Vitamin D in autoimmunity: Molecular mechanisms and therapeutic potential

Frontiers in Immunology

Volumn 7, Issue JAN, 2017, Pages

  Dankers, Wendy ^a   Colin, Edgar M ^a,b   van Hamburg, Jan Piet ^a   Lubberts, Erik ^a  

^a ERASMUS MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

^b ZGT   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Autoimmune disease; B cells; Dendritic cells; Macrophages; Supplementation; T cells; Vitamin D

Indexed keywords

25 HYDROXYVITAMIN D; COLECALCIFEROL; PLACEBO; VITAMIN D; VITAMIN D BINDING PROTEIN;

ANTIBODY PRODUCTION; ANTIGEN PRESENTATION; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; AUTOIMMUNITY; CD4+ T LYMPHOCYTE; CD8+ T LYMPHOCYTE; CROHN DISEASE; CYTOKINE RELEASE; DENDRITIC CELL; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; GENETIC POLYMORPHISM; HUMAN; IMMUNOMODULATION; INNATE IMMUNITY; INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; MULTICENTER STUDY (TOPIC); MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS; NONHUMAN; PERIPHERAL BLOOD MONONUCLEAR CELL; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REGULATORY T LYMPHOCYTE; REVIEW; RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS; SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS; VITAMIN D METABOLISM; VITAMIN SUPPLEMENTATION;

EID: 85012073966     PISSN: None     EISSN: 16643224     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2016.00697     Document Type: Review

References (248)

1. Lerner A, Jeremias P, Matthias T. The world incidence and prevalence of autoimmune diseases is increasing. Int J Celiac Dis (2015) 3(4):151-5. doi: 10.12691/ijcd-3-4-8.
2. Chang C. Unmet needs in the treatment of autoimmunity: from aspirin to stem cells. Autoimmun Rev (2014) 13(4-5):331-46. doi:10.1016/j.autrev.2014.01.052.
3. Christakos S, Ajibade DV, Dhawan P, Fechner AJ, Mady LJ. Vitamin D: metabolism. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am (2010) 39(2):243-53. doi:10.1016/j.ecl.2010.02.002.
4. Pike JW, Meyer MB. The vitamin D receptor: new paradigms for the regulation of gene expression by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3). Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am (2010) 39(2):255-69. doi:10.1016/j.ecl.2010.02.007.
5. Heikkinen S, Vaisanen S, Pehkonen P, Seuter S, Benes V, Carlberg C. Nuclear hormone 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 elicits a genome-wide shift in the locations of VDR chromatin occupancy. Nucleic Acids Res (2011) 39(21):9181-93. doi:10.1093/nar/gkr654.
6. Evans RM, Mangelsdorf DJ. Nuclear receptors, RXR, and the big bang. Cell (2014) 157(1):255-66. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2014.03.012.
7. Meyer MB, Goetsch PD, Pike JW. VDR/RXR and TCF4/beta-catenin cistromes in colonic cells of colorectal tumor origin: impact on c-FOS and c-MYC gene expression. Mol Endocrinol (2012) 26(1):37-51. doi:10.1210/me.2011-1109.
8. Handel AE, Sandve GK, Disanto G, Berlanga-Taylor AJ, Gallone G, Hanwell H, et al. Vitamin D receptor ChIP-seq in primary CD4+ cells: relationship to serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and autoimmune disease. BMC Med (2013) 11:163. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-11-163.
9. Carmeliet G, Dermauw V, Bouillon R. Vitamin D signaling in calcium and bone homeostasis: a delicate balance. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab (2015) 29(4):621-31. doi:10.1016/j.beem.2015.06.001.
10. Ellman P, Anderson KH. Calciferol in tuberculous peritonitis with disseminated tuberculosis. Br Med J (1948) 1(4547):394. doi:10.1136/bmj.1.4547.394.
11. Bhalla AK, Amento EP, Clemens TL, Holick MF, Krane SM. Specific high-affinity receptors for 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells: presence in monocytes and induction in T lymphocytes following activation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab (1983) 57(6):1308-10. doi:10.1210/jcem-57-6-1308.
12. Provvedini DM, Tsoukas CD, Deftos LJ, Manolagas SC. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 receptors in human leukocytes. Science (1983) 221(4616):1181-3. doi:10.1126/science.6310748.
13. Lemire JM, Archer DC. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 prevents the in vivo induction of murine experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Clin Invest (1991) 87(3):1103-7. doi:10.1172/JCI115072.
14. Cantorna MT, Hayes CE, DeLuca HF. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 reversibly blocks the progression of relapsing encephalomyelitis, a model of multiple sclerosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A (1996) 93(15):7861-4. doi:10.1073/pnas.93.15.7861.
15. Cantorna MT, Hayes CE, DeLuca HF. 1,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol inhibits the progression of arthritis in murine models of human arthritis. J Nutr (1998) 128(1):68-72.
16. Zwerina K, Baum W, Axmann R, Heiland GR, Distler JH, Smolen J, et al. Vitamin D receptor regulates TNF-mediated arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis (2011) 70(6):1122-9. doi:10.1136/ard.2010.142331.
17. Zhang H, Wu H, Liu L, Li H, Shih DQ, Zhang X. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 regulates the development of chronic colitis by modulating both T helper (Th)1 and Th17 activation. APMIS (2015) 123(6):490-501. doi:10.1111/apm.12378.
18. Cantorna MT, Munsick C, Bemiss C, Mahon BD. 1,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol prevents and ameliorates symptoms of experimental murine inflammatory bowel disease. J Nutr (2000) 130(11):2648-52.
19. Mathieu C, Laureys J, Sobis H, Vandeputte M, Waer M, Bouillon R. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 prevents insulitis in NOD mice. Diabetes (1992) 41(11):1491-5. doi:10.2337/diabetes.41.11.1491.
20. Mathieu C, Waer M, Laureys J, Rutgeerts O, Bouillon R. Prevention of autoimmune diabetes in NOD mice by 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3. Diabetologia (1994) 37(6):552-8. doi:10.1007/BF00403372.
21. Lemire JM, Ince A, Takashima M. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 attenuates the expression of experimental murine lupus of MRL/l mice. Autoimmunity (1992) 12(2):143-8. doi:10.3109/08916939209150321.
22. Simpson S Jr, Blizzard L, Otahal P, Van der Mei I, Taylor B. Latitude is significantly associated with the prevalence of multiple sclerosis: a meta-analysis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry (2011) 82(10):1132-41. doi:10.1136/jnnp.2011.240432.
23. Mohr SB, Garland CF, Gorham ED, Garland FC. The association between ultraviolet B irradiance, vitamin D status and incidence rates of type 1 diabetes in 51 regions worldwide. Diabetologia (2008) 51(8):1391-8. doi:10.1007/s00125-008-1061-5.
24. Szilagyi A, Leighton H, Burstein B, Xue X. Latitude, sunshine, and human lactase phenotype distributions may contribute to geographic patterns of modern disease: the inflammatory bowel disease model. Clin Epidemiol (2014) 6:183-98. doi:10.2147/CLEP.S59838.
25. Dobson R, Giovannoni G, Ramagopalan S. The month of birth effect in multiple sclerosis: systematic review, meta-analysis and effect of latitude. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry (2013) 84(4):427-32. doi:10.1136/jnnp-2012-303934.
26. Torkildsen O, Grytten N, Aarseth J, Myhr KM, Kampman MT. Month of birth as a risk factor for multiple sclerosis: an update. Acta Neurol Scand (2012) 126(Supp. 195):58-62. doi:10.1111/ane.12040.
27. Song GG, Bae SC, Lee YH. Association between vitamin D intake and the risk of rheumatoid arthritis: a meta-analysis. Clin Rheumatol (2012) 31(12):1733-9. doi:10.1007/s10067-012-2080-7.
28. Zipitis CS, Akobeng AK. Vitamin D supplementation in early childhood and risk of type 1 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Dis Child (2008) 93(6):512-7. doi:10.1136/adc.2007.128579.
29. Dong JY, Zhang WG, Chen JJ, Zhang ZL, Han SF, Qin LQ. Vitamin D intake and risk of type 1 diabetes: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Nutrients (2013) 5(9):3551-62. doi:10.3390/nu5093551.
30. Shen L, Zhuang QS, Ji HF. Assessment of vitamin D levels in type 1 and type 2 diabetes patients: results from meta-analysis. Mol Nutr Food Res (2016) 60(5):1059-67. doi:10.1002/mnfr.201500937.
31. Duan S, Lv Z, Fan X, Wang L, Han F, Wang H, et al. Vitamin D status and the risk of multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosci Lett (2014) 570:108-13. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2014.04.021.
32. Lin J, Liu J, Davies ML, Chen W. Serum vitamin D level and rheumatoid arthritis disease activity: review and meta-analysis. PLoS One (2016) 11(1):e0146351. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0146351.
33. Del Pinto R, Pietropaoli D, Chandar AK, Ferri C, Cominelli F. Association between inflammatory bowel disease and vitamin D deficiency: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Inflamm Bowel Dis (2015) 21(11):2708-17. doi:10.1097/MIB.0000000000000546.
34. Lu C, Yang J, Yu W, Li D, Xiang Z, Lin Y, et al. Association between 25(OH)D level, ultraviolet exposure, geographical location, and inflammatory bowel disease activity: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One (2015) 10(7):e0132036. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0132036.
35. Sadeghian M, Saneei P, Siassi F, Esmaillzadeh A. Vitamin D status in relation to Crohn's disease: meta-analysis of observational studies. Nutrition (2016) 32(5):505-14. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2015.11.008.
36. Feng R, Li Y, Li G, Li Z, Zhang Y, Li Q, et al. Lower serum 25 (OH) D concentrations in type 1 diabetes: a meta-analysis. Diabetes Res Clin Pract (2015) 108(3):e71-5. doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2014.12.008.
37. Sahebari M, Nabavi N, Salehi M. Correlation between serum 25(OH)D values and lupus disease activity: an original article and a systematic review with meta-analysis focusing on serum VitD confounders. Lupus (2014) 23(11):1164-77. doi:10.1177/0961203314540966.
38. Hiraki LT, Arkema EV, Cui J, Malspeis S, Costenbader KH, Karlson EW. Circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D level and risk of developing rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology (Oxford) (2014) 53(12):2243-8. doi:10.1093/rheumatology/keu276.
39. Tizaoui K, Kaabachi W, Hamzaoui A, Hamzaoui K. Association between vitamin D receptor polymorphisms and multiple sclerosis: systematic review and meta-analysis of case-control studies. Cell Mol Immunol (2015) 12(2):243-52. doi:10.1038/cmi.2014.47.
40. Tizaoui K, Hamzaoui K. Association between VDR polymorphisms and rheumatoid arthritis disease: systematic review and updated meta-analysis of case-control studies. Immunobiology (2015) 220(6):807-16. doi:10.1016/j.imbio.2014.12.013.
41. Lee YH, Bae SC, Choi SJ, Ji JD, Song GG. Associations between vitamin D receptor polymorphisms and susceptibility to rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus: a meta-analysis. Mol Biol Rep (2011) 38(6):3643-51. doi:10.1007/s11033-010-0477-4.
42. Xue LN, Xu KQ, Zhang W, Wang Q, Wu J, Wang XY. Associations between vitamin D receptor polymorphisms and susceptibility to ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease: a meta-analysis. Inflamm Bowel Dis (2013) 19(1):54-60. doi:10.1002/ibd.22966.
43. Wang L, Wang ZT, Hu JJ, Fan R, Zhou J, Zhong J. Polymorphisms of the vitamin D receptor gene and the risk of inflammatory bowel disease: a meta-analysis. Genet Mol Res (2014) 13(2):2598-610. doi:10.4238/2014.April.8.2.
44. Tizaoui K, Kaabachi W, Hamzaoui A, Hamzaoui K. Contribution of VDR polymorphisms to type 1 diabetes susceptibility: systematic review of case-control studies and meta-analysis. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol (2014) 143:240-9. doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2014.03.011.
45. Wang G, Zhang Q, Xu N, Xu K, Wang J, He W, et al. Associations between two polymorphisms (FokI and BsmI) of vitamin D receptor gene and type 1 diabetes mellitus in Asian population: a meta-analysis. PLoS One (2014) 9(3):e89325. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089325.
46. Zhang J, Li W, Liu J, Wu W, Ouyang H, Zhang Q, et al. Polymorphisms in the vitamin D receptor gene and type 1 diabetes mellitus risk: an update by meta-analysis. Mol Cell Endocrinol (2012) 355(1):135-42. doi:10.1016/j.mce.2012.02.003.
47. Zhou TB, Jiang ZP, Lin ZJ, Su N. Association of vitamin D receptor gene polymorphism with the risk of systemic lupus erythematosus. J Recept Signal Transduct Res (2015) 35(1):8-14. doi:10.3109/10799893.2014.926927.
48. Mason AR, Mason J, Cork M, Dooley G, Hancock H. Topical treatments for chronic plaque psoriasis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2013) (3). doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005028.pub3.
49. Burton JM, Kimball S, Vieth R, Bar-Or A, Dosch HM, Cheung R, et al. A phase I/II dose-escalation trial of vitamin D3 and calcium in multiple sclerosis. Neurology (2010) 74(23):1852-9. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181e1cec2.
50. Mosayebi G, Ghazavi A, Ghasami K, Jand Y, Kokhaei P. Therapeutic effect of vitamin D3 in multiple sclerosis patients. Immunol Invest (2011) 40(6):627-39. doi:10.3109/08820139.2011.573041.
51. Soilu-Hänninen M, Aivo J, Lindstrom BM, Elovaara I, Sumelahti ML, Farkkila M, et al. A randomised, double blind, placebo controlled trial with vitamin D3 as an add on treatment to interferon beta-1b in patients with multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry (2012) 83(5):565-71. doi:10.1136/jnnp-2011-301876.
52. Kampman MT, Steffensen LH, Mellgren SI, Jørgensen L. Effect of vitamin D3 supplementation on relapses, disease progression, and measures of function in persons with multiple sclerosis: exploratory outcomes from a double-blind randomised controlled trial. Mult Scler (2012) 18(8):1144-51. doi:10.1177/1352458511434607.
53. Derakhshandi H, Etemadifar M, Feizi A, Abtahi SH, Minagar A, Abtahi MA, et al. Preventive effect of vitamin D3 supplementation on conversion of optic neuritis to clinically definite multiple sclerosis: a double blind, randomized, placebo-controlled pilot clinical trial. Acta Neurol Belg (2013) 113(3):257-63. doi:10.1007/s13760-012-0166-2.
54. Salesi M, Farajzadegan Z. Efficacy of vitamin D in patients with active rheumatoid arthritis receiving methotrexate therapy. Rheumatol Int (2012) 32(7):2129-33. doi:10.1007/s00296-011-1944-5.
55. Dehghan A, Rahimpour S, Soleymani-Salehabadi H, Owlia MB. Role of vitamin D in flare ups of rheumatoid arthritis. Z Rheumatol (2014) 73(5):461-4. doi:10.1007/s00393-013-1297-4.
56. Hansen KE, Bartels CM, Gangnon RE, Jones AN, Gogineni J. An evaluation of high-dose vitamin D for rheumatoid arthritis. J Clin Rheumatol (2014) 20(2):112-4. doi:10.1097/RHU.0000000000000072.
57. Jørgensen SP, Agnholt J, Glerup H, Lyhne S, Villadsen GE, Hvas CL, et al. Clinical trial: vitamin D3 treatment in Crohn's disease-a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther (2010) 32(3):377-83. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2010.04355.x.
58. Wingate KE, Jacobson K, Issenman R, Carroll M, Barker C, Israel D, et al. 25-Hydroxyvitamin D concentrations in children with Crohn's disease supplemented with either 2000 or 400 IU daily for 6 months: a randomized controlled study. J Pediatr (2014) 164(4):860-5. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2013.11.071.
59. Raftery T, Martineau AR, Greiller CL, Ghosh S, McNamara D, Bennett K, et al. Effects of vitamin D supplementation on intestinal permeability, cathelicidin and disease markers in Crohn's disease: results from a randomised double-blind placebo-controlled study. United European Gastroenterol J (2015) 3(3):294-302. doi:10.1177/2050640615572176.
60. Li X, Liao L, Yan X, Huang G, Lin J, Lei M, et al. Protective effects of 1-alpha-hydroxyvitamin D3 on residual beta-cell function in patients with adult-onset latent autoimmune diabetes (LADA). Diabetes Metab Res Rev (2009) 25(5):411-6. doi:10.1002/dmrr.977.
61. Bizzarri C, Pitocco D, Napoli N, Di Stasio E, Maggi D, Manfrini S, et al. No protective effect of calcitriol on beta-cell function in recent-onset type 1 diabetes: the IMDIAB XIII trial. Diabetes Care (2010) 33(9):1962-3. doi:10.2337/dc10-0814.
62. Walter M, Kaupper T, Adler K, Foersch J, Bonifacio E, Ziegler AG. No effect of the 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on beta-cell residual function and insulin requirement in adults with new-onset type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care (2010) 33(7):1443-8. doi:10.2337/dc09-2297.
63. Gabbay MA, Sato MN, Finazzo C, Duarte AJ, Dib SA. Effect of cholecalciferol as adjunctive therapy with insulin on protective immunologic profile and decline of residual beta-cell function in new-onset type 1 diabetes mellitus. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med (2012) 166(7):601-7. doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2012.164.
64. Ataie-Jafari A, Loke SC, Rahmat AB, Larijani B, Abbasi F, Leow MK, et al. A randomized placebo-controlled trial of alphacalcidol on the preservation of beta cell function in children with recent onset type 1 diabetes. Clin Nutr (2013) 32(6):911-7. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2013.01.012.
65. Abou-Raya A, Abou-Raya S, Helmii M. The effect of vitamin D supplementation on inflammatory and hemostatic markers and disease activity in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. J Rheumatol (2013) 40(3):265-72. doi:10.3899/jrheum.111594.
66. Lima GL, Paupitz J, Aikawa NE, Takayama L, Bonfa E, Pereira RM. Vitamin D supplementation in adolescents and young adults with juvenile systemic lupus erythematosus for improvement in disease activity and fatigue scores: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) (2016) 68(1):91-8. doi:10.1002/acr.22621.
67. Aranow C, Kamen DL, Dall'Era M, Massarotti EM, Mackay MC, Koumpouras F, et al. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of the effect of vitamin D3 on the interferon signature in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheumatol (2015) 67(7):1848-57. doi:10.1002/art.39108.
68. Foering K, Chang AY, Piette EW, Cucchiara A, Okawa J, Werth VP. Characterization of clinical photosensitivity in cutaneous lupus erythematosus. J Am Acad Dermatol (2013) 69(2):205-13. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2013.03.015.
69. Brennan A, Katz DR, Nunn JD, Barker S, Hewison M, Fraher LJ, et al. Dendritic cells from human tissues express receptors for the immunoregulatory vitamin D3 metabolite, dihydroxycholecalciferol. Immunology (1987) 61(4):457-61.
70. Morgan JW, Kouttab N, Ford D, Maizel AL. Vitamin D-mediated gene regulation in phenotypically defined human B cell subpopulations. Endocrinology (2000) 141(9):3225-34. doi:10.1210/endo.141.9.7666.
71. Kongsbak M, von Essen MR, Levring TB, Schjerling P, Woetmann A, Odum N, et al. Vitamin D-binding protein controls T cell responses to vitamin D. BMC Immunol (2014) 15(1):35. doi:10.1186/s12865-014-0035-2.
72. Morgan JW, Reddy GS, Uskokovic MR, May BK, Omdahl JL, Maizel AL, et al. Functional block for 1 alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3-mediated gene regulation in human B lymphocytes. J Biol Chem (1994) 269(18):13437-43.
73. Sigmundsdottir H, Pan J, Debes GF, Alt C, Habtezion A, Soler D, et al. DCs metabolize sunlight-induced vitamin D3 to 'program' T cell attraction to the epidermal chemokine CCL27. Nat Immunol (2007) 8(3):285-93. doi:10.1038/ni1433.
74. Jeffery LE, Wood AM, Qureshi OS, Hou TZ, Gardner D, Briggs Z, et al. Availability of 25-hydroxyvitamin D(3) to APCs controls the balance between regulatory and inflammatory T cell responses. J Immunol (2012) 189(11):5155-64. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1200786.
75. Heine G, Niesner U, Chang HD, Steinmeyer A, Zugel U, Zuberbier T, et al. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) promotes IL-10 production in human B cells. Eur J Immunol (2008) 38(8):2210-8. doi:10.1002/eji.200838216.
76. Correale J, Ysrraelit MC, Gaitan MI. Immunomodulatory effects of Vitamin D in multiple sclerosis. Brain (2009) 132(Pt 5):1146-60. doi:10.1093/brain/awp033.
77. von Essen MR, Kongsbak M, Schjerling P, Olgaard K, Odum N, Geisler C. Vitamin D controls T cell antigen receptor signaling and activation of human T cells. Nat Immunol (2010) 11(4):344-9. doi:10.1038/ni.1851.
78. Bakdash G, van Capel TM, Mason LM, Kapsenberg ML, de Jong EC. Vitamin D3 metabolite calcidiol primes human dendritic cells to promote the development of immunomodulatory IL-10-producing T cells. Vaccine (2014) 32(47):6294-302. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.08.075.
79. Chen J, Bruce D, Cantorna MT. Vitamin D receptor expression controls proliferation of naive CD8+ T cells and development of CD8 mediated gastrointestinal inflammation. BMC Immunol (2014) 15:6. doi:10.1186/1471-2172-15-6.
80. Lysandropoulos AP, Jaquiery E, Jilek S, Pantaleo G, Schluep M, Du Pasquier RA. Vitamin D has a direct immunomodulatory effect on CD8+ T cells of patients with early multiple sclerosis and healthy control subjects. J Neuroimmunol (2011) 233(1-2):240-4. doi:10.1016/j.jneuroim.2010.11.008.
81. Bruce D, Cantorna MT. Intrinsic requirement for the vitamin D receptor in the development of CD8alphaalpha-expressing T cells. J Immunol (2011) 186(5):2819-25. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1003444.
82. Dyring-Andersen B, Bonefeld CM, Bzorek M, Lovendorf MB, Lauritsen JP, Skov L, et al. The vitamin D analogue calcipotriol reduces the frequency of CD8+ IL-17+ T cells in psoriasis lesions. Scand J Immunol (2015) 82(1):84-91. doi:10.1111/sji.12304.
83. Balogh G, de Boland AR, Boland R, Barja P. Effect of 1,25(OH)(2)-vitamin D(3) on the activation of natural killer cells: role of protein kinase C and extracellular calcium. Exp Mol Pathol (1999) 67(2):63-74. doi:10.1006/exmp.1999.2264.
84. Weeres MA, Robien K, Ahn YO, Neulen ML, Bergerson R, Miller JS, et al. The effects of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on in vitro human NK cell development from hematopoietic stem cells. J Immunol (2014) 193(7):3456-62. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1400698.
85. Ota K, Dambaeva S, Kim MW, Han AR, Fukui A, Gilman-Sachs A, et al. 1,25-Dihydroxy-vitamin D3 regulates NK-cell cytotoxicity, cytokine secretion, and degranulation in women with recurrent pregnancy losses. Eur J Immunol (2015) 45(11):3188-99. doi:10.1002/eji.201545541.
86. Chen J, Waddell A, Lin YD, Cantorna MT. Dysbiosis caused by vitamin D receptor deficiency confers colonization resistance to Citrobacter rodentium through modulation of innate lymphoid cells. Mucosal Immunol (2015) 8(3):618-26. doi:10.1038/mi.2014.94.
87. Chen L, Cencioni MT, Angelini DF, Borsellino G, Battistini L, Brosnan CF. Transcriptional profiling of gamma delta T cells identifies a role for vitamin D in the immunoregulation of the V gamma 9V delta 2 response to phosphate-containing ligands. J Immunol (2005) 174(10):6144-52. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.174.10.6144.
88. Waddell A, Zhao J, Cantorna MT. NKT cells can help mediate the protective effects of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in mice. Int Immunol (2015) 27(5):237-44. doi:10.1093/intimm/dxu147.
89. Yu S, Cantorna MT. The vitamin D receptor is required for iNKT cell development. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A (2008) 105(13):5207-12. doi:10.1073/pnas.0711558105.
90. Chen S, Sims GP, Chen XX, Gu YY, Chen S, Lipsky PE. Modulatory effects of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on human B cell differentiation. J Immunol (2007) 179(3):1634-47. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.179.3.1634.
91. Lemire JM, Adams JS, Sakai R, Jordan SC. 1 alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 suppresses proliferation and immunoglobulin production by normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. J Clin Invest (1984) 74(2):657-61. doi:10.1172/JCI111465.
92. Iho S, Takahashi T, Kura F, Sugiyama H, Hoshino T. The effect of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on in vitro immunoglobulin production in human B cells. J Immunol (1986) 136(12):4427-31.
93. Geldmeyer-Hilt K, Heine G, Hartmann B, Baumgrass R, Radbruch A, Worm M. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 impairs NF-kappaB activation in human naive B cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun (2011) 407(4):699-702. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2011.03.078.
94. Chen WC, Vayuvegula B, Gupta S. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3-mediated inhibition of human B cell differentiation. Clin Exp Immunol (1987) 69(3):639-46.
95. Heine G, Anton K, Henz BM, Worm M. 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 inhibits anti-CD40 plus IL-4-mediated IgE production in vitro. Eur J Immunol (2002) 32(12):3395-404. doi:10.1002/1521-4141(2002012)32:12<3395::AID-IMMU3395>3.0.CO;2-I.
96. Drozdenko G, Scheel T, Heine G, Baumgrass R, Worm M. Impaired T cell activation and cytokine production by calcitriol-primed human B cells. Clin Exp Immunol (2014) 178(2):364-72. doi:10.1111/cei.12406.
97. Penna G, Adorini L. 1 Alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 inhibits differentiation, maturation, activation, and survival of dendritic cells leading to impaired alloreactive T cell activation. J Immunol (2000) 164(5):2405-11. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.164.5.2405.
98. Piemonti L, Monti P, Sironi M, Fraticelli P, Leone BE, Dal Cin E, et al. Vitamin D3 affects differentiation, maturation, and function of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells. J Immunol (2000) 164(9):4443-51. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.164.9.4443.
99. Unger WW, Laban S, Kleijwegt FS, van der Slik AR, Roep BO. Induction of Treg by monocyte-derived DC modulated by vitamin D3 or dexamethasone: differential role for PD-L1. Eur J Immunol (2009) 39(11):3147-59. doi:10.1002/eji.200839103.
100. van der Aar AM, Sibiryak DS, Bakdash G, van Capel TM, van der Kleij HP, Opstelten DJ, et al. Vitamin D3 targets epidermal and dermal dendritic cells for induction of distinct regulatory T cells. J Allergy Clin Immunol (2011) 127(6):1532.e-40.e. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2011.01.068.
101. Ferreira GB, Vanherwegen AS, Eelen G, Gutierrez AC, Van Lommel L, Marchal K, et al. Vitamin D3 induces tolerance in human dendritic cells by activation of intracellular metabolic pathways. Cell Rep (2015) 10:711-25. doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2015.01.013.
102. Farias AS, Spagnol GS, Bordeaux-Rego P, Oliveira CO, Fontana AG, de Paula RF, et al. Vitamin D3 induces IDO+ tolerogenic DCs and enhances Treg, reducing the severity of EAE. CNS Neurosci Ther (2013) 19(4):269-77. doi:10.1111/cns.12071.
103. Huang Y, Zhao Y, Ran X, Wang C. Increased expression of herpesvirus entry mediator in 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3-treated mouse bone marrow-derived dendritic cells promotes the generation of CD4(+)CD25(+)Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells. Mol Med Rep (2014) 9(3):813-8. doi:10.3892/mmr.2013.1874.
104. Neve A, Corrado A, Cantatore FP. Immunomodulatory effects of vitamin D in peripheral blood monocyte-derived macrophages from patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Exp Med (2014) 14(3):275-83. doi:10.1007/s10238-013-0249-2.
105. Chen Y, Liu W, Sun T, Huang Y, Wang Y, Deb DK, et al. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D promotes negative feedback regulation of TLR signaling via targeting microRNA-155-SOCS1 in macrophages. J Immunol (2013) 190(7):3687-95. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1203273.
106. Wang Q, He Y, Shen Y, Zhang Q, Chen D, Zuo C, et al. Vitamin D inhibits COX-2 expression and inflammatory response by targeting thioesterase superfamily member 4. J Biol Chem (2014) 289(17):11681-94. doi:10.1074/jbc. M113.517581.
107. Zhang X, Zhou M, Guo Y, Song Z, Liu B. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) promotes high glucose-induced M1 macrophage switching to M2 via the VDR-PPARgamma signaling pathway. Biomed Res Int (2015) 2015:157834. doi:10.1155/2015/157834.
108. Korf H, Wenes M, Stijlemans B, Takiishi T, Robert S, Miani M, et al. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 curtails the inflammatory and T cell stimulatory capacity of macrophages through an IL-10-dependent mechanism. Immunobiology (2012) 217(12):1292-300. doi:10.1016/j.imbio.2012.07.018.
109. Terrier B, Derian N, Schoindre Y, Chaara W, Geri G, Zahr N, et al. Restoration of regulatory and effector T cell balance and B cell homeostasis in systemic lupus erythematosus patients through vitamin D supplementation. Arthritis Res Ther (2012) 14(5):R221. doi:10.1186/ar4060.
110. Palmer MT, Lee YK, Maynard CL, Oliver JR, Bikle DD, Jetten AM, et al. Lineage-specific effects of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) on the development of effector CD4 T cells. J Biol Chem (2011) 286(2):997-1004. doi:10.1074/jbc. M110.163790.
111. Pichler J, Gerstmayr M, Szepfalusi Z, Urbanek R, Peterlik M, Willheim M. 1 alpha,25(OH)2D3 inhibits not only Th1 but also Th2 differentiation in human cord blood T cells. Pediatr Res (2002) 52(1):12-8. doi:10.1203/01.PDR.0000017267.23950.48.
112. Chang SH, Chung Y, Dong C. Vitamin D suppresses Th17 cytokine production by inducing C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) expression. J Biol Chem (2010) 285(50):38751-5. doi:10.1074/jbc. C110.185777.
113. Boonstra A, Barrat FJ, Crain C, Heath VL, Savelkoul HF, O'Garra A. 1alpha,25-Dihydroxyvitamin d3 has a direct effect on naive CD4(+) T cells to enhance the development of Th2 cells. J Immunol (2001) 167(9):4974-80. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.167.9.4974.
114. Khoo AL, Joosten I, Michels M, Woestenenk R, Preijers F, He XH, et al. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 inhibits proliferation but not the suppressive function of regulatory T cells in the absence of antigen-presenting cells. Immunology (2011) 134(4):459-68. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2567.2011.03507.x.
115. Colin EM, Asmawidjaja PS, van Hamburg JP, Mus AM, van Driel M, Hazes JM, et al. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 modulates Th17 polarization and interleukin-22 expression by memory T cells from patients with early rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum (2010) 62(1):132-42. doi:10.1002/art.25043.
116. Piantoni S, Andreoli L, Scarsi M, Zanola A, Dall'Ara F, Pizzorni C, et al. Phenotype modifications of T-cells and their shift toward a Th2 response in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus supplemented with different monthly regimens of vitamin D. Lupus (2015) 24(4-5):490-8. doi:10.1177/0961203314559090.
117. Smolders J, Peelen E, Thewissen M, Cohen Tervaert JW, Menheere P, Hupperts R, et al. Safety and T cell modulating effects of high dose vitamin D3 supplementation in multiple sclerosis. PLoS One (2010) 5(12):e15235. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0015235.
118. Jeffery LE, Burke F, Mura M, Zheng Y, Qureshi OS, Hewison M, et al. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 and IL-2 combine to inhibit T cell production of inflammatory cytokines and promote development of regulatory T cells expressing CTLA-4 and FoxP3. J Immunol (2009) 183(9):5458-67. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.0803217.
119. Joshi S, Pantalena LC, Liu XK, Gaffen SL, Liu H, Rohowsky-Kochan C, et al. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) ameliorates Th17 autoimmunity via transcriptional modulation of interleukin-17A. Mol Cell Biol (2011) 31(17):3653-69. doi:10.1128/MCB.05020-11.
120. van Hamburg JP, Asmawidjaja PS, Davelaar N, Mus AM, Cornelissen F, van Leeuwen JP, et al. TNF blockade requires 1,25(OH)2D3 to control human Th17-mediated synovial inflammation. Ann Rheum Dis (2012) 71(4):606-12. doi:10.1136/annrheumdis-2011-200424.
121. Jeffery LE, Qureshi OS, Gardner D, Hou TZ, Briggs Z, Soskic B, et al. Vitamin D antagonises the suppressive effect of inflammatory cytokines on CTLA-4 expression and regulatory function. PLoS One (2015) 10(7):e0131539. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0131539.
122. Tian Y, Wang C, Ye Z, Xiao X, Kijlstra A, Yang P. Effect of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on Th17 and Th1 response in patients with Behcet's disease. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci (2012) 53(10):6434-41. doi:10.1167/iovs.12-10398.
123. Chang JH, Cha HR, Lee DS, Seo KY, Kweon MN. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 inhibits the differentiation and migration of T(H)17 cells to protect against experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. PLoS One (2010) 5(9):e12925. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012925.
124. Nanduri R, Mahajan S, Bhagyaraj E, Sethi K, Kalra R, Chandra V, et al. The active form of vitamin D transcriptionally represses Smad7 signaling and activates extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) to inhibit the differentiation of a inflammatory T helper cell subset and suppress experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Biol Chem (2015) 290(19):12222-36. doi:10.1074/jbc. M114.621839.
125. Kang SW, Kim SH, Lee N, Lee WW, Hwang KA, Shin MS, et al. 1,25-dihyroxyvitamin D3 promotes FOXP3 expression via binding to vitamin D response elements in its conserved noncoding sequence region. J Immunol (2012) 188(11):5276-82. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1101211.
126. Teichmann LL, Ols ML, Kashgarian M, Reizis B, Kaplan DH, Shlomchik MJ. Dendritic cells in lupus are not required for activation of T and B cells but promote their expansion, resulting in tissue damage. Immunity (2010) 33(6):967-78. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2010.11.025.
127. Wohn C, Ober-Blobaum JL, Haak S, Pantelyushin S, Cheong C, Zahner SP, et al. Langerin(neg) conventional dendritic cells produce IL-23 to drive psoriatic plaque formation in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A (2013) 110(26):10723-8. doi:10.1073/pnas.1307569110.
128. Sisirak V, Ganguly D, Lewis KL, Couillault C, Tanaka L, Bolland S, et al. Genetic evidence for the role of plasmacytoid dendritic cells in systemic lupus erythematosus. J Exp Med (2014) 211(10):1969-76. doi:10.1084/jem.20132522.
129. Ferris ST, Carrero JA, Mohan JF, Calderon B, Murphy KM, Unanue ER. A minor subset of Batf3-dependent antigen-presenting cells in islets of Langerhans is essential for the development of autoimmune diabetes. Immunity (2014) 41(4):657-69. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2014.09.012.
130. Schmidt H, Williamson D, Ashley-Koch A. HLA-DR15 haplotype and multiple sclerosis: a HuGE review. Am J Epidemiol (2007) 165(10):1097-109. doi:10.1093/aje/kwk118.
131. Mackie SL, Taylor JC, Martin SG, Consortium Y, Consortium U, Wordsworth P, et al. A spectrum of susceptibility to rheumatoid arthritis within HLA-DRB1: stratification by autoantibody status in a large UK population. Genes Immun (2012) 13(2):120-8. doi:10.1038/gene.2011.60.
132. van Halteren AG, Tysma OM, van Etten E, Mathieu C, Roep BO. 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 or analogue treated dendritic cells modulate human autoreactive T cells via the selective induction of apoptosis. J Autoimmun (2004) 23(3):233-9. doi:10.1016/j.jaut.2004.06.004.
133. Gambhir V, Kim J, Siddiqui S, Taylor M, Byford V, Petrof EO, et al. Influence of 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D3 on TLR4-induced activation of antigen presenting cells is dependent on the order of receptor engagement. Immunobiology (2011) 216(9):988-96. doi:10.1016/j.imbio.2011.03.011.
134. Penna G, Amuchastegui S, Giarratana N, Daniel KC, Vulcano M, Sozzani S, et al. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 selectively modulates tolerogenic properties in myeloid but not plasmacytoid dendritic cells. J Immunol (2007) 178(1):145-53. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.178.1.145.
135. Karthaus N, van Spriel AB, Looman MW, Chen S, Spilgies LM, Lieben L, et al. Vitamin D controls murine and human plasmacytoid dendritic cell function. J Invest Dermatol (2014) 134(5):1255-64. doi:10.1038/jid.2013.501.
136. Hu J, Wan Y. Tolerogenic dendritic cells and their potential applications. Immunology (2011) 132(3):307-14. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2567.2010.03396.x.
137. Griffin MD, Lutz W, Phan VA, Bachman LA, McKean DJ, Kumar R. Dendritic cell modulation by 1alpha,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 and its analogs: a vitamin D receptor-dependent pathway that promotes a persistent state of immaturity in vitro and in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A (2001) 98(12):6800-5. doi:10.1073/pnas.121172198.
138. Stoop JN, Harry RA, von Delwig A, Isaacs JD, Robinson JH, Hilkens CM. Therapeutic effect of tolerogenic dendritic cells in established collagen-induced arthritis is associated with a reduction in Th17 responses. Arthritis Rheum (2010) 62(12):3656-65. doi:10.1002/art.27756.
139. Ferreira GB, Gysemans CA, Demengeot J, da Cunha JP, Vanherwegen AS, Overbergh L, et al. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 promotes tolerogenic dendritic cells with functional migratory properties in NOD mice. J Immunol (2014) 192(9):4210-20. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1302350.
140. Mansilla MJ, Selles-Moreno C, Fabregas-Puig S, Amoedo J, Navarro-Barriuso J, Teniente-Serra A, et al. Beneficial effect of tolerogenic dendritic cells pulsed with MOG autoantigen in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. CNS Neurosci Ther (2015) 21(3):222-30. doi:10.1111/cns.12342.
141. Harry RA, Anderson AE, Isaacs JD, Hilkens CM. Generation and characterisation of therapeutic tolerogenic dendritic cells for rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis (2010) 69(11):2042-50. doi:10.1136/ard.2009.126383.
142. Bartosik-Psujek H, Tabarkiewicz J, Pocinska K, Stelmasiak Z, Rolinski J. Immunomodulatory effects of vitamin D on monocyte-derived dendritic cells in multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler (2010) 16(12):1513-6. doi:10.1177/1352458510379611.
143. Bartels LE, Jørgensen SP, Bendix M, Hvas CL, Agnholt J, Agger R, et al. 25-Hydroxy vitamin D3 modulates dendritic cell phenotype and function in Crohn's disease. Inflammopharmacology (2013) 21(2):177-86. doi:10.1007/s10787-012-0168-y.
144. Volchenkov R, Brun JG, Jonsson R, Appel S. In vitro suppression of immune responses using monocyte-derived tolerogenic dendritic cells from patients with primary Sjogren's syndrome. Arthritis Res Ther (2013) 15(5):R114. doi:10.1186/ar4294.
145. Wahono CS, Rusmini H, Soelistyoningsih D, Hakim R, Handono K, Endharti AT, et al. Effects of 1,25(OH)2D3 in immune response regulation of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patient with hypovitamin D. Int J Clin Exp Med (2014) 7(1):22-31.
146. Raiotach-Regue D, Grau-Lopez L, Naranjo-Gomez M, Ramo-Tello C, Pujol-Borrell R, Martinez-Caceres E, et al. Stable antigen-specific T-cell hyporesponsiveness induced by tolerogenic dendritic cells from multiple sclerosis patients. Eur J Immunol (2012) 42(3):771-82. doi:10.1002/eji.201141835.
147. Giannoukakis N, Phillips B, Finegold D, Harnaha J, Trucco M. Phase I (safety) study of autologous tolerogenic dendritic cells in type 1 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care (2011) 34(9):2026-32. doi:10.2337/dc11-0472.
148. Benham H, Nel HJ, Law SC, Mehdi AM, Street S, Ramnoruth N, et al. Citrullinated peptide dendritic cell immunotherapy in HLA risk genotype-positive rheumatoid arthritis patients. Sci Transl Med (2015) 7(290):290ra87. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.aaa9301.
149. Murray PJ, Wynn TA. Protective and pathogenic functions of macrophage subsets. Nat Rev Immunol (2011) 11(11):723-37. doi:10.1038/nri3073.
150. Tak PP, Smeets TJ, Daha MR, Kluin PM, Meijers KA, Brand R, et al. Analysis of the synovial cell infiltrate in early rheumatoid synovial tissue in relation to local disease activity. Arthritis Rheum (1997) 40(2):217-25. doi:10.1002/art.1780400206.
151. Kamada N, Hisamatsu T, Okamoto S, Chinen H, Kobayashi T, Sato T, et al. Unique CD14 intestinal macrophages contribute to the pathogenesis of Crohn disease via IL-23/IFN-gamma axis. J Clin Invest (2008) 118(6):2269-80. doi:10.1172/JCI34610.
152. van Horssen J, Singh S, van der Pol S, Kipp M, Lim JL, Peferoen L, et al. Clusters of activated microglia in normal-appearing white matter show signs of innate immune activation. J Neuroinflammation (2012) 9:156. doi:10.1186/1742-2094-9-156.
153. Singh S, Metz I, Amor S, van der Valk P, Stadelmann C, Bruck W. Microglial nodules in early multiple sclerosis white matter are associated with degenerating axons. Acta Neuropathol (2013) 125(4):595-608. doi:10.1007/s00401-013-1082-0.
154. Orme J, Mohan C. Macrophage subpopulations in systemic lupus erythematosus. Discov Med (2012) 13(69):151-8.
155. Jun HS, Yoon CS, Zbytnuik L, van Rooijen N, Yoon JW. The role of macrophages in T cell-mediated autoimmune diabetes in nonobese diabetic mice. J Exp Med (1999) 189(2):347-58. doi:10.1084/jem.189.2.347.
156. Nashold FE, Miller DJ, Hayes CE. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 treatment decreases macrophage accumulation in the CNS of mice with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Neuroimmunol (2000) 103(2):171-9. doi:10.1016/S0165-5728(99)00247-7.
157. Xu H, Soruri A, Gieseler RK, Peters JH. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 exerts opposing effects to IL-4 on MHC class-II antigen expression, accessory activity, and phagocytosis of human monocytes. Scand J Immunol (1993) 38(6):535-40. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3083.1993.tb03237.x.
158. Krutzik SR, Hewison M, Liu PT, Robles JA, Stenger S, Adams JS, et al. IL-15 links TLR2/1-induced macrophage differentiation to the vitamin D-dependent antimicrobial pathway. J Immunol (2008) 181(10):7115-20. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.181.10.7115.
159. Fabri M, Stenger S, Shin DM, Yuk JM, Liu PT, Realegeno S, et al. Vitamin D is required for IFN-gamma-mediated antimicrobial activity of human macrophages. Sci Transl Med (2011) 3(104):104ra2. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3003045.
160. Liu PT, Stenger S, Li H, Wenzel L, Tan BH, Krutzik SR, et al. Toll-like receptor triggering of a vitamin D-mediated human antimicrobial response. Science (2006) 311(5768):1770-3. doi:10.1126/science.1123933.
161. Liu PT, Stenger S, Tang DH, Modlin RL. Cutting edge: vitamin D-mediated human antimicrobial activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis is dependent on the induction of cathelicidin. J Immunol (2007) 179(4):2060-3. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.179.4.2060.
162. Lee BN, Kim TH, Jun JB, Yoo DH, Woo JH, Choi SJ, et al. Upregulation of interleukin-1beta production by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) in activated human macrophages. Mol Biol Rep (2011) 38(3):2193-201. doi:10.1007/s11033-010-0348-z.
163. Verway M, Bouttier M, Wang TT, Carrier M, Calderon M, An BS, et al. Vitamin D induces interleukin-1beta expression: paracrine macrophage epithelial signaling controls M. tuberculosis infection. PLoS Pathog (2013) 9(6):e1003407. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1003407.
164. Kumar V, Abbas AK, Fausto N, Mitchell R. Robbins Basic Pathology. 8 ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier Health Sciences (2007).
165. van Venrooij WJ, van Beers JJ, Pruijn GJ. Anti-CCP antibodies: the past, the present and the future. Nat Rev Rheumatol (2011) 7(7):391-8. doi:10.1038/nrrheum.2011.76.
166. Ramagopalan SV, Heger A, Berlanga AJ, Maugeri NJ, Lincoln MR, Burrell A, et al. A ChIP-seq defined genome-wide map of vitamin D receptor binding: associations with disease and evolution. Genome Res (2010) 20(10):1352-60. doi:10.1101/gr.107920.110.
167. Pieper K, Grimbacher B, Eibel H. B-cell biology and development. J Allergy Clin Immunol (2013) 131(4):959-71. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2013.01.046.
168. Shirakawa AK, Nagakubo D, Hieshima K, Nakayama T, Jin Z, Yoshie O. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 induces CCR10 expression in terminally differentiating human B cells. J Immunol (2008) 180(5):2786-95. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.180.5.2786.
169. Ritterhouse LL, Crowe SR, Niewold TB, Kamen DL, Macwana SR, Roberts VC, et al. Vitamin D deficiency is associated with an increased autoimmune response in healthy individuals and in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Rheum Dis (2011) 70(9):1569-74. doi:10.1136/ard.2010.148494.
170. Knippenberg S, Peelen E, Smolders J, Thewissen M, Menheere P, Cohen Tervaert JW, et al. Reduction in IL-10 producing B cells (Breg) in multiple sclerosis is accompanied by a reduced naive/memory Breg ratio during a relapse but not in remission. J Neuroimmunol (2011) 239(1-2):80-6. doi:10.1016/j.jneuroim.2011.08.019.
171. Veldman CM, Cantorna MT, DeLuca HF. Expression of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) receptor in the immune system. Arch Biochem Biophys (2000) 374(2):334-8. doi:10.1006/abbi.1999.1605.
172. Hirahara K, Nakayama T. CD4+ T-cell subsets in inflammatory diseases: beyond the Th1/Th2 paradigm. Int Immunol (2016) 28(4):163-71. doi:10.1093/intimm/dxw006.
173. Mayne CG, Spanier JA, Relland LM, Williams CB, Hayes CE. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 acts directly on the T lymphocyte vitamin D receptor to inhibit experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Eur J Immunol (2011) 41(3):822-32. doi:10.1002/eji.201040632.
174. Meehan TF, DeLuca HF. CD8(+) T cells are not necessary for 1 alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) to suppress experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A (2002) 99(8):5557-60. doi:10.1073/pnas.082100699.
175. Grishkan IV, Fairchild AN, Calabresi PA, Gocke AR. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 selectively and reversibly impairs T helper-cell CNS localization. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A (2013) 110(52):21101-6. doi:10.1073/pnas.1306072110.
176. Nath N, Prasad R, Giri S, Singh AK, Singh I. T-bet is essential for the progression of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Immunology (2006) 118(3):384-91. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2567.2006.02385.x.
177. Ferber IA, Brocke S, Taylor-Edwards C, Ridgway W, Dinisco C, Steinman L, et al. Mice with a disrupted IFN-gamma gene are susceptible to the induction of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). J Immunol (1996) 156(1):5-7.
178. Damsker JM, Hansen AM, Caspi RR. Th1 and Th17 cells: adversaries and collaborators. Ann N Y Acad Sci (2010) 1183:211-21. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.05133.x.
179. Waldburger KE, Hastings RC, Schaub RG, Goldman SJ, Leonard JP. Adoptive transfer of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis after in vitro treatment with recombinant murine interleukin-12. Preferential expansion of interferon-gamma-producing cells and increased expression of macrophage-associated inducible nitric oxide synthase as immunomodulatory mechanisms. Am J Pathol (1996) 148(2):375-82.
180. Staeva-Vieira TP, Freedman LP. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 inhibits IFN-gamma and IL-4 levels during in vitro polarization of primary murine CD4+ T cells. J Immunol (2002) 168(3):1181-9. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.168.3.1181.
181. Takeuchi A, Reddy GS, Kobayashi T, Okano T, Park J, Sharma S. Nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) as a molecular target for 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3-mediated effects. J Immunol (1998) 160(1):209-18.
182. Peelen E, Thewissen M, Knippenberg S, Smolders J, Muris AH, Menheere P, et al. Fraction of IL-10+ and IL-17+ CD8 T cells is increased in MS patients in remission and during a relapse, but is not influenced by immune modulators. J Neuroimmunol (2013) 258(1-2):77-84. doi:10.1016/j.jneuroim.2013.02.014.
183. van Hamburg JP, Mus AM, de Bruijn MJ, de Vogel L, Boon L, Cornelissen F, et al. GATA-3 protects against severe joint inflammation and bone erosion and reduces differentiation of Th17 cells during experimental arthritis. Arthritis Rheum (2009) 60(3):750-9. doi:10.1002/art.24329.
184. Sloka S, Silva C, Wang J, Yong VW. Predominance of Th2 polarization by vitamin D through a STAT6-dependent mechanism. J Neuroinflammation (2011) 8:56. doi:10.1186/1742-2094-8-56.
185. McGeachy MJ, Bak-Jensen KS, Chen Y, Tato CM, Blumenschein W, McClanahan T, et al. TGF-beta and IL-6 drive the production of IL-17 and IL-10 by T cells and restrain T(H)-17 cell-mediated pathology. Nat Immunol (2007) 8(12):1390-7. doi:10.1038/ni1539.
186. Cua DJ, Sherlock J, Chen Y, Murphy CA, Joyce B, Seymour B, et al. Interleukin-23 rather than interleukin-12 is the critical cytokine for autoimmune inflammation of the brain. Nature (2003) 421(6924):744-8. doi:10.1038/nature01355.
187. Murphy CA, Langrish CL, Chen Y, Blumenschein W, McClanahan T, Kastelein RA, et al. Divergent pro-and antiinflammatory roles for IL-23 and IL-12 in joint autoimmune inflammation. J Exp Med (2003) 198(12):1951-7. doi:10.1084/jem.20030896.
188. Lubberts E, Joosten LA, van de Loo FA, Schwarzenberger P, Kolls J, van den Berg WB. Overexpression of IL-17 in the knee joint of collagen type II immunized mice promotes collagen arthritis and aggravates joint destruction. Inflamm Res (2002) 51(2):102-4. doi:10.1007/BF02684010.
189. Hirota K, Duarte JH, Veldhoen M, Hornsby E, Li Y, Cua DJ, et al. Fate mapping of IL-17-producing T cells in inflammatory responses. Nat Immunol (2011) 12(3):255-63. doi:10.1038/ni.1993.
190. van Hamburg JP, Asmawidjaja PS, Davelaar N, Mus AM, Colin EM, Hazes JM, et al. Th17 cells, but not Th1 cells, from patients with early rheumatoid arthritis are potent inducers of matrix metalloproteinases and proinflammatory cytokines upon synovial fibroblast interaction, including autocrine interleukin-17A production. Arthritis Rheum (2011) 63(1):73-83. doi:10.1002/art.30093.
191. Yang J, Chu Y, Yang X, Gao D, Zhu L, Yang X, et al. Th17 and natural Treg cell population dynamics in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum (2009) 60(5):1472-83. doi:10.1002/art.24499.
192. Leipe J, Grunke M, Dechant C, Reindl C, Kerzendorf U, Schulze-Koops H, et al. Role of Th17 cells in human autoimmune arthritis. Arthritis Rheum (2010) 62(10):2876-85. doi:10.1002/art.27622.
193. Tang J, Zhou R, Luger D, Zhu W, Silver PB, Grajewski RS, et al. Calcitriol suppresses antiretinal autoimmunity through inhibitory effects on the Th17 effector response. J Immunol (2009) 182(8):4624-32. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.0801543.
194. Mukasa R, Balasubramani A, Lee YK, Whitley SK, Weaver BT, Shibata Y, et al. Epigenetic instability of cytokine and transcription factor gene loci underlies plasticity of the T helper 17 cell lineage. Immunity (2010) 32(5):616-27. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2010.04.016.
195. Maggi L, Santarlasci V, Capone M, Rossi MC, Querci V, Mazzoni A, et al. Distinctive features of classic and nonclassic (Th17 derived) human Th1 cells. Eur J Immunol (2012) 42(12):3180-8. doi:10.1002/eji.201242648.
196. Cosmi L, Liotta F, Maggi E, Romagnani S, Annunziato F. Th17 and non-classic Th1 cells in chronic inflammatory disorders: two sides of the same coin. Int Arch Allergy Immunol (2014) 164(3):171-7. doi:10.1159/000363502.
197. Paulissen SM, van Hamburg JP, Dankers W, Lubberts E. The role and modulation of CCR6+ Th17 cell populations in rheumatoid arthritis. Cytokine (2015) 74(1):43-53. doi:10.1016/j.cyto.2015.02.002.
198. Sotirchos ES, Bhargava P, Eckstein C, Van Haren K, Baynes M, Ntranos A, et al. Safety and immunologic effects of high-vs low-dose cholecalciferol in multiple sclerosis. Neurology (2016) 86(4):382-90. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000002316.
199. Bennett CL, Christie J, Ramsdell F, Brunkow ME, Ferguson PJ, Whitesell L, et al. The immune dysregulation, polyendocrinopathy, enteropathy, X-linked syndrome (IPEX) is caused by mutations of FOXP3. Nat Genet (2001) 27(1):20-1. doi:10.1038/83713.
200. Spach KM, Nashold FE, Dittel BN, Hayes CE. IL-10 signaling is essential for 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3-mediated inhibition of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Immunol (2006) 177(9):6030-7. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.177.9.6030.
201. Van Belle TL, Vanherwegen AS, Feyaerts D, De Clercq P, Verstuyf A, Korf H, et al. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and its analog TX527 promote a stable regulatory T cell phenotype in T cells from type 1 diabetes patients. PLoS One (2014) 9(10):e109194. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0109194.
202. Urry Z, Chambers ES, Xystrakis E, Dimeloe S, Richards DF, Gabrysova L, et al. The role of 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and cytokines in the promotion of distinct Foxp3+ and IL-10+ CD4+ T cells. Eur J Immunol (2012) 42(10):2697-708. doi:10.1002/eji.201242370.
203. Smolders J, Thewissen M, Peelen E, Menheere P, Tervaert JW, Damoiseaux J, et al. Vitamin D status is positively correlated with regulatory T cell function in patients with multiple sclerosis. PLoS One (2009) 4(8):e6635. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0006635.
204. Bock G, Prietl B, Mader JK, Holler E, Wolf M, Pilz S, et al. The effect of vitamin D supplementation on peripheral regulatory T cells and beta cell function in healthy humans: a randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Metab Res Rev (2011) 27(8):942-5. doi:10.1002/dmrr.1276.
205. Zhang N, Bevan MJ. CD8(+) T cells: foot soldiers of the immune system. Immunity (2011) 35(2):161-8. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2011.07.010.
206. Huseby ES, Liggitt D, Brabb T, Schnabel B, Ohlen C, Goverman J. A pathogenic role for myelin-specific CD8(+) T cells in a model for multiple sclerosis. J Exp Med (2001) 194(5):669-76. doi:10.1084/jem.194.5.669.
207. Sun D, Whitaker JN, Huang Z, Liu D, Coleclough C, Wekerle H, et al. Myelin antigen-specific CD8+ T cells are encephalitogenic and produce severe disease in C57BL/6 mice. J Immunol (2001) 166(12):7579-87. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.166.12.7579.
208. SteinhoffU, Brinkmann V, Klemm U, Aichele P, Seiler P, Brandt U, et al. Autoimmune intestinal pathology induced by hsp60-specific CD8 T cells. Immunity (1999) 11(3):349-58. doi:10.1016/S1074-7613(00)80110-7.
209. Menon B, Gullick NJ, Walter GJ, Rajasekhar M, Garrood T, Evans HG, et al. Interleukin-17+CD8+ T cells are enriched in the joints of patients with psoriatic arthritis and correlate with disease activity and joint damage progression. Arthritis Rheumatol (2014) 66(5):1272-81. doi:10.1002/art.38376.
210. Godfrey DI, Uldrich AP, McCluskey J, Rossjohn J, Moody DB. The burgeoning family of unconventional T cells. Nat Immunol (2015) 16(11):1114-23. doi:10.1038/ni.3298.
211. Edwards SC, McGinley AM, McGuinness NC, Mills KH. gammadelta T cells and NK cells-distinct pathogenic roles as innate-like immune cells in CNS autoimmunity. Front Immunol (2015) 6:455. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2015.00455.
212. Wu L, Van Kaer L. Natural killer T cells in health and disease. Front Biosci (Schol Ed) (2011) 3:236-51. doi:10.2741/148.
213. Spits H, Artis D, Colonna M, Diefenbach A, Di Santo JP, Eberl G, et al. Innate lymphoid cells-a proposal for uniform nomenclature. Nat Rev Immunol (2013) 13(2):145-9. doi:10.1038/nri3365.
214. Poggi A, Zocchi MR. NK cell autoreactivity and autoimmune diseases. Front Immunol (2014) 5:27. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2014.00027.
215. Villanova F, Flutter B, Tosi I, Grys K, Sreeneebus H, Perera GK, et al. Characterization of innate lymphoid cells in human skin and blood demonstrates increase of NKp44+ ILC3 in psoriasis. J Invest Dermatol (2014) 134(4):984-91. doi:10.1038/jid.2013.477.
216. Teunissen MB, Munneke JM, Bernink JH, Spuls PI, Res PC, Te Velde A, et al. Composition of innate lymphoid cell subsets in the human skin: enrichment of NCR(+) ILC3 in lesional skin and blood of psoriasis patients. J Invest Dermatol (2014) 134(9):2351-60. doi:10.1038/jid.2014.146.
217. Geremia A, Arancibia-Carcamo CV, Fleming MP, Rust N, Singh B, Mortensen NJ, et al. IL-23-responsive innate lymphoid cells are increased in inflammatory bowel disease. J Exp Med (2011) 208(6):1127-33. doi:10.1084/jem.20101712.
218. Perry JS, Han S, Xu Q, Herman ML, Kennedy LB, Csako G, et al. Inhibition of LTi cell development by CD25 blockade is associated with decreased intrathecal inflammation in multiple sclerosis. Sci Transl Med (2012) 4(145):145ra06. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3004140.
219. Ciccia F, Guggino G, Giardina A, Ferrante A, Carrubbi F, Giacomelli R, et al. The role of innate and lymphoid IL-22-producing cells in the immunopathology of primary Sjogren's syndrome. Expert Rev Clin Immunol (2014) 10(4):533-41. doi:10.1586/1744666X.2014.884461.
220. Buonocore S, Ahern PP, Uhlig HH, Ivanov II, Littman DR, Maloy KJ, et al. Innate lymphoid cells drive interleukin-23-dependent innate intestinal pathology. Nature (2010) 464(7293):1371-5. doi:10.1038/nature08949.
221. Ding N, Yu RT, Subramaniam N, Sherman MH, Wilson C, Rao R, et al. A vitamin D receptor/SMAD genomic circuit gates hepatic fibrotic response. Cell (2013) 153(3):601-13. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2013.03.028.
222. Sherman MH, Yu RT, Engle DD, Ding N, Atkins AR, Tiriac H, et al. Vitamin D receptor-mediated stromal reprogramming suppresses pancreatitis and enhances pancreatic cancer therapy. Cell (2014) 159(1):80-93. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2014.08.007.
223. Laragione T, Shah A, Gulko PS. The vitamin D receptor regulates rheumatoid arthritis synovial fibroblast invasion and morphology. Mol Med (2012) 18:194-200. doi:10.2119/molmed.2011.00410.
224. Wu S, Liao AP, Xia Y, Li YC, Li JD, Sartor RB, et al. Vitamin D receptor negatively regulates bacterial-stimulated NF-kappaB activity in intestine. Am J Pathol (2010) 177(2):686-97. doi:10.2353/ajpath.2010.090998.
225. Nissou MF, Guttin A, Zenga C, Berger F, Issartel JP, Wion D. Additional clues for a protective role of vitamin D in neurodegenerative diseases: 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 triggers an anti-inflammatory response in brain pericytes. J Alzheimers Dis (2014) 42(3):789-99. doi:10.3233/JAD-140411.
226. Holick MF, Binkley NC, Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Gordon CM, Hanley DA, Heaney RP, et al. Evaluation, treatment, and prevention of vitamin D deficiency: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab (2011) 96(7):1911-30. doi:10.1210/jc.2011-0385.
227. Aspray TJ, Bowring C, Fraser W, Gittoes N, Javaid MK, Macdonald H, et al. National Osteoporosis Society vitamin D guideline summary. Age Ageing (2014) 43(5):592-5. doi:10.1093/ageing/afu093.
228. Kimball S, Vieth R, Dosch HM, Bar-Or A, Cheung R, Gagne D, et al. Cholecalciferol plus calcium suppresses abnormal PBMC reactivity in patients with multiple sclerosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab (2011) 96(9):2826-34. doi:10.1210/jc.2011-0325.
229. Bendix-Struve M, Bartels LE, Agnholt J, Dige A, Jørgensen SP, Dahlerup JF. Vitamin D3 treatment of Crohn's disease patients increases stimulated T cell IL-6 production and proliferation. Aliment Pharmacol Ther (2010) 32(11-12):1364-72. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2010.04463.x.
230. Yang L, Weaver V, Smith JP, Bingaman S, Hartman TJ, Cantorna MT. Therapeutic effect of vitamin d supplementation in a pilot study of Crohn's patients. Clin Transl Gastroenterol (2013) 4:e33. doi:10.1038/ctg.2013.1.
231. Andreoli L, Dall'Ara F, Piantoni S, Zanola A, Piva N, Cutolo M, et al. A 24-month prospective study on the efficacy and safety of two different monthly regimens of vitamin D supplementation in pre-menopausal women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus (2015) 24(4-5):499-506. doi:10.1177/0961203314559089.
232. Miheller P, Muzes G, Hritz I, Lakatos G, Pregun I, Lakatos PL, et al. Comparison of the effects of 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D and 25 hydroxyvitamin D on bone pathology and disease activity in Crohn's disease patients. Inflamm Bowel Dis (2009) 15(11):1656-62. doi:10.1002/ibd.20947.
233. Ferreira GB, Overbergh L, Verstuyf A, Mathieu C. 1alpha,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 and its analogs as modulators of human dendritic cells: a comparison dose-titration study. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol (2013) 136:160-5. doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2012.10.009.
234. Verlinden L, Leyssens C, Beullens I, Marcelis S, Mathieu C, De Clercq P, et al. The vitamin D analog TX527 ameliorates disease symptoms in a chemically induced model of inflammatory bowel disease. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol (2013) 136:107-11. doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2012.09.017.
235. Kiekhaefer CM, Weber B, Huggins M, Gorichanaz C, Nehring JA, DeLuca HF. 2alpha-Methyl-19-nor-(20S)-1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) protects the insulin 2 knockout non-obese diabetic mouse from developing type 1 diabetes without hypercalcaemia. Clin Exp Immunol (2011) 166(3):325-32. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2249.2011.04481.x.
236. Sochorova K, Budinsky V, Rozkova D, Tobiasova Z, Dusilova-Sulkova S, Spisek R, et al. Paricalcitol (19-nor-1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D2) and calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3) exert potent immunomodulatory effects on dendritic cells and inhibit induction of antigen-specific T cells. Clin Immunol (2009) 133(1):69-77. doi:10.1016/j.clim.2009.06.011.
237. Larsson P, Mattsson L, Klareskog L, Johnsson C. A vitamin D analogue (MC 1288) has immunomodulatory properties and suppresses collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) without causing hypercalcaemia. Clin Exp Immunol (1998) 114(2):277-83. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2249.1998.00706.x.
238. Ikeda U, Wakita D, Ohkuri T, Chamoto K, Kitamura H, Iwakura Y, et al. 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and all-trans retinoic acid synergistically inhibit the differentiation and expansion of Th17 cells. Immunol Lett (2010) 134(1):7-16. doi:10.1016/j.imlet.2010.07.002.
239. Ferreira GB, Kleijwegt FS, Waelkens E, Lage K, Nikolic T, Hansen DA, et al. Differential protein pathways in 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin d(3) and dexamethasone modulated tolerogenic human dendritic cells. J Proteome Res (2012) 11(2):941-71. doi:10.1021/pr200724e.
240. Zhang Y, Leung DY, Goleva E. Vitamin D enhances glucocorticoid action in human monocytes: involvement of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor and mediator complex subunit 14. J Biol Chem (2013) 288(20):14544-53. doi:10.1074/jbc. M112.427054.
241. Paintlia AS, Paintlia MK, Hollis BW, Singh AK, Singh I. Interference with RhoA-ROCK signaling mechanism in autoreactive CD4+ T cells enhances the bioavailability of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Am J Pathol (2012) 181(3):993-1006. doi:10.1016/j.ajpath.2012.05.028.
242. Matilainen JM, Husso T, Toropainen S, Seuter S, Turunen MP, Gynther P, et al. Primary effect of 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3) on IL-10 expression in monocytes is short-term down-regulation. Biochim Biophys Acta (2010) 1803(11):1276-86. doi:10.1016/j.bbamcr.2010.07.009.
243. Seuter S, Heikkinen S, Carlberg C. Chromatin acetylation at transcription start sites and vitamin D receptor binding regions relates to effects of 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and histone deacetylase inhibitors on gene expression. Nucleic Acids Res (2013) 41(1):110-24. doi:10.1093/nar/gks959.
244. Seuter S, Ryynanen J, Carlberg C. The ASAP2 gene is a primary target of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in human monocytes and macrophages. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol (2014) 144:12-8. doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.08.014.
245. Ryynanen J, Carlberg C. Primary 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 response of the interleukin 8 gene cluster in human monocyte-and macrophage-like cells. PLoS One (2013) 8(10):e78170. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0078170.
246. Nurminen V, Neme A, Ryynanen J, Heikkinen S, Seuter S, Carlberg C. The transcriptional regulator BCL6 participates in the secondary gene regulatory response to vitamin D. Biochim Biophys Acta (2015) 1849(3):300-8. doi:10.1016/j.bbagrm.2014.12.001.
247. Seuter S, Pehkonen P, Heikkinen S, Carlberg C. Dynamics of 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3-dependent chromatin accessibility of early vitamin D receptor target genes. Biochim Biophys Acta (2013) 1829(12):1266-75. doi:10.1016/j.bbagrm.2013.10.003.
248. Seuter S, Neme A, Carlberg C. Characterization of genomic vitamin D receptor binding sites through chromatin looping and opening. PLoS One (2014) 9(4):e96184. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0096184.