Can the consumption of tomatoes or lycopene reduce cancer risk?

Integrative Cancer Therapies

Volumn 1, Issue 2, 2003, Pages 121-132

  Hwang, Eun Sun ^a   Bowen, Phyllis E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT CHICAGO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENT; ASTAXANTHIN; BETA CAROTENE; CAROTENOID; CRYPTOXANTHIN; DNA; HYDROGEN PEROXIDE; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN; LYCOPENE; PLANT MEDICINAL PRODUCT; XANTHOPHYLL;

ANIMAL; ANIMAL CELL; ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY; BIOAVAILABILITY; BREAST CANCER; CANCER; CANCER PREVENTION; CANCER RISK; CASE CONTROL STUDY; CELL CULTURE; CELL STRAIN MCF 7; COHORT ANALYSIS; DIETARY INTAKE; DIGESTIVE SYSTEM CANCER; DNA DAMAGE; FRUIT; HEAD AND NECK CANCER; HUMAN; HUMAN CELL; LUNG CANCER; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; NEOPLASM; NONHUMAN; OVARY CANCER; PANCREAS CANCER; PHYTOTHERAPY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROSTATE CANCER; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; SKIN CANCER; TOMATO; VEGETABLE; VITAMIN METABOLISM;

ANIMALS; ANTICARCINOGENIC AGENTS; CAROTENOIDS; FRUIT; HUMANS; LYCOPERSICON ESCULENTUM; NEOPLASMS; PHYTOTHERAPY; PLANT PREPARATIONS;

EID: 0038262034     PISSN: 15347354     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1534735402001002003     Document Type: Review

References (165)

1. Bal DG, Foerster SB. Dietary strategies for cancer prevention. Cancer. 1993;72:S1005-S1010.
2. Peto J. Cancer epidemiology in the last century and the next decade. Nature. 2001;411:390-395.
3. Doll R, Peto R. The causes of cancer: quantitative estimates of avoidable risks of cancer in the United States today. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1981;66:1191-1308.
4. Alavanja MC, Field RW, Sinha R, et al. Lung cancer risk and red meat consumption among Iowa women. Lung Cancer. 2001;34(1):37-46.
5. Cai S, Haleem R, Oram S, et al. High fat diet increase the weight of rat vental prostate. Prostate. 2001;49(1):1-8.
6. Bergstrom A, Pisani P, Tenet V, Wolk A, Adami HO. Overweight as an avoidable cause of cancer in Europe. Int J Cancer: 2001;91:421-430.
7. Josefson D. Obesity and inactivity fuel global cancer epidemic. Br Med J. 2001;322:945.
8. Hill MJ. Cereals, cereal fiber and colorectal cancer risk: a review of the epidemiological literature. Eur J Cancer Prev. 1997;6:219-225.
9. Block G, Patterson B, Subar A. Fruit, vegetables and cancer prevention: a review of the epidemiological evidence. Nutr Cancer. 1992;18:1-29.
10. Verhoeven DT, Goldbohm RA, van Poppel G, Verhagen H, van den Brandt PA. Epidemiological studies on brassica vegetables and cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1996;5:733-748.
11. Dorant E, Vandenbrandt PA, Goldbohm RA, Sturmans F. Consumption of onions and a reduced risk of stomach carcinoma. Gastroenterology. 1996;110:12-20.
12. Giovannucci E, Ascherio A, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC. Intake of carotenoids and retinol in relation to risk of prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1995;87:1767-1776.
13. Giovannucci E. Tomatoes, tomato-based products, lycopene, and cancer: review of the epidemiologic literature. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999;91:317-331.
14. Steinmetz KA, Potter JD. Vegetables, fruit, and cancer prevention: a review. J Am Diet Assoc. 1996;96:1027-1039.
15. Campbell DR, Gross MD, Martin MC, et al. Plasma carotenoids as biomarkers of fruits and vegetables. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1994;3:493-500.
16. Rock CL, Swendseid ME. Plasma beta-carotene response in humans after meals supplemented with dietary pectin. Am J Clin Nutr. 1992;55:96-99.
17. International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention: Carotenoids. Vol2. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press; 1998:39.
18. Cooper DA, Eldridge AL, Peters JC. Dietary carotenoids and lung cancer: a review of recent research. Nutr Rev. 1999;57:133-145.
19. Burney PGJ, Comstock GW, Morris JS. Serologic precursors of cancer: serum micronutrients and the subsequent risk of pancreatic cancer. Am J Clin Nutr. 1989;49:895-900.
20. Halliwell B, Gutteridge JMC. Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1999.
21. International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention: Carotenoids. Vol 2. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press; 1998:278.
22. Hennekens C, Buring J, Manson J, et al. Lack of effect of long-term supplementation with beta carotene on the incidence of malignant neoplasmas and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 1996;334:1145-1149.
23. Omenn GS, Goodman GE, Thoenquist MD, et al. Effects of a combination of beta carotene and vitamin A on lung cancer and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 1996;334:1150-1155.
24. Khachik F, Spangler CJ, Smith JC Jr, Canfield LM, Steck A, Pfander H. Identification, quantification, and relative concentrations of carotenoids and their metabolites in human milk and serum. Analalytical Chemistry. 1997;69:1873-1881.
25. Stahl W, Sies H. Lycopene: a biologically important carotenoid for humans? Arch Biochem Biophys. 1996;336:1-9.
26. Campisi J, Kim S, Lim CS, Rubio M. Cellular senescence, cancer and aging: the telomere connection. Exp Gerontol. 2001;36: 1619-1637.
27. Sies H, Stahl W. Lycopene: antioxidant and biological effects and its bioavailability in the human. Proc Soc Exp Biol. 1998; 218:121-124.
28. Food and Nutrition Board. Institute of Medicine, Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Boroin, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium and Zinc. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 2001.
29. Tinkler JH, Bohm F, Schalch W, Truscott TG. Dietary carotenoids protect human cells from damage. J Photochem Photobiol B. 1994;26:283-285.
30. Bohm F, Trinkler JH, Truscott TG. Carotenoids protect against cell membrane damage by the nitrogen radical. Nat Med. 1995; 1:98-99.
31. Ribaya-Mercado JD, Garmyn M, Gilchrest BA, Russell RM. Skin lycopene is destroyed preferentially over beta-carotene during ultraviolet irradiation in humans. J Nutr. 1995;125:1854-1859.
32. Lu Y, Etoh H, Watanabe N, et al. A new carotenoid, hydrogen peroxide oxidation products from lycopene. Biosci Biotech Biochem. 1995;59:2153-2155.
33. Mascio PD, Kaiser S, Sies H. Lycopene as the most efficient biological carotenoid singlet oxygen quencher. Arch Biochem Biophys. 1989;274:532-538.
34. Miller NJ, Sampson J, Candeias LP, Bramley PM, Rice-Evans CA. Antioxidant activities of carotenes and xanthophylls. FEBS Lett. 1996;384:240-242.
35. Riso P, Pinder A, Santangelo A, Porrini M. Does tomato consumption effectively increase the resistance of lymphocyte DNA to oxidative damage? Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;69:712-718.
36. Porrini M, Riso P. Lymphocyte lycopene concentration and DNA protection from oxidative damage is increased in women after a short period of tomato consumption. J Nutr. 2000;130: 189-192.
37. Rao AV, Agarwal S. Bioavailability and in vivo antioxidant properties of lycopene from tomato products and their possible role in the prevention of cancer. Nutr Cancer. 1998;31:199-203.
38. Bub A, Watzl B, Abrahamse L, et al. Moderate intervention with carotenoid-rich vegetable products reduces lipid peroxidation in men. J Nutr. 2000;130:2200-2206.
39. Sutherland WHF, Walker RJ, De Jong SA, Upritchard JE. Supplementation with tomato juice increases plasma lycopene but does not alter susceptibility to oxidation of low-density lipoproteins from renal transplant recipients. Clin Nephrol. 1999;52(1):30-36.
40. Dugas TR, Morel DW, Harrison EH. Dietary supplementation with beta-carotene, but not with lycopene, inhibits endothelial cell-mediated oxidation of low-density lipoprotein. Free Radical Biol Med. 1999;26:1238-1244.
41. Dugas TR, Morel DW, Harrison EH. Impact of LDL carotenoid and alpha-tocopherol content on LDL oxidation by endothelial cells in culture. J Lipid Res. 1998;9:999-1007.
42. Kim H. Carotenoids protect cultured rat hepatocytes from injury caused by carbon tetrachloride. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 1995;27:1303-1309.
43. Levy J, Bosin E, Feldman B, et al. Lycopene is a more potent inhibitor of human cancer cell proliferation than either alpha-carotene or beta-carotene. Nutr Cancer. 1995;24:257-266.
44. Karas M, Amir H, Fishman D, et al. Lycopene interferes with cell cycle progression and insulin-like growth factor I signaling in mammary cancer cells. Nutr Cancer. 2000;36:101-111.
45. Nahum A, Hirsch K, Danilenko M, et al. Lycopene inhibition of cell cycle progression in breast and endometrial cancer cells is associated with reduction in cyclin D levels and retention of p27(Kip1) in the cyclin E-cdk2 complexes. Oncogene. 2001; 20:3428-3436.
46. Sweeney KJ, Musgrove EA, Watts CK, Sutherland RL. Cyclins and breast cancer. Cancer Treatment Res. 1996;83:141-170.
47. Matos HR, Mascio PD, Medeiros MHG. Protective effect of lycopene on lipid peroxidation and oxidative DNA damage in cell culture. Arch Biochem Biophys. 2000;383:56-59.
48. Stahl W, Laar J, Martin HD, Emmerich T, Sies H. Stimulation of gap junctional communication: comparison of acyclo-retinoic acid and lycopene. Arch Biochem Biophys. 2000;373:271-274.
49. Stahl W, Nicolai S, Briviba K, et al. Biological activities of natural and synthetic carotenoids: induction of gap junctional communication and singlet oxygen quenching. Carcinogenesis. 1997;18(1):89-92.
50. Krutovskikh V, Asamoto M, Takasuka N, Murakoshi M, Nishino H, Tsuda H. 1997. Differential dose-dependent effects of alpha-, beta-carotenes and lycopene on gap junctional intercellular communication in rat liver in vivo. Jpn J Cancer Res. 1997;88:1121-1124.
51. Nagasawa H, Mitamura T, Sakamoto S, Yamamoto K. Effects of lycopene on spontaneous mammary tumor development in SHN virgin mice. Anticancer Res. 1995;15:1173-1178.
52. Narisawa T, Fukaura Y, Hasebe M, et al. Prevention of N-methylnitrosourea-induced colon carcinogenesis in F344 rats by lycopene and tomato juice rich in lycopene. Jpn J Cancer Res. 1998;89:1003-1008.
53. Guttenplan JB, Chen M, Kosinska W, Thompson S, Zhao Z, Cohen LA. Effects of a lycopene-rich diet on spontaneous and benzo[a]pyrene-induced mutagenesis in prostate, colon and lungs of the lacZ mouse. Cancer Lett. 2001;164(1):1-6.
54. Cohen LA, Zhao Z, Pittman B, Khachik F. Effect of dietary lycopene on N-methylnitrosourea-induced mammary tumorigenesis. Nutr Cancer. 1999;34:153-159.
55. Okajima E, Ozono S, Endo T, et al. Chemopreventive efficacy of piroxicam administered alone or in combination with lycopene and beta-carotene on the development of rat urinary bladder carcinoma after N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxylbutyl)nitrosamine treatment. Jpn J Cancer Res. 1997;88:543-552.
56. Imaida K, Tamano S, Kato K, Ikeda Y, Shirai T. Lack of chemopreventive effects of lycopene and curcumin on experimental rat prostate carcinogenesis. Carcinogenesis. 2001;22:467-472.
57. Clark RM, Yao L, She L, Furr HC. A comparison of lycopene and canthaxanthin absorption: using the rat to study the absorption of non-provitamin A carotenoids. Lipids. 1998;33:159-163.
58. Mills PK, Beeson WL, Phillips RL, Fraser GE. Cohort study of diet, lifestyle and prostate cancer in Adventist men. Cancer. 1989;64:598-604.
59. Gann PH, Ma J, Giovannucci E, et al. Lower prostate cancer risk in men with elevated plasma lycopene levels: results of a prospective analysis. Cancer Res. 1999;59:1225-1230.
60. Kucuk O, Sarkar FH, Sakr W, et al. Phase II randomized clinical trial of lycopene supplementation before radical prostatectomy. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2001;10:861-868.
61. Chen L, Sapuntzakis M, Duncan C, et al. Serum and oxidative DNA damage in prostate cancer patients consuming tomato sauce. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2001;93:1872-1879.
62. Matlaga BR, Hall MC, Stindt D, Torti FM. Response of hormone refractory prostate cancer to lycopene. J Urol. 2001;166:613.
63. Mayne ST, Risch HA, Dubrow R, et al. Nutrient intake and risk of subtypes of esophageal and gastric cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2001;10:1055-1062.
64. Ong ASH, Tee ES. Natural source of carotenoids from plants and oils. Meth Enzymol. 1992;213:142-167.
65. US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. USDA nutrient database for standard reference. Available at: http://www.nsl.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/. Release 11-1.
66. Lavelli V, Peri C, Rizzolo A. Antioxidant activity of tomato products as studied by model reactions using xanthine oxidase, myeloperoxidase, and copper-induced lipid peroxidation. Agriculture and Food Chemistry. 2000;48:1442-1448.
67. Hart DJ, Scott J. Development and evolution of an HPLC method for the analysis of carotenoids in foods, and the measurement of the carotenoid content of vegetables and fruits commonly consumed in the UK. Food Chem. 1995;54:101-111.
68. Nguyen ML, Schwartz SJ. Lycopene stability during food processing. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1998;218:101-105.
69. Ferguson LR, Harris PJ. Protection against cancer by wheat bran: role of dietary fiber and phytochemicals. Eur J Cancer Prev. 1999;1618:17-26.
70. Johnson EJ. Human studies on bioavailability and plasma response of lycopene. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1998;218:115-120.
71. Gartner C, Stahl W, Sies H. Lycopene is more bioavailable from tomato paste than from fresh tomatoes. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997; 66:116-122.
72. Reddy PP, Clevidence BA, Berlin E, Taylor PR, Bieri JG, Smith JC. Plasma carotenoids and vitamin E profile of lipoprotein fractions of men fed a controlled typical US diet. FASEB J. 1989;3:A955.
73. Forman MR, Johnson EJ, Lanza E, Graubard BI, Beecher GR, Muesing R. Distribution of individual carotenoids in lipoproteins of premenopausal women: a controlled dietary study. Am J Clin Nutr. 1998;67:81-87.
74. Yeum KJ, Ahn SH, Rupp de Paiva SA, Lee-Kim YC, Krinsky NI, Russell RM. Correlation between carotenoid concentrations in serum and normal breast adipose tissue of women with benign breast tumor or breast cancer. J Nutr. 1998;128:1920-1926.
75. Clinton SK, Emenhiser C, Schwartz SJ, et al. Cis-trans lycopene isomers, carotenoids, and retinol in the human prostate. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1996;5:823-833.
76. Kaplan LA, Lau JM, Stein EA. Carotenoid composition, concentrations, and relationships in various human organs. Clin Physiol Bio Chem. 1990;8:1-10.
77. Stahl W, Sies H. Uptake of lycopene and its geometrical isomers is greater from heat-processed than from unprocessed tomato juice in humans. J Nutr. 1992;122:2161-2166.
78. Rock CL, Swendseid ME. Plasam beta-carotene response in human after meals supplemented with dietary pectin. Am J Clin Nutr. 1992;55:96-99.
79. Food and Nutrition Board Institute of Medicine. β-carotene and other carotenoids. In: Dietary Reference Intake for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 2000. 325-372.
80. Yeh SL, Hu ML. Antioxidant and pro-oxidant effects of lycopene in consumption with β-carotene on oxidant-induced damage in HS 68 cells. J Nutr Biochem. 2000;11:548-554.
81. Hsing AW, Comstock GW, Abbey H, Polk BF. Serologic precursors of cancer: retinol, carotenoids and tocopherol and risk of prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1990;82:941-946.
82. Le Marchand L, Hankin JH, Kolonel LN, Wilkens LR. Vegetables and fruit consumption in relation to prostate cancer risk in Hawaii: a reevaluation of the effect of dietary beta-carotene. Am J Epidemiol. 1991;133:215-219.
83. Key TJ, Silcocks PB, Davey GK, Appleby PN, Bishop DT. A case-control study of diet and prostate cancer. Br J Cancer. 1997; 76:678-687.
84. Meyer F, Bairati I, Fradet Y, Moore L. Dietary energy and nutrients in relation to preclinical prostate cancer. Nutr Cancer. 1997;29:120-126.
85. Deneo-Pellegrini H, De Stefani E, Ronco A, Mendilaharsu M. Foods, nutrients and prostate cancer: a case-control study in Uruguay. Br J Cancer. 1999;80(3-4):591-597.
86. Hayes RB, Ziegler RG, Gridley G, et al. Dietary factors and risks for prostate cancer among blacks and whites in the United States. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1999;8(1):25-34.
87. Jain MG, Hislop GT, Howe GR, Ghadirian P. Plant foods, antioxidants, and prostate cancer risk: findings from case-control studies in Canada. Nutr Cancer. 1999;34:173-184.
88. Rao AV, Fleshner N, Agarwal S. Serum and tissue lycopene and biomarkers of oxidation in prostate cancer patients: a case-control study. Nutr Cancer. 1999;33:159-164.
89. Tzonou A, Signorello LB, Lagiou P, Wuu J, Trichopoulos D, Trichopoulou A. Diet and cancer of the prostate: a case-control study in Greece. Int J Cancer. 1999;80:704-708.
90. Cohen JH, Kristal AR, Stanford JL. Fruit and vegetable intakes and prostate cancer risk. J Natl Cancer Ints. 2000;92(1):61-68.
91. Norrish AE, Jackson RT, Sharpe SJ, Skeaff CM. Men who consume vegetable oils rich in monounsaturated fat: their dietary patterns and risk of prostate cancer (New Zealand). Cancer Causes Control. 2000;11:609-615.
92. Comstock GW. Re: vasectomy and prostate cancer. Am J Epidemiol. 1991;134:919-922.
93. Baldwin D, Naco G, Petersen F, Fraser G, Ruckle H. The effect of nutritional and clinical factors upon serum prostate specific antigen and prostate cancer in a population of elderly California men [abstract]. Presented at: 1997 Annual Meeting of the American Urological Association; New Orleans, LA.
94. Nomura AM, Stemmermann GN, Lee J, Craft NE. Serum micronutrients and prostate cancer in Japanese Americans in Hawaii. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1997;6:487-491.
95. Cerhan J, Chiu B, Putnam S, et al. A cohort study of diet and prostate cancer risk [abstract]. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1998;7:175.
96. Schuurman AG, Goldbohm RA, Dorant E, van den Brandt PA. Vegetable and fruit consumption and prostate cancer risk: a cohort study in the Netherlands. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1998;7:673-680.
97. Bond GG, Thompson FE, Cook RR. Dietary vitamin A and lung cancer: results of a case-control study among chemical workers. Nutr Cancer. 1987;9(2-3):109-121.
98. Le Marchand L, Yoshizawa CN, Kolonel LN, Hankin JH, Goodman MT. Vegetable consumption and lung cancer risk: a population-based case-control study in Hawaii. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1989;81:1158-1164.
99. Harris RW, Key TJ, Silcocks PB, Bull D, Wald NJ. A case-control study of dietary carotene in men with lung cancer and in men with other epithelial cancers. Nutr Cancer. 1991;15(1):63-68.
100. Candelora EC, Stockwell HG, Armstrong AW, Pinkham PA. Dietary intake and risk of lung cancer in women who never smoked. Nutr Cancer. 1992;17:263-270.
101. Forman MR, Yao SX, Graubard BI, et al. The effect of dietary intake of fruits and vegetables on the odds ratio of lung cancer among Yunnan tin miners. Int J Epidemiol. 1992;21:437-441.
102. Goodman MT, Kolonel LN, Wilkens LR, Yoshizawa CN, Le Marchand L, Hankin JH. Dietary factors in lung cancer prognosis. Eur J Cancer. 1992;28(2-3):495-501.
103. Swanson CA, Mao BL, Li JY, et al. Dietary determinants of lung-cancer risk: results from a case-control study in Yunnan Province, China. Int J Cancer. 1992;50:876-880.
104. Le Marchand L, Hankin JH, Kolonel LN, Beecher GR, Wilkens LR, Zhao LP. Intake of specific carotenoids and lung cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1993;2:183-187.
105. Mayne ST, Janerich DT, Greenwald P, et al. Dietary beta carotene and lung cancer risk in U.S. nonsmokers. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1994;86(1):33-38.
106. Sankaranarayanan R, Varghese C, Duffy SW, Padmakumary G, Day NE, Nair MK. A case-control study of diet and lung cancer in Kerala, south India. Int J Cancer. 1994;58:644-649.
107. Axelsson G, Liljeqvist T, Andersson L, Bergman B, Rylander R. Dietary factors and lung cancer among men in west Sweden. Int J Epidemiol. 1996;25(1):32-39.
108. Ziegler RG, Colavito EA, Hartge P, et al. Importance of alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, and other phytochemicals in the etiology of lung cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1996;88:612-615.
109. Agudo A, Esteve MG, Pallares C, et al. Vegetable and fruit intake and the risk of lung cancer in women in Barcelona, Spain. Eur J Cancer. 1997;33:1256-1261.
110. Garcia-Closas R, Agudo A, Gonzalez CA, Riboli E. Intake of specific carotenoids and flavonoids and the risk of lung cancer in women in Barcelona, Spain. Nutr Cancer. 1998;32:154-158.
111. Kvale G, Bjelke E, Gart JJ. Dietary habits and lung cancer risk. Int J Cancer. 1983;31:397-405.
112. Fraser GE, Beeson WL, Phillips RL. Diet and lung cancer in California Seventh-Day Adventists. Am J Epidemiol. 1991;133:683-693.
113. Knekt P, Jarvinen R, Seppanen R, et al. Dietary antioxidants and the risk of lung cancer. Am J Epidemiol. 1991;134:471-479.
114. Steinmetz KA, Potter JD, Folsom AR. Vegetables, fruit, and lung cancer in the Iowa Women's Health Study. Cancer Res. 1993;53 :536-543.
115. Comstock GW, Alberg AJ, Huang HY, et al. The risk of developing lung cancer associated with antioxidants in the blood: ascorbic acid, carotenoids, alpha-tocopherol, selenium, and total peroxyl radical absorbing capacity. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1997;6:907-916.
116. Knekt P, Jarvinen R, Teppo L, Aromaa A, Seppanen R. Role of various carotenoids in lung cancer prevention. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999;91:182-184.
117. Speizer FE, Colditz GA, Hunter DJ, Rosner B, Hennekens C. Prospective study of smoking, antioxidant intake, and lung cancer in middle-aged women (USA). Cancer Causes Control. 1999;10:475-482.
118. Burney PG, Comstock GW, Morris JS. Serologic precursors of cancer: serum micronutrients and the subsequent risk of pancreatic cancer. Am J Clin Nutr. 1989;49:895-900.
119. Baghurst PA, McMichael AJ, Slavotinek AH, Baghurst KI, Boyle P, Walker AM. A case-control study of diet and cancer of the pancreas. Am J Epidemiol. 1991;134:167-179.
120. Bueno de Mesquita HB, Maisonneuve P, Runia S, Moerman CJ. Intake of foods and nutrients and cancer of the exocrine pancreas: a population-based case-control study in the Netherlands. Int J Cancer. 1991;48:540-549.
121. Mills PK, Beeson WL, Abbey DE, Fraser GE, Phillips RL. Dietary habits and past medical history as related to fatal pancreas cancer risk among Adventists. Cancer. 1988;61:2578-2585.
122. Comstock GW, Helzlsouer KJ, Bush TL. Prediagnostic serum levels of carotenoids and vitamin E as related to subsequent cancer in Washington County, Maryland. Am J Clin Nutr. 1991; 53(suppl 1):S260-S264.
123. Ewertz M, Gill C. Dietary factors and breast-cancer risk in Denmark. Int J Cancer. 1990;46:779-784.
124. Potischman N, McCulloch CE, Byers T, et al. Breast cancer and dietary and plasma concentrations of carotenoids and vitamin A. Am J Clin Nutr. 1990;52:909-915.
125. Levi F, La Vecchia C, Gulie C, Negri E. Dietary factors and breast cancer risk in Vaud, Switzerland. Nutr Cancer. 1993; 19:327-335.
126. Yuan JM, Wang QS, Ross RK, Henderson BE, Yu MC. Diet and breast cancer in Shanghai and Tianjin, China. Br J Cancer. 1995;71:1353-1358.
127. Freudenheim JL, Marshall JR, Vena JE, et al. Premenopausal breast cancer risk and intake of vegetables, fruits, and related nutrients. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1996;88:340-348.
128. Zhang S, Tang G, Russell RM, et al. Measurement of retinoids and carotenoids in breast adipose tissue and a comparison of concentrations in breast cancer cases and control subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;66:626-632.
129. La Vecchia C, Favero A, Franceschi S. Monounsaturated and other types of fat, and the risk of breast cancer. Eur J Cancer Prev. 1998;7:461-464.
130. Potischman N, Weiss HA, Swanson CA, et al. Diet during adolescence and risk of breast cancer among young women. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1998;90:226-233.
131. Jarvinen R, Knekt P, Seppanen R, Teppo L. Diet and breast cancer risk in a cohort of Finnish women. Cancer Lett. 1997;114(1-2):251-253.
132. Dorgan JF, Sowell A, Swanson CA, et al. Relationships of serum carotenoids, retinol, alpha-tocopherol, and selenium with breast cancer risk: results from a prospective study in Columbia, Missouri (USA). Cancer Causes Control 1998;9(1):89-97.
133. Cook-Mozaffari PJ, Azordegan F, Day NE, Ressicaud A, Sabai C, Aramesh B. Esophageal cancer studies in the Caspian Littoral of Iran: results of a case-control study. Br J Cancer 1979;39:293-309.
134. Brown LM, Bolt WJ, Schuman SH, et al. Environmental factors and high risk of esophageal cancer among men in coastal South Carolina. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1988;80:1620-1625.
135. Nomura AM, Ziegler RG, Stemmermann GN, Chyou PH, Craft NE. Serum micronutrients and upper aerodigestive tract cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1997;6:407-412.
136. Franceschi S, Bidoli E, Baron AE, et al. Nutrition and cancer of the oral cavity and pharynx in north-east Italy. Int J Cancer. 1991;47:20-25.
137. Zheng W, Bolt WJ, Shu XO, et al. Diet and other risk factors for laryngeal cancer in Shanghai, China. Am J Epidemiol. 1992; 136:178-191.
138. Zheng T, Boyle P, Willett WC, et al. A case-control study of oral cancer in Beijing, People's Republic of China: associations with nutrient intakes, foods and food groups. European Journal of Cancer B Oral Oncology. 1993;29B:45-55.
139. Zheng W, Blot WJ, Diamond EL, et al. Serum micronutrients and the subsequent risk of oral and pharyngeal cancer. Cancer Res. 1993;53:795-798.
140. Negri E, Franceschi S, Bosetti C, et al. Selected micronutrients and oral and pharyngeal cancer. Int J Cancer. 2000;86:122-127.
141. Kjaerheim K, Gaard M, Andersen A. The role of alcohol, tobacco, and dietary factors in upper aerogastric tract cancers: a prospective study of 10,900 Norwegian men. Cancer Causes Control. 1998;9:99-108.
142. Haenszel W, Kurihara M, Segi M, Lee RK. Stomach cancer among Japanese in Hawaii. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1972;49:969-988.
143. Modan B, Cuckle H, Lubin F. A note on the role of dietary retinal and carotene in human gastro-intestinal cancer. Int J Cancer. 1981;28:421-424.
144. Correa P, Fontham E, Pickle LW, Chen V, Lin YP, Haenszel W. Dietary determinants of gastric cancer in south Louisiana inhabitants. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1985;75:645-654.
145. Tajima K, Tominaga S. Dietary habits and gastro-intestinal cancers: a comparative case-control study of stomach and large intestinal cancers in Nagoya, Japan. Jpn J Cancer Res. 1985; 76:705-716.
146. Buiatti E, Palli D, Decarli A, et al. A case-control study of gastric cancer and diet in Italy. Int J Cancer. 1989;44:611-616.
147. Graham S, Haughey B, Marshall J, et al. Diet in the epidemiology of gastric cancer. Nutr Cancer. 1990;13(1-2):19-34.
148. Boeing H, Jedrychowski W, Wahrendorf J, Popiela T, Tobiasz-Adamczyk B, Kulig A. Dietary risk factors in intestinal and diffuse types of stomach cancer: a multicenter case-control study in Poland. Cancer Causes Control. 1991;2:227-233.
149. Gonzalez CA, Sanz JM, Marcos G, et al. Dietary factors and stomach cancer in Spain: a multi-center case-control study. Int J Cancer. 1991;49:513-519.
150. Tuyns AJ, Kaaks R, Haelterman M, Riboli E. Diet and gastric cancer: a case-control study in Belgium. Int J Cancer. 1992;51:1-6.
151. Ramon JM, Serra L, Cerdo C, Oromi J. Dietary factors and gastric cancer risk: a case-control study in Spain. Cancer. 1993; 71:1731-1735.
152. Hansson LE, Nyren O, Bergstrom R, et al. Diet and risk of gastric cancer: a population-based case-control study in Sweden. Int J Cancer. 1993;55:181-189.
153. Franceschi S, Bidoli E, La Vecchia C, Talamini R, D'Avanzo B, Negri E. Tomatoes and risk of digestive-track cancers. Int J Cancer. 1994;59:181-184.
154. Harrison LE, Zhang ZF, Karpeh MS, Sun M, Kurtz RC. The role of dietary factors in the intestinal and diffuse histologic subtypes of gastric adenocarcinoma: a case-control study in the US. Cancer. 1997;80:1021-1028.
155. Garcia-Closas R, Gonzalez CA, Agudo A, Riboli E. Intake of specific carotenoids and flavonoids and the risk of gastric cancer in Spain. Cancer Causes Control. 1999;10(1):71-75.
156. Botterweck AA, Verhagen H, Goldbohm RA, Kleinjans J, van den Brandt PA. Intake of butylated hydroxyanisole and butylated hydroxytoluene and stomach cancer risk: results from analyses in the Netherlands Cohort Study. Food Chem Toxicol. 2000; 38:599-605.
157. Tuyns AJ, Kaaks R, Haelterman M. Colorectal cancer and the consumption of foods: a case-control study in Belgium. Nutr Cancer. 1988;11:189-204.
158. Freudenheim JL, Graham S, Marshall JR, Haughey BP, Wikinson G. A case-control study of diet and rectal cancer in western New York. Am J Epidemiol. 1990;131:612-624.
159. Hu JF, Liu YY, Yu YK, Zhao TZ, Liu SD, Wang QQ. Diet and cancer of the colon and rectum: a case-control study in China. Int J Epidemiol. 1991;20:362-367.
160. Centonze S, Boeing H, Leoci C, Guerra V, Misciagna G. Dietary habits and colorectal cancer in a low-risk area: results from a population-based case-control study in southern Italy. Nutr Cancer. 1994;21:233-246.
161. Ferraroni M, La Vecchia C, D'Avanzo B, Negri E, Franceschi S, Decarli A. Selected micronutrient intake and the risk of colorectal cancer. Br J Cancer. 1994;70:1150-1155.
162. Slattery ML, Benson J, Curtin K, Ma KN, Schaeffer D, Potter JD. Carotenoids and colon cancer. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;71:575-582.
163. Breslow RA, Alberg AJ, Helzlsouer KJ, et al. Serological precursors of cancer: malignant melanoma, basal and squamous cell skin cancer, and prediagnostic levels of retinol, beta-carotene, lycopene, alpha-tocopherol, and selenium. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1995;4:837-842.
164. Breslow RA, Alberg AJ, Helzlsouer KJ, et al. Serological precursors of cancer: malignant melanoma, basal and squamous cell skin cancer, and prediagnostic levels of retinol, beta-carotene, lycopene, alpha-tocopherol, and selenium. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1995;4:837-842.
165. Helzlsouer KJ, Alberg AJ, Norkus EP, Morris JS, Hoffman SC, Comstock GW, Prospective study of serum micronutrients and ovarian cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1996;88:32-37.