Thiamine deficiency disorders: diagnosis, prevalence, and a roadmap for global control programs

Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences

Volumn 1430, Issue 1, 2018, Pages 3-43

  Whitfield, Kyly C ^a   Bourassa, Megan W ^b   Adamolekun, Bola ^c   Bergeron, Gilles ^b   Bettendorff, Lucien ^d   Brown, Kenneth H ^e   Cox, Lorna ^f   Fattal Valevski, Aviva ^g   Fischer, Philip R ^h   Frank, Elizabeth L ⁱ   Hiffler, Laurent ^j   Hlaing, Lwin Mar ^k   Jefferds, Maria Elena ^l   Kapner, Hallie ^m   Kounnavong, Sengchanh ⁿ   Mousavi, Maral P S ^o   Roth, Daniel E ^p   Tsaloglou, Maria Nefeli ^q   Wieringa, Frank ^r   Combs, Gerald F ^s  

^a MOUNT SAINT VINCENT UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE HEALTH SCIENCE CENTER   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF LIÈGE   (Belgium)

^e BILL AND MELINDA GATES FOUNDATION   (United States)

^f MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL   (United Kingdom)

^g TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY   (Israel)

^h MAYO CLINIC   (United States)

ⁱ UNIVERSITY OF UTAH   (United States)

^j MÉDECINS SANS FRONTIÈRES   (Switzerland)

^k Myanmar Ministry of Health and Sport   (Myanmar)

^l CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION   (United States)

^m Independent contractor   (United States)

ⁿ UNIVERSITY OF HEALTH SCIENCES   (Laos)

^o HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^p HOSPITAL FOR SICK CHILDREN   (Canada)

^q Diagnostics for All Inc   (United States)

^r INSTITUT DE RECHERCHE POUR LE DÉVELOPPEMENT   (France)

^s TUFTS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

more..

Author keywords

beriberi; erythrocyte transketolase; LMIC; nutrition; thiamine deficiency; thiamine diphosphate

Indexed keywords

DIETARY SUPPLEMENT; FORTIFIED FOOD; GLOBAL HEALTH; HUMAN; PREVALENCE; PUBLIC HEALTH; RISK FACTOR; THIAMINE DEFICIENCY;

DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS; FOOD, FORTIFIED; GLOBAL HEALTH; HUMANS; PREVALENCE; PUBLIC HEALTH; RISK FACTORS; THIAMINE DEFICIENCY;

EID: 85052833047     PISSN: 00778923     EISSN: 17496632     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1111/nyas.13919     Document Type: Article

References (221)

1. Najjar, V.A. & E. Holt. 1943. The biosynthesis of thiamine in man and its implications in human nutrition. JAMA 123: 683–684.
2. Tallaksen, C.M.E., A. Sande, T. Bøhmer, et al.1993.Kinetics of thiamin and thiamin phosphate esters in human blood, plasma and urine after 50 mg intravenously or orally. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 44: 73–78.
3. Bettendorff, L., P. Wins & M. Lesourd. 1994. Subcellular localization and compartmentation of thiamine derivatives in rat brain. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1222: 1–6.
4. Berner, L.A., D.R. Keast, R.L. Bailey, et al. 2014. Fortified foods are major contributors to nutrient intakes in diets of US children and adolescents. J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. 114: 1009–1022.e8.
5. Lonsdale, D. 2006. A review of the biochemistry, metabolism and clinical benefits of thiamin(e) and its derivatives. Evid. Based Complement. Alternat. Med. 3: 49–59.
6. Bettendorff, L. & P. Wins. 2009. Thiamin diphosphate in biological chemistry: new aspects of thiamin metabolism, especially triphosphate derivatives acting other than as cofactors. FEBS J. 276: 2917–2925.
7. Manzetti, S., J. Zhang & D. Van Der Spoel. 2014. Thiamin function, metabolism, uptake, and transport. Biochemistry 53: 821–835.
8. Gangolf,M.,J.Czerniecki,M.Radermecker,et al. 2010. Thiamine status in humans and content of phosphorylated thiamine derivatives in biopsies and cultured cells. PLoS One 5: e13616.
9. Thurnham, D.I. 2013. Thiamin: physiology. Encycl. Hum. Nutr. 4: 274–279.
10. Fattal-Valevski, A. 2011. Thiamine (vitamin B1). J. Evid. Based Complement. Alternat. Med. 16: 12–20.
11. FAO & World Health Organization. 2005. Vitamin and Mineral Requirements in Human Nutrition. 2nd ed.: 1–20. Geneva: World Health Organization.
12. Khounnorath, S., K. Chamberlain, A.M. Taylor, et al. 2011. Clinically unapparent infantile thiamin deficiency in Vientiane, Laos. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 5: e969.
13. Coats, D., K. Shelton-Dodge, K. Ou, et al. 2012. Thiamine deficiency in Cambodian infants with and without beriberi. J. Pediatr. 161: 843–847.
14. Lu, J. & E.L. Frank. 2008. Rapid HPLC measurement of thiamine and its phosphate esters in whole blood. Clin. Chem. 54: 901–906.
15. Brin, M. 1964. Erythrocyte as a biopsy tissue for functional evaluation of thiamine adequacy. JAMA 187: 762– 766.
16. Whitfield, K.C., G. Smith, C. Chamnan, et al. 2017. High prevalence of thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency in early childhood among a nationally representative sample of Cambodian women of childbearing age and their children. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 11: e0005814.
17. Talwar, D., H. Davidson, J. Cooney, et al. 2000. Vitamin B(1) status assessed by direct measurement of thiamin pyrophosphate in erythrocytes or whole blood by HPLC: comparison with erythrocyte transketolase activation assay. Clin. Chem. 46: 704–710.
18. Puts, J., M. de Groot, M. Haex, et al. 2015. Simultaneous determination of underivatized vitamin B1 and B6 in whole blood by reversed phase ultra high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. PLoS One 10: e0132018.
19. Interdepartmental Committee on Nutrition for National Defense. 1963. Manual for Nutrition Surveys.2nded.Washington, D.C.: US Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Public Health Services. NIH, US Governemnt Printinting Office.
20. Ihara, H., T. Matsumoto, Y. Shino, et al. 2005. Assay values for thiamine or thiamine phosphate esters in whole blood do not depend on the anticoagulant used. J. Clin. Lab. Anal. 19: 205–208.
21. Collie, J.T.B., R.F. Greaves, O.A.H. Jones, et al. 2017. Vitamin B1 incritically illpatients: needsand challenges. Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. 55: 1652.
22. Floridi, A., M. Pupita, C.A. Palmerini, et al. 1983. Thiamine pyrophosphate determination in whole blood and erythrocytes by high performance liquid chromatography. Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res. 54: 165–171.
23. Hoad, K.E., L.A. Johnson, G.A. Woollard, et al. 2013. Vitamin B1 and B6 method harmonization: comparison of performance between laboratories enrolled in the RCPA Quality Assurance Program. Clin. Biochem. 46: 772– 776.
24. Vuilleumie, J.P., H.E. Keller & E. Keck. 1990. Clinical chemical methods for the routine assessment of the vitamin status in human populations. Part 3: the apoenzyme stimulation tests for vitamin B1, B2 and B6 adapted to the Cobas-Bio analyser. Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res. 60: 126– 135.
25. Bayoumi,R.A.,S.B.Rosalki,R.A.Bayoumi,et al. 1976. Evaluation of methods of coenzyme activation of erythrocyte enzymes for detection of deficiency of vitamins B B2 and B6. Clin. Chem. 22: 327–335.
26. Warnock, L.G. 1970. A new approach to erythrocyte transketolase measurement. J. Nutr. 100: 1057–1062.
27. Turck, D., J.-L. Bresson, A. Flynn, et al. 2016. EFSA scientific opinion on dietary reference values for thiamin. EFSA J. 14: e04653.
28. Herve, C., P. Beyne, P. Lettéron, et al. 1995. Comparison of erythrocyte transketolase activity with thiamine and thiamine phosphate ester levels in chronic alcoholic patients. Clin. Chim. Acta 234: 91–100.
29. Sia, S.K. & L.J. Kricka. 2008. Microfluidics and point-ofcare testing. Lab Chip 8: 1982–1983.
30. Nayak, S., A. Sridhara, R. Melo, et al. 2016. Microfluidicsbased point-of-care test for serodiagnosis of Lyme disease. Sci. Rep. 6: 35069.
31. Rowe, A.A., A.J. Bonham, R.J. White, et al. 2011. CheapStat: an open-source,“Do-It-Yourself” potentiostat for analytical and educational applications. PLoS One 6: e23783.
32. Nemiroski, A., D.C. Christodouleas, J.W. Hennek, et al. 2014. Universal mobile electrochemical detector designed for use in resource-limited applications. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 111: 11984–11989.
33. Dryden, M.D.M. & A.R. Wheeler. 2015. DStat: a versatile, open-source potentiostat for electroanalysis and integration. PLoS One 10: e0140349.
34. Edwards, K.A., W.J. Seog, L. Han, et al. 2016. Highthroughput detection of thiamine using periplasmic bind ing protein-based biorecognition. Anal. Chem. 88: 8248– 8256.
35. Shih, S.C.C., H. Yang, M.J. Jebrail, et al. 2012. Dried blood spot analysis by digital microfluidics coupled to nanoelectrospray ionization mass spectrometry. Anal. Chem. 84: 3731–3738.
36. Lee, S., A.J. Aranyosi, M.D. Wong, et al. 2016. Flexible optoelectronics enabled microfluidics systems with cloud connectivity for point-of-care micronutrient analysis. Biosens. Bioelectron. 78: 290–299.
37. Whitfield, K.C., C.D. Karakochuk, Y. Liu, et al. 2015. Poor thiamin and riboflavin status is common among women of childbearing age in rural and urban Cambodia. J. Nutr. 145: 628–633.
38. Allen, L.H., B. de Benoist, O. Dary, et al. 2006. Guidelines on food fortification with micronutrients. WHO, Geneva.
39. World Health Organization. 1999. Thiamin deficiency and its prevention and control in major emergencies. WHO, Geneva.
40. Moyo, A.A., F.M. Bimbo, K.M. Adeyoyin, et al. 2014. Seasonal ataxia: a case report of a disappearing disease. Afr. Health Sci. 14: 769–771.
41. Ringe, H., M. Schuelke, S. Weber, et al. 2014. Infant botulism: is there an association with thiamine deficiency? Pediatrics 134: e1436–e1440.
42. Hiffler, L., B. Rakotoambinina, N. Lafferty, et al. 2016. Thiamine deficiency in tropical pediatrics: new insights into a neglected but vital metabolic challenge. Front. Nutr. 3: 16.
43. Ahoua, L., W. Etienne, F. Fermon, et al. 2007. Outbreak of beriberi in a prison in Côte d’Ivoire. Food Nutr. Bull. 28: 283–290.
44. Luxemburger, C., N.J. White, F. ter Kuile, et al. 2003. Beriberi: the major cause of infant mortality in Karen refugees. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 97: 251–255.
45. Duce, M., J.M. Escriba, C. Masuet, et al. 2003. Suspected thiamine deficiency in Angola. F. Exch. 26–28.
46. Monira, S., S. Nakamura, K. Gotoh, et al. 2011. Gut microbiota of healthy and malnourished children in Bangladesh. Front. Microbiol. 2: 228.
47. Million, M., A. Diallo & D. Raoult. 2017. Gut microbiota and malnutrition. Microb. Pathog. 106: 128– 138.
48. Allen, L.H. 2012. B vitamins in breast milk: relative importance of maternal status and intake, and effects on infant status and function. Adv. Nutr. 3: 362–369.
49. Peixoto de Lima, L.F., H.P. Leite & J.A.de AC Taddei. 2011. Low blood thiamine concentrations in children upon admission to the intensive care unit: risk factors and prognostic significance. Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 93: 57–61.
50. McConachie, I. & A. Haskew. 1988. Thiamine status after major trauma. Intensive Care Med. 14: 628–631.
51. Krishna, S., A.M. Taylor, W. Supanaranond, et al. 1999. Thiamine deficiency and malaria in adults from southeast Asia. Lancet 353: 546–549.
52. Rosner, E.A., K.D. Strezlecki, J.A. Clark, et al. 2015. Low thiamine levels in children with type 1 diabetes and diabetic ketoacidosis: a pilot study. Pediatr. Crit. Care Med. 16: 114– 118.
53. Donnino, M.W., L.W. Andersen, M. Chase, et al. 2016. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of thiamine as a metabolic resuscitator in septic shock: a pilot study. Crit. Care Med. 44: 360–367.
54. Kauffman, G., D. Coats, S. Seab, et al. 2011. Thiamine deficiency in ill children. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 94: 616– 617.
55. Becker, D.A., L.J. Balcer & S.L. Galetta. 2012. The neurological complications of nutritional deficiency following bariatric surgery. J. Obes. 2012: 608534.
56. Luong, K.V.Q. & L.T.H. Nguyễn. 2013. The role of thiamine in HIV infection. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 17: e221–e227.
57. Mouly, S. 1996. Beri-beri and thiamine deficiency in HIV infection. AIDS 10: 931.
58. Hiffler, L., B. Adamolekun, P.R. Fischer, et al. 2017. Thiamine content of F-75 therapeutic milk for complicated severe acute malnutrition: time for a change? Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1404: 20–26.
59. Thurnham, D.I. 2013. Thiamin: beriberi. Encycl. Hum. Nutr. 4: 264–273.
60. Wyatt, T., D. Nelson & E. Hillman. 1991. Age-dependent changes blood and cerebrospinal in thiamin concentrations in whole fluid in infants and children. Am.J.Clin.Nutr.53: 530–536.
61. Carpenter, K.J. 2000. Beriberi, White Rice, and Vitamin B: ADisease,ACause,ACure. Berkeley, CA: University of Califormia Press.
62. McGready, R., J.A. Simpson, T. Cho, et al. 2001. Postpartum thiamine deficiency in a Karen displaced population. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 74: 808–813.
63. Barennes, H., K. Sengkhamyong, J.P. René, et al. 2015. Beriberi (thiamine deficiency) and high infant mortality in Northern Laos. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 9: 1–16.
64. Soukaloun, D., S. Kounnavong, B. Pengdy, et al. 2003. Dietary and socio-economic factors associated with beriberi in breastfed Lao infants. Ann. Trop. Paediatr. 23: 181–186.
65. Khounnorath, S., K. Chamberlain, A.M. Taylor, et al. 2011. Clinically unapparent infantile thiamin deficiency in Vientiane, Laos. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 5: 19–21.
66. Porter, S.G., D. Coats, P.R. Fischer, et al. 2014. Thiamine deficiency and cardiac dysfunction in Cambodian infants. J. Pediatr. 164: 1456–1461.
67. Tang, C.M., J.C. Wells, M. Rolfe, et al. 1989. Outbreak of beri-beri in The Gambia. Lancet 334: 206–207.
68. Tajahmady, A., I. Quatresous, D. Sissoko, et al. 2004. Une épidémie de béribéri infantile à Mayotte, avril–juillet 2004. Bull. Epidemiol. Hebdo. 45: 213–214.
69. Niles, E.J., C. Huppatz & K. Beck. 2015. WHO report for Kiribati Ministry of Health & medical services outbreak of thiamine deficiency disease.
70. Macias-Matos, C., A. Rodriguez-Ojea, N. Chi, et al. 1996. Biochemical evidence of thiamine depletion during the Cuban neuropathy epidemic, 1992–1993. Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 64: 347–353.
71. Keating, E.M., P. Nget, S. Kea, et al. 2014. Thiamine deficiency in tachypnoeic Cambodian infants. Paediatr. Int. Child Health 35: 312–318.
72. Saya, R.P., S. Baikunje, P.S. Prakash, et al. 2012. Clinical correlates and outcome of shoshin beriberi. N. Am. J. Med. Sci. 4: 503–506.
73. Xin,Y.,D.H.Wan,Q.Chu,et al. 2011. Severe sepsis as an initial presentation in children with Wernicke’s encephalopathy: report of a case and literature review. Chin. J. Pediatr. 49: 612–616.
74. Bhat, J.I., H.A. Rather, A.A. Ahangar, et al. 2017. Shoshin beriberi–thiamine responsive pulmonary hypertension in exclusively breastfed infants: a study from northern India. Indian Heart J. 69: 24–27.
75. Qureshi, U.A., A. Sami, U. Altaf, et al. 2016. Thiamine responsive acute life threatening metabolic acidosis in exclusively breast-fed infants. Nutrition 32: 213–216.
76. Murase, C., N. Otowa, J. Minami, et al. 2013. Shoshin beirberi in a young man living on Japanese rice balls. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 28: S390.
77. Wani, N.A., U.A. Qureshi, K. Ahmad, et al. 2016. Cranial ultrasonography in infantile encephalitic beriberi: a useful first-line imaging tool for screening and diagnosis in suspected cases. Am. J. Neuroradiol. 37: 1535–1540.
78. Narasimha Rao, S., S. Mani, K. Madap, et al. 2008. High prevalence of infantile encephalitic beriberi with overlapping features of Leigh’s disease. J. Trop. Pediatr. 54: 328–332.
79. Qureshi, U.A., N.A. Wani, K. Ahmad, et al. 2015. Infantile Wernicke’s encephalopathy. Arch. Dis. Child. 100: 648.
80. McCandless, D.W. 2009. Thiamine Deficiency and Associated Clinical Disorders. InContemporary Clinical Neuroscience Series. pp. 31–46. New York, NY: Humana Press.
81. Lallas, M. & J. Desai. 2014. Wernicke encephalopathy in children and adolescents. World J. Pediatr. 10: 293–298.
82. Kesler, A., C. Stolovitch, C. Hoffmann, et al. 2005. Acute ophthalmoplegia and nystagmus in infants fed a thiaminedeficient formula: an epidemic of Wernicke encephalopathy. J. Neuro ophthalmol. 25: 169–172.
83. Isenberg-Grzeda, E., H.E. Kutner & S.E. Nicolson. 2012. Wernicke–Korsakoff-syndrome: under-recognized and under-treated. Psychosomatics 53: 507–516.
84. Lavoie, J. & R.F. Butterworth. 1995. Reduced activities of thiamine-dependent enzymes in brains of alcoholics in the absence of Wernicke’s encephalopathy. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 19: 1073–1077.
85. Butterworth, R.F., C. Gaudreau, J. Vincelette, et al. 1991. Thiamine deficiency and Wernicke’s encephalopathy in AIDS. Metab. Brain Dis. 6: 207–212.
86. Ogershok, P.R., A. Rahman, S. Nestor, et al. 2002. Wernicke encephalopathy in nonalcoholic patients. Am. J. Med. Sci. 323: 107–111.
87. Kornreich, L., E. Bron-Harlev, C. Hoffmann, et al. 2005. Thiamine deficiency in infants: MR findings in the brain. Am.J.Neuroradiol.26: 1668–1674.
88. Adamolekun, B. 2011. Neurological disorders associated with cassava diet: a review of putative etiological mechanisms. Metab. Brain Dis. 26: 79–85.
89. Monekosso, G.L., W.G.T. Annan & P.H. Ashby. 1964. Therapeutic effect of vitamin B complex on an ataxic syndrome in western Nigeria. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 58: 432– 436.
90. Adamolekun, B. 2010. Etiology of Konzo, epidemic spastic paraparesis associated with cyanogenic glycosides in cassava: role of thiamine deficiency? J. Neurol. Sci. 296: 30–33.
91. Nzwalo, H. & J. Cliff. 2011. Konzo: from poverty, cassava, and cyanogen intake to toxico-nutritional neurological disease. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 5: 1–8.
92. Adamolekun, B., D.W. McCandless & R.F. Butterworth. 1997. Epidemic of seasonal ataxia in Nigeria following injestion of the African Silkworm Anaphe venata: roleof thiamine deficiency? Metab. Brain Dis. 12: 251–258.
93. Adamolekun, B. & D.A. Ndububa. 1994. Epidemiology and clinical presentation of a seasonal ataxia in Western Nigeria. J. Neurol. Sci. 124: 95–98.
94. Mimouni-Bloch, A., H. Goldberg-Stern, R. Strausberg, et al. 2014. Thiamine deficiency in infancy: long-term follow-up. Pediatr. Neurol. 51: 311–316.
95. Fattal-Valevski, A., A. Bloch-Mimouni, S. Kivity, et al. 2009. Epilepsy in children with infantile thiamine deficiency. Neurology 73: 828–833.
96. Fattal, I., N. Friedmann & A. Fattal-Valevski. 2011. The crucial role of thiamine in the development of syntax and lexical retrieval: a study of infantile thiamine deficiency. Brain 134: 1720–1739.
97. Harel, Y., L. Zuk, M. Guindy, et al. 2017. The effect of subclinical infantile thiamine deficiency on motor function in preschool children. Matern. Child Nutr. 13. https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12397.
98. Fattal-Valevski, A., A. Kesler, B.-A. Sela, et al. 2005. Outbreak of life-threatening thiamine deficiency in infants in Israel caused by a defective soy-based formula. Pediatrics 115: e233–e238.
99. Nosten, F.H. 2015. Beriberi in Cambodia. Paediatr. Int. Child Health 34: 283–284.
100. Whitfield, K.C., C.D. Karakochuk, H. Kroeun, et al. 2016. Perinatal consumption of thiamine-fortified fish sauce in rural Cambodia: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Pediatr. 170: e162065.
101. National Institute of Statistics, Directorate General for Health & ICF International. 2015. Cambodia demographic and health survey 2014. Phnom Penh, Cambodia and Rockville, Maryland.
102. Raghavan, R., F.S. Ashour & R. Bailey. 2016. A review of cutoffs for nutritional biomarkers. Adv. Nutr. 7: 112– 120.
103. van der Westhuyzen, J., N.P. Steyn, G.C. Icke, et al. 1988. Thiamin intakes and erythrocyte thiamin levels in elevenyear-old children in the Western Cape. Trop.Geogr.Med. 40: 218–222.
104. Bailey, A.L., P.M. Finglas, A.J. Wright, et al. 1994. Thiamin intake, erythrocyte transketolase (EC 2.2.1.1) activity and total erythrocyte thiamin in adolescents. Br.J.Nutr.72: 111–125.
105. Mancinelli, R., M. Ceccanti, M.S. Guiducci, et al. 2003. Simultaneous liquid chromatographic assessment of thiamine, thiamine monophosphate and thiamine diphosphate in human erythrocytes: a study on alcoholics. J. Chromatogr. B Analyt. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci. 789: 355–363.
106. Bailey, A.L. & P.M. Finglas. 1990. A normal phase high performance liquid chromatographic method for the determination of thiamin in blood and tissue samples. J. Micronutr. Anal. 7: 147–57.
107. Gibson, R.S. 2005. Principles of Nutritional Assessment. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
108. Whitfield, K.C., C.D. Karakochuk, H. Kroeun, et al. 2017. Household consumption of thiamin-fortified fish sauce increases erythrocyte thiamin concentrations among rural Cambodian women and their children younger than 5 years of age: a randomized controlled efficacy trial. J. Pediatr. 181: 242–247.e2.
109. Coats, D., E.L. Frank, J.M. Reid, et al. 2013. Thiamine pharmacokinetics in Cambodian mothers and their breastfed infants. Am.J.Clin.Nutr.98: 839–844.
110. Rindi, G. & U. Laforenza. 2000. Thiamine intestinal transport and related issues: recent aspects. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 224: 246–255.
111. Morrison, A.B. & J.A. Campbell. 1960. Vitamin absorption studies. 1. Factors influencing the excretion of oral test doses of thiamine and riboflavin by human subjects. J. Nutr. 72: 435–440.
112. Davis, R.E., G.C. Icke, J. Thom, et al. 1984. Intestinal absorption of thiamin in man compared with folate and pyridoxal and its subsequent urinary excretion. J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. 30: 475–482.
113. The Republic of the Union of Myanmar Ministry of Health & UNICEF. 2014. Study on cause of under-five mortality.
114. Wani, N.A., U.A. Qureshi, M. Jehangir, et al. 2016. Infantile encephalitic beriberi: magnetic resonance imaging findings. Pediatr. Radiol. 46: 96–103.
115. McKenna, L.A., R.S. Drummond, S. Drummond, et al. 2013. Seeing double: the low carb diet. Br.Med.J.346: f2563.
116. Beal, T., E. Massiot, J.E. Arsenault, et al. 2017. Global trends in dietary micronutrient supplies and estimated prevalence of inadequate intakes. PLoS One 12: e0175554.
117. Butterworth, R.F. 2001. Maternal thiamine deficiency: still a problem in some world communities. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 74: 712–713.
118. Mayxay, M., A.M. Taylor, M. Khanthavong, et al. 2007. Thiamin deficiency and uncomplicated falciparum malaria in Laos. Trop. Med. Int. Health 12: 363–369.
119. Soukaloun, D., S.J. Lee, K. Chamberlain, et al. 2011. Erythrocyte transketolase activity, markers of cardiac dysfunction and the diagnosis of infantile beriberi. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 5: e971.
120. FAO. FAOSTAT. Food balance sheet Cambodia. 2011. Accessed July 8, 2018. http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/# country/115.
121. Carriquiry, A.L. 1999. Assessing the prevalence of nutrient inadequacy. Public Health Nutr. 2: 23–34.
122. Institute of Medicine (US) Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes and Its Panel on Folate, Other B Vitamins, and Choline. 1998. Thiamin. In Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline. pp. 58–86. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
123. Gibson, R.S. & T. Cavalli-Sforza. 2012. Using reference nutrient density goals with food balance sheet data to identify likely micronutrient deficits for fortification planning in countries in the Western Pacific region. Food Nutr. Bull. 33: 214–220.
124. Dary, O. & Z.R. Jariseta. 2013. Validation of dietary applications of Household Consumption and Expenditures Surveys (HCES) against a 24-hour recall method in Uganda. Food Nutr. Bull. 33: S190–S198.
125. Coates, J., W.F.L. Bell, O.I. Bermudez, et al. 2017. Getting the food list “right”: leveraging household consumption and expenditure surveys for food security and nutrition. FASEB J. 31: 756–786.
126. Binkley, N., C.T. Sempos & V.D.S.P. (VDSP). 2014. Standardizing vitamin D assays: the way forward. J. Bone Miner. Res. 29: 1709–1714.
127. Dwyer, J.T., K.L. Wiemer, O. Dary, et al. 2015. Fortification and health: challenges and opportunities. Adv. Nutr. 6: 124– 131.
128. Smith, G. 2015. Micronutrient fortification of food: issues for Asia. J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. 61(Suppl.): S183– S185.
129. Hurrell, R. 1999. The Mineral Fortification of Foods.Surrey: Leatherhead Publishing.
130. Rosenberg, I.H., S.A. Abrams, G.R. Beecher, et al. 2004. Dietary reference intakes: guiding principles for nutrition labeling and fortification. Nutr. Rev. 62: 73–79.
131. Dijkhuizen, M.A., F.T. Wieringa, D. Soekarjo, et al. 2013. Legal framework for food fortification: examples from Vietnam and Indonesia. Food Nutr. Bull. 34: S112–S123.
132. Harper, C.G., D.L. Sheedy, A.I. Lara, et al. 1998. Prevalence of Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome in Australia: has thiamine fortification made a difference? Med. J. Aust. 168: 542–545.
133. Swaminathan, S., T. Thomas & A.V. Kurpad. 2015. B vitamin interventions for women and children in lowincome populations. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 18: 295–306.
134. Hess, S.Y., K.H. Brown, M. Sablah, et al. 2013. Results of Fortification Rapid Assessment Tool (FRAT) surveys in sub-Saharan Africa and suggestions for future modifications of the survey instrument. Food Nutr. Bull. 34: 21–38.
135. Khanh Van, T., K. Burja, T. Thuy Nga, et al. 2014. Organoleptic qualities and acceptability of fortified rice in two Southeast Asian countries. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1324: 48–54.
136. Institute of Medicine. 1998. Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic acid, Biotin, and Choline. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
137. Wirth, J.P., A. Laillou, F. Rohner, et al. 2012. Lessons learned from national food fortification projects: experiences from Morocco, Uzbekistan, and Vietnam. Food Nutr. Bull. 33: S281–S292.
138. Montgomery, S., J. Rosenzweig & J. Smit. 2014. Technology for rice fortification. Accessed: July 8, 2018. https://sightandlife.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/SAL_WFP_RiceFort_LatinAm-Technology.pdf.
139. Wieringa, F.T., A. Laillou, C. Guyondet, et al. 2014. Stability and retention of micronutrients in fortified rice prepared using different cooking methods. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1324: 40–47.
140. Otten, J., J. Hellwig & L. Meyers, Eds. 2006. Dietary Reference Intakes: the Essential Guide to Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC National Academies Press.
141. Preedy, V.R., R. Srirajaskanthan & V.B. Patel. 2013. Handbook of Food Fortification and Health.1sted.NewYork,NY: Humana Press.
142. Steyn, N.P., P. Wolmarans, J.H. Nel, et al. 2008. National fortification of staple foods can make a significant contribution to micronutrient intake of South African adults. Public Health Nutr. 11: 307–313.
143. Cambodia Ministry of Planning. National Council of Nutrition. 2012. Proclamation for the production and consumption of iron fortified fish sauce and soy sauce. No.048 NCN. Phnom Penh.
144. Theary, C., D. Panagides, A. Laillou, et al. 2013. Fish sauce, soy sauce, and vegetable oil fortification in Cambodia: where do we stand to date? Food Nutr. Bull. 34: S62– S71.
145. Van Thuy, P., J. Berger, Y. Nakanishi, et al. 2005. The use of NaFeEDTA-fortified fish sauce is an effective tool for controlling iron deficiency in women of childbearing age in rural Vietnam. J. Nutr. 135: 2596–2601.
146. Van Thuy, P., J. Berger, L. Davidsson, et al. 2003. Regular consumption of NaFeEDTA-fortified fish sauce improves iron status and reduces the prevalence of anemia in anemic Vietnamese women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 78: 284–290.
147. Chavasit, V., S. Tuntipopipat & R. Watanapaisantrakul. 2013. Fortification of fish sauce and soy sauce. In Handbook of Food Fortification and Health. V. Preedy, R. Srirajaskanthan & V. Patel, Eds.: 113–125. New York, NY: Humana Press.
148. Laillou, A., S. Pfanner, T. Chan, et al. 2016. Beyond effectiveness—the adversities of implementing a fortification program. A case study on the quality of iron fortification of fish and soy sauce in Cambodia. Nutrients 8: 94.
149. World Health Organization. 2014. Guideline: fortification of food-grade salt with iodine for the prevention and control of iodine deficiency disorders. World Health Organization, Geneva.
150. Sultan, S., F.M. Anjum, M.S. Butt, et al. 2014. Concept of double salt fortification; a tool to curtail micronutrient deficiencies and improve human health status. J. Sci. Food Agric. 94: 2830–2838.
151. Vinodkumar, M. & S. Rajagopalan. 2009. Multiple micronutrient fortification of salt. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 63: 437–445.
152. Laillou, A., B. Mam, S. Oeurn, et al. 2015. Iodized salt in Cambodia: trends from 2008 to 2014. Nutrients 7: 4189– 4198.
153. Pachón, H., C. Fabrizio & J. Rosenzweig. 2014. Addressing myths and misconceptions about rice fortification. Accessed: July 8, 2018. https://sightandlife. org/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/SAL_WFP_RiceFort_ LatinAm-Addressing-Myths-and-Misconceptions.pdf.
154. Pourcel, L., M. Moulin & T.B. Fitzpatrick. 2013. Examining strategies to facilitate vitamin B1 biofortification of plants by genetic engineering. Front. Plant Sci. 4: 160.
155. Goyer, A. 2016. Thiamin biofortification of crops. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 44: 1–7.
156. Bemeur, C. & R.F. Butterworth. 2014. Thiamin. In Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease. 11th ed. A.C. Ross, B. Calallero, R.J. Cousins, et al. Eds.: 317–324. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
157. Kramer, M.S. & R. Kakuma. 2004. The optimal duration of exclusive breastfeeding: a systematic review. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 54: 63–77.
158. Stuetz, W., V.I. Carrara, R. McGready, et al. 2012. Micronutrient status in lactating mothers before and after introduction of fortified flour: cross-sectional surveys in Maela refugee camp. Eur. J. Nutr. 51: 425–434.
159. Prentice, A.M., S.B. Roberts, A. Prentice, et al. 1983. Dietary supplementation of lactating Gambian women. I. Effect on breast-milk volume and quality. Hum. Nutr. Clin. Nutr. 37: 53–64.
160. Deodhar, A.D., R. Rajalakshmi & C.V. Ramakrishnan. 1964. Studies on human lactation part III: effect of dietary vitamin supplementation on vitamin contents of breast milk. Acta Paediatr. 53: 42–48.
161. Ortega, R.M., R.M. Martínez, P. Andrés, et al. 2004. Thiamin status during the third trimester of pregnancy and its influence on thiamin concentrations in transition and mature breast milk. Br. J. Nutr. 92: 129–135.
162. Barennes, H., C. Simmala, P. Odermatt, et al. 2009. Postpartum traditions and nutrition practices among urban Lao women and their infants in Vientiane, Lao PDR. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 63: 323–331.
163. Dewey, K.G. & K.H. Brown. 2003. Update on technical issues concerning complementary feeding of young children in developing countries and implications for intervention programs. Food Nutr. Bull. 24: 5–28.
164. Ferguson, E.L., N. Darmon, A. Briend, et al. 2004. Foodbased dietary guidelines can be developed and tested using linear programming analysis. J. Nutr. 134: 951–957.
165. Ferguson, E., N. Darmon & U. Fahmida. 2008. Formulate and evaluate population-specific complementary feeding recommendations using linear programming. Sight Life Mag. 3: 13–18.
166. Hlaing, L.M., U. Fahmida, M.K. Htet, et al. 2016. Local food-based complementary feeding recommendations developed by the linear programming approach to improve the intake of problem nutrients among 12– 23-month-old Myanmar children. Br.J.Nutr.116: S16– S26.
167. Vanier, N.L., R.T. Paraginski, J.D.J. Berrios, et al. 2015. Thiamine content and technological quality properties of parboiled rice treated with sodium bisulfite: benefits and food safety risk. J. Food Compos. Anal. 41: 98–103.
168. Khush, G.S. 1997. Origin, dispersal, cultivation and variation of rice. Plant Mol. Biol. 35: 25–34.
169. Bosma, R.H., H.M.J. Udo, J.A.J. Verreth, etal. 2005. Agriculture diversification in the Mekong Delta: farmers’ motives and contributions to livelihoods. Asian J. Agric. Dev. 2: 49–66.
170. Lemke, U., M. Mergenthaler, R. Rössler, et al. 2008. Pig production in Vietnam—a review. Pig News Inf. 29: 1R.
171. Pillaiyar, P. 1981. Household parboiling of parboiled rice. Kishan World 8: 20–22.
172. Janssen, M.M.T. 1997. Antinutritives. In Food Safety and Toxicity. J. de Vries, Ed.: 39–52. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
173. Vimokesant, S., S. Kunjara, K. Rungruangsak, et al. 1982. Beriberi caused by antithiamin factors in food and its prevention. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 378: 123–136.
174. Dzed, L., T. Dorji, D. Pelzom, et al. 2015. Status of thiamin deficiency in boarding school children from seven districts in Bhutan with previous history of peripheral neuropathy outbreaks: a cohort study. Bhutan Health J. 1: 49–56.
175. Dzed, L., S. Thinley, D. Tshomo, et al. 2016. Investigation of suspected peripheral neuropathy outbreak in Dechentsemo Central School, Thinleygang, Punakha. Public Health Indonesia 2: 118–124.
176. Temu, P., V.J. Temple, A. Saweri, et al. 2009. Thiamine (vitamin B1) status of boarding school students in the Southern Region of Papua New Guinea. P.N.G. Med. J. 52: 21–27.
177. Khampitak, T., J. Knowles, P. Yongvanit, et al. 2006. Thiamine deficiency and parasitic infection in rural Thai children. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 37: 441–445.
178. Doung-Ngern, P., S. Kesornsukhon, J. Kanlayanaphotporn, et al. 2007. Beriberi outbreak among commercial fishermen, Thailand 2005. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 38: 130–135.
179. Nguyen, P.H., M. Young, I. Gonzalez-Casanova, et al. 2016. Impact of preconception micronutrient supplementation on anemia and iron status during pregnancy and postpartum: a randomized controlled trial in rural Vietnam. PLoS One 11: 1–9.
180. Chen, K.T., S.J. Twu, S.T. Chiou, et al. 2003. Outbreak of beriberi among illegal mainland Chinese immigrants at a detention center in Taiwan. Public Health Rep. 118: 59–64.
181. Naidoo, D.P. 1987. Beriberi heart disease in Durban A retrospective study. S. African Med. J. 72: 241–244.
182. Watson, J.T., H. Bushra, E.J. Lebo, et al. 2011. Outbreak of beriberi among African union troops in Mogadishu, Somalia. PLoS One 6: e28345.
183. Rolfe, M., R.W. Walker, K.N. Samba, et al. 1993. Urban beri-beri in The Gambia, West Africa. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 87: 114–115.
184. Thurnham, D.I., A.E. Cathcart & M.B.E. Livingstone. 2011. A retrospective investigation of thiamin and energy intakes following an outbreak of beriberi in the Gambia. Nutrients 3: 135–151.
185. Aké-Tano, O., E.Y. Konan, E.O. Tetchi, et al. 2011. Le béribéri, maladie nutritionnelle récurrente en milieu carcéral en Côte-d’Ivoire. Bull. Soc. Pathol. Exot. 104: 347– 351.
186. de Montmollin D., J. McMahon, et al. 2002. Outbreak of beri-beri in a prison in West Africa. Trop. Doct. 32: 234–236.
187. International Committee of the Red Cross. 2016. Guinea: Building better conditions in prisons. Accessed May 30, 2018. https://www.icrc.org/en/document/guineabuilding-better-conditions-prisons.
188. Darcel, F., C. Roussin, J.-M. Vallat, et al. 2009. Polyneuropathies in vitamin B1 deficiency in Reunion and Mayotte islands in 70 patients of Maori and Comorian descent. Bull. Soc. Pathol. Exot. 102: 167–172.
189. Cerroni, M.P., J.C.S. Barrado, A.A. Nobrega, et al. 2010. Outbreak of beriberi in an Indian population of the Upper Amazon Region, Roraima State, Brazil, 2008. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 83: 1093–1097.
190. Nacher, M., M. Ville, B. Guarmit, et al. 2017. A large outbreak of thiamine deficiency among illegal gold miners in French Guiana. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 96: 1248– 1252.
191. Padilha, E.M., E. Fujimori, A.L.V. Borges, et al. 2011. Perfil epidemiológicodoberibéri notificado de 2006 a 2008 no Estado do Maranhão, Brasil. Cad. Saude Publica 27: 449– 459.
192. Martínez, M., G. Román, F. De La Hoz, et al. 1996. Estudio clínico y epidemiológico de un brote de beriberi húmedo en Cartagena de Indias, Colombia, 1992–1993. Biomedica 16: 41–51.
193. Jaruratanasirikul, S., P. Sangsupawanich, O. Koranantakul, et al. 2009. Influence of maternal nutrient intake and weight gain on neonatal birth weight: a prospective cohort study in southern Thailand. J. Matern. Neonatal Med. 22: 1045– 1050.
194. Piammongkol, S., G.C. Marks, G. Williams, et al. 2004. Food and nutrient consumption patterns in third trimester Thai-Muslim pregnant women in rural Southern Thailand. Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr. 13: 236–241.
195. Sukchan, P., T. Liabsuetrakul, V. Chongsuvivatwong, et al. 2010. Inadequacy of nutrients intake among pregnant women in the Deep South of Thailand. BMC Public Health 10: 572.
196. Peng, Y., T. Zhou, Q. Wang, et al. 2009. Fatty acid composition of diet, cord blood and breast milk in Chinese mothers with different dietary habits. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 81: 325–330.
197. Zhang, F., C. Yi, G. Fang, et al. 2010. Dietary intakes and behaviours in pregnant women of Li ethnicity: a comparison of mountainous and coastal populations in southern China. Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr. 19: 236–242.
198. Ma, A., X. Chen, M. Zheng, et al. 2002. Iron status and dietary intake of Chinese pregnant women with anaemia in the third trimester. Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr. 11: 171–175.
199. Liu, F.-L., Y.-M. Zhang, G.V. Parés, et al. 2015. Nutrient intakes of pregnant women and their associated factors in eight cities of china: a cross-sectional study. Chin. Med. J. 128: 1778–1786.
200. Persson, V., A. Winkvist, T. Ninuk, et al. 2001. Variability in nutrient intakes among pregnant women in Indonesia: implications for the design of epidemiological studies using the 24-h recall method. J. Nutr. 131: 325–330.
201. Henjum, S., L.E. Torheim, A.L. Thorne-Lyman, et al. 2015. Low dietary diversity and micronutrient adequacy among lactating women in a peri-urban area of Nepal. Public Health Nutr. 18: 3201–3210.
202. Ghosh-Jerath, S., N. Devasenapathy, A. Singh, et al. 2015. Ante natal care (ANC) utilization, dietary practices and nutritional outcomes in pregnant and recently delivered womeninurbanslumsofDelhi,India:anexploratory cross-sectional study. Reprod. Health 12: 20.
203. Jood, S., S. Bishnoi & N. Khetarpaul. 2002. Nutritional status of rural pregnant women of Haryana state, Northern India. Nutr. Health 16: 121–131.
204. Paramjit, Kla. & R. Puri. 1996. Impact of nutrition education on food and nutrient intake of pregnant women. Indian J. Matern. Child Health 7: 11–15.
205. Purushothaman, V., U. Kupputhai & N.D. Meenakshi. 1988. Nutritional profile of selected expectant mothers and the cost of pregnancy. Indian J. Nutr. Diet. 25: 247.
206. Dahiya, S. 2002. Nutritional status assessment of pregnant women from Hisar city of Haryana. Nutr. Health 16: 239– 247.
207. Panwar, B. & D. Punia. 1998. Nutrient intake of rural pregnant women of Haryana State, Northern India: relationship between income and education. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 49: 391–395.
208. Pobocik, R.S., G.M. Heathcote, J.B. Spiers, et al. 2000. Nutritional and anthropometric assessment of a sample of pregnant women and young children in Palau. Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr. 9: 102–114.
209. Esmaillzadeh, A., S. Samareh & L. Azadbakht. 2008. Dietary patterns among pregnant women in the west-north of Iran. Pak. J. Biol. Sci. 11: 793–796.
210. Huybregts, L.F., D.A. Roberfroid, P.W. Kolsteren, et al. 2009. Dietary behaviour, food and nutrient intake of pregnant women in a rural community in Burkina Faso. Matern. Child Nutr. 5: 211–222.
211. Belgnaoui, S. & R. Belahsen. 2006. Nutrient intake and food consumption among pregnant women from an agricultural region of Morocco. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 57: 19–27.
212. Nti, C.A., P.M. Larweh & Y. Gyemfua-Yeboah. 2002. Food consumption patterns, dietary quality and health status of expectant mothers: case studies in suburban and rural communities in Ghana. Int. J. Consum. Stud. 26: 7–14.
213. Kirksey, A., T. Wachs, F. Yunis, et al. 1994. Relation of maternal zinc nutriture to pregnancy and infant development in an Egyptian village. Am.J.Clin.Nutr.60: 782– 792.
214. Suarez-Ortegón, M.F., M. Mosquera, D.M. Caicedo, et al. 2013. Nutrients intake as determinants of blood lead and cadmium levels in Colombian pregnant women. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 25: 344–350.
215. Gyorkos, T.W., H. Shenker, R. Larocque, et al. 2004. Sociodemographic and dietary correlates of anemia in pregnant women in Peru. Ecol. Food Nutr. 43: 497– 516.
216. Sacco, L.M., L.E. Caulfield, N. Zavaleta, et al. 2003. Dietary pattern and usual nutrient intakes of Peruvian women during pregnancy. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 57: 1492– 1497.
217. Isela, R., R. Hernández, G.R. Quechol, et al. 2005. Alimentación y estado nutricio de mujeres embarazadas derechohabientes del Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social en un área suburbana de la Ciudad de México. Ginecol. Obs. Mex. 73: 3–10.
218. Barbieri, P., R.Y. Nishimura, L.C. Crivellenti, et al. 2012. Relative validation of a quantitative FFQ for use in Brazilian pregnant women. Public Health Nutr. 16: 1–8.
219. Eliana Duran, F., A. Delia Soto, T. Ana Maria Labrana, et al. 2007. Dietetic adequation of micronutrients in pregnant women. Rev. Chil. Nutr. 34: 321.
220. Weigel, M., W. Narvaez, A. Lopez, et al. 1991. Prenatal diet, nutrient intake and pregnancy outcome in urban Ecuadorian primiparas. Arch. Latinoam. Nutr. 41: 21–37.
221. Adamolekun, B. & L. Hiffler. 2017. A diagnosis and treatment gap for thiamine deficiency disorders in sub-Saharan Africa? Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1408: 15–19.