrophin small molecule mimetics. J Mol Neurosci 19 (2002) 107-111
76. Xie Y., Tisi M., Yeo T., and Longo F. Nerve growth factor (NGF) loop 4 dimeric mimetics activate ERK and AKT and promote NGF-like neurotrophic effects. J Biol Chem 275 (2000) 29868-29874
77. Auld D., Kornecook T., Bastianetto S., and Quirion R. Alzheimer's disease and the basal forebrain cholinergic system: relations to β-amyloid peptides, cognition, and treatment strategies. Prog Neurobiol 68 (2002) 209-245
78. Farlow M., Anand R., Messina Jr. J., Hartman R., and Veach J. A 52-week study of the efficacy of rivastigmine in patients with mild to moderately severe Alzheimer's disease. Eur Neurol 44 (2000) 236-241
79. Coyle J., and Kershaw P. Galantamine, a cholinesterase inhibitor that allosterically modulates nicotinic receptors: effects on the course of Alzheimer's disease. Biol Psychiatry 49 (2001) 289-299
80. Doraiswamy P., Krishnan K., Anand R., Sohn H., Danyluk J., Hartman R., and Veach J. Long-term effects of rivastigmine in moderately severe Alzheimer's disease: does early initiation of therapy offer sustained benefits?. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 26 (2002) 705-712
81. Farlow M., Potkin S., Koumaras B., Veach J., and Mirski D. Analysis of outcome in retrieved dropout patients in a rivastigmine vs placebo, 26-week, Alzheimer disease trial. Arch Neurol 60 (2003) 843-848
82. Fisher A., Brandeis R., Haring R., Kliger-Spatz M., Natan N., Sonego H., et al. AF150(S) and AF267B: M1 muscarinic agonists as innovative therapies for Alzheimer's disease. J Mol Neurosci 19 (2002) 145-153
83. Nitsch R., Slack B., Wurtman R., and Growdon J. Release of Alzheimer amyloid precursor derivatives stimulated by activation of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. Science 258 (1992) 304-307
84. Buxbaum J., Oishi M., Chen H., Pinkas-Kramarski R., Jaffe E., Gandy S., and Greengard P. Cholinergic agonists and interleukin 1 regulate processing and secretion of the Alzheimer beta-A4 amyloid protein precursor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89 (1992) 10075-10078
85. Hung A., Haass C., Nitsch R., Qui W., Citron M., Wurtman R., Growdon J., and Selkoe D. Activation of protein kinase C inhibits cellular production of the amyloid beta-protein. J Biol Chem 268 (1993) 22959-22962
86. Lin L., Georgievska B., Mattson A., and Isacson O. Cognitive changes and modified processing of amyloid precursor protein in the cortical and hippocampal system after cholinergic synapse loss and muscarinic receptor activation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96 (1999) 12108-12113
87. Hellstrom-Lindahl E. Modulation of β-amyloid precursor protein processing and tau phosphorylation by acetylcholine receptors. Eur J Pharmacol 393 (2000) 255-263
88. Kihara T., Shimohama S., Sawada H., Honda K., Nakamizo T., Shibasaki H., Kume T., and Akaike A. α7 Nicotinic receptor transduces signals to phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase to block Aβ-amyloid-induced neurotoxicity. J Biol Chem 276 (2001) 13541-13546
89. Knipper M., de Penha Berzaghi M., Blochl A., Breer H., Thoenen H., and Lindholm D. Positive feedback between acetylcholine and the neurotrophins nerve growth factor and brain-derived growth neurotrophic factor in the rat hippocampus. Eur J Neurosci 6 (1994) 668-671
90. Isacson O., Seo H., Lin L., Albeck D., and Granholm A. Alzheimer's disease and Down's syndrome: roles of APP, trophic factors and Ach. Trends Neurosci 25 (2002) 79-84
91. Nitsch R., Deng M., Tennis M., Schoenfeld D., and Growdon J. The selective muscarinic M1 agonist AF102B decreases levels of total Aβ in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol 48 (2000) 913-918
92. Hock C., Maddalena A., Raschig A., Muller-Spahn F., Eschweiler G., Hag K., et al. Treatment with the selective muscarinic m1 agonist talsaclidin decreases cerebrospinal fluid levels of Aβ42 in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Amyloid 10 (2003) 1-6
93. Butterfield D. Amyloid β-peptide (1-42)-induced oxidative stress and neurotoxicity: implications for neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease brain. A review. Free Radic Res 36 (2002) 1307-1313
94. Floyd R., and Hensley K. Oxidative stress in brain aging. Implications for therapeutics of neurodegenerative diseases. Neurobiol Aging 23 (2002) 795-807
95. Pratico D., Clark C., Liun F., Lee V.-M., and Trojanowski J. Increase of brain oxidative stress in mild cognitive impairment. Arch Neurol 59 (2002) 972-976
96. Kourie J. Mechanisms of amyloid β protein-induced modification of ion transport systems: implications of neurodegenerative diseases. Cell Mol Neurobiol 21 (2001) 173-213
97. Beal M. Mitochondria, free radicals, and neurodegeneration. Curr Opin Neurobiol 6 (1996) 661-666
98. Bush A. The metallobiology of Alzheimer's disease. Trends Neurosci 26 (2003) 207-214
99. Pratico D. Alzheimer's disease and oxygen radicals: new insights. Biochem Pharmacol 63 (2002) 563-567
100. Lim G., Chu T., Yang F., Beech W., Frautschy S., and Cole G. The curry spice curcumin reduces oxidative damage and amyloid pathology in an Alzheimer transgenic mouse. J Neurosci 21 (2001) 8370-8377
101. Cole G. Ironic fate: can a banned drug control metal heavies in neurodegenerative disease?. Neuron 37 (2003) 889-893
102. Cherny R., Atwood C., Xilinas M., Gray D., Jones W., McLean C., et al. Treatment with a copper-zinc chelator markedly and rapidly inhibits β-amyloid accumulation in Alzheimer's disease transgenic mice. Neuron 30 (2001) 665-676
103. Morris M., Evans D., Bienias J., Tangney C., Bennett D., Aggarwal N., Wilson R., and Scherr P. Dietary intake of antioxidant nutrients and the risk of incident Alzheimer's disease in a biracial community study. JAMA 287 (2002) 3230-3237
104. Engelhart M., Geerlings M., Ruitenberg A., van Swieten J., Hofman A., Witteman J., and Breteler M. Dietary intake of antioxidants and risk of Alzheimer's disease. JAMA 287 (2002) 3223-3229
105. Foley D., and White L. Dietary intake of antioxidants and risk of Alzheimer's disease: food for thought. JAMA 287 (2002) 3261-3263
106. Luchsinger J., Tang M.-X., Shea S., and Mayeux R. Antioxidant vitamin intake and risk of Alzheimer's disease. Arch Neurol 60 (2003) 203-208
107. Sano M., Ernesto M., Thomas R., Klauber M., Schafer K., Grundman M., et al. A controlled trial of selegiline, alpha-tocopherol or both as a treatment for Alzheimer's disease. N Engl J Med 336 (1997) 1216-1222
108. Grundman M., and Delaney P. Antioxidant strategies for Alzheimer's disease. Proc Nutr Soc 61 (2002) 191-202
109. Gutzmann H., Hadler D., and Erzigkeit H. Long-term treatment of Alzheimer's disease with idebenone. In: Iqbal K., Winbald B., Nishimura T., Takeda M., and Wisniewski H. (Eds). Alzheimer's disease: biology, diagnosis and therapeutics (1997, 2002), Wiley, UK 687-705
110. Choi D. Calcium and excitotoxic neuronal injury. Ann NY Acad Sci 747 (1994) 162-171
111. Butterfield D., and Pocernich C. The glutamatergic system in Alzheimer's disease: therapeutic implications. CNS Drugs 17 (2003) 641-652
112. Olney J., Wozniak D., and Farber N. Glutamate receptor dysfunction and Alzheimer's disease. Restor Neurol Neurosci 13 (1998) 75-83
113. Harris M., Carney J., Cole P., Hensley K., Howard K., Howard B., Martin L., et al. Beta-amyloid peptide-derived, oxygen-dependent free radicals inhibit glutamate uptake in cultured astrocytes: implications for Alzheimer's disease. Neuroreport 6 (1995) 1875-1879
114. Erdo S., and Schafer M. Memantine is highly potent in protecting cortical cultures against excitotoxic cell death evoked by glutamate and N-methyl-D-aspartate. Enr J Pharmacol 198 (1991) 215-217
115. Parsons C., Gruner J., Rozental J., Millar J., and Lodge D. Patch clamp studies on the kinetics and selectivity of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonism by memantine (1-amino-3, 5-dimethyladamantan). Neuropharmacology 32 (1993) 1337-1350
116. Miguel-Hidalgo J., Alvarez X., Cacabelos R., and Quack G. Neuroprotection by memantine against neurodegeneration induced by β-amyloid(1-40). Brain Res 958 (2002) 210-221
117. Reisberg B., Doody R., Stoffler A., Schmitt F., Ferris S., and Mobius H. Memantine in moderate-to-severe Alzheimer's disease. N Engl J Med 348 (2003) 1333-1341