Aflatoxins: A global concern for food safety, human health and their management

Frontiers in Microbiology

Volumn 7, Issue JAN, 2017, Pages

  Kumar, Pradeep ^a   Mahato, Dipendra K ^b   Kamle, Madhu ^a   Mohanta, Tapan K ^c   Kang, Sang G ^c  

^a NORTH EASTERN REGIONAL INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY   (India)

^b INDIAN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (India)

^c Yeungnam University   (South Korea)

Author keywords

Aflatoxins; Aspergillus sp.; Food contamination; Health issues; Secondary metabolites

Indexed keywords

AFLATOXIN; GREEN FLUORESCENT PROTEIN; STERIGMATOCYSTIN;

ABSORPTION; AFLATOXICOSIS; AGRICULTURAL MANAGEMENT; AGRICULTURE; ASPERGILLUS FLAVUS; ASPERGILLUS NOMIUS; ASPERGILLUS PARASITICUS; BIOLOGICAL PEST CONTROL; BIOSYNTHESIS; CEREAL; DENATURING HIGH PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY; EMERICELLA; ENVIRONMENTAL TEMPERATURE; ENZYME LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY; FIELD EMISSION; FOOD SAFETY; HEALTH HAZARD; LIVESTOCK; MAIZE; MASS SPECTROMETRY; NONHUMAN; NUT; OILSEED; PHOSPHORESCENCE; PROTEIN DEGRADATION; PROTEIN PROCESSING; PUBLIC HEALTH; REVIEW; SPICE; THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY; TOXICITY;

EID: 85011964418     PISSN: None     EISSN: 1664302X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.02170     Document Type: Review

References (159)

1. Abbas, H. K., Reddy, K. R. N., Salleh, B., Saad, B., Abel, C. A., and Shier, W. T. (2010). An overview of mycotoxin contamination in foods and its implications for human health. Toxin Rev. 29, 3-26. doi: 10.3109/15569541003598553
2. Abbas, H. K., Zablotowicz, R. M., Bruns, H. A., and Abel, C. A. (2006). Biocontrol of aflatoxin in corn by inoculation with non-aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus isolates. Biocontrol Sci. Technol. 16, 437-449. doi: 10.1080/09583150500532477
3. Abdel-Hadi, A., Carter, D., and Magan, N. (2010). Temporal monitoring of the nor-1 (aflD) gene of Aspergillus flavus in relation to aflatoxin B1 production during storage of peanuts under different environmental conditions. J. Appl. Microbiol. 109, 1914-1922. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2010.04820.x
4. Abdel-Wahhab, M. A., Abdel-Galil, M. M., Hassan, A. M., Hassan, N. H., Nada, S. A., Saeed, A., et al. (2007). Zizyphus spina-christi extract protects against aflatoxin B1-intitiated hepatic carcinogenicity. Afr. J. Tradit. Complement. Altern. Med. 4, 248-256.
5. Agnes, V. F., and Akbarsha, M. A. (2001). Pale vacuolated epithelial cells in epididymis of aflatoxin-treated mice. Reproduction 122, 629-641. doi: 10.1530/rep.0.1220629
6. Agriopoulou, S., Koliadima, A., Karaiskakis, G., and Kapolos, J. (2016). Kinetic study of aflatoxins' degradation in the presence of ozone. Food Control 61, 221-226. doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2015.09.013
7. Akande, K. E., Abubakar, M. M., Adegbola, T. A., and Bogoro, S. E. (2006). Nutritional and health implications of mycotoxin in animal feed. Pak. J. Nutr. 5, 398-403. doi: 10.3923/pjn.2006.398.403
8. Alberts, J. F., Gelderblom, W. C. A., Botha, A., and van Zyl, W. H. (2009). Degradation of aflatoxin B1 by fungal laccase enzymes. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 135, 47-52. doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2009.07.022
9. Amaike, S. A., and Keller, N. P. (2011). Aspergillus flavus. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 49, 107-133. doi: 10.1146/annurev-phyto-072910-095221
10. Andrade, P. D., da Silva, J. L. G., and Caldas, E. D. (2013). Simultaneous analysis of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2, M1 and ochratoxin A in breast milk by high-performance liquid chromatography/fluorescence after liquid-liquid extraction with low temperature purification (LLE-LTP). J. Chromatogr. A 1304, 61-68. doi: 10.1016/j.chroma.2013.06.049
11. Anjaiah, V., Thakur, R. P., and Koedam, N. (2006). Evaluation of bacteria and Trichoderma for biocontrol of pre-harvest seed infection by Aspergillus flavus in groundnut. Biocontrol Sci. Technol. 16, 431-436. doi: 10.1080/09583150500532337
12. Ashworth, L. J. Jr., McMeans, J. L., and Brown, C. M. (1969). Infection of cotton by Aspergillus flavus: epidemiology of the disease. J. Stored Prod. Res. 5, 193-202. doi: 10.1016/0022-474X(69)90033-2
13. Astoreca, A., Magnoli, C., Barberis, C., Chiacchiera, S. M., Combina, M., and Dalcero, A. (2007a). Ochratoxin A production in relation to ecophysiological factors by Aspergillus section Nigri strains isolated from different substrates in Argentina. Sci. Total Environ. 388, 16-23. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2007.07.028
14. Astoreca, A., Magnoli, C., Ramirez, M. L., Combina, M., and Dalcero, A. (2007b). Water activity and temperature effects on growth of Aspergillus niger, A. awamori and A. Carbonarius isolated from different substrates in Argentina. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 119, 314-318.
15. Awasthi, V., Bahman, S., Thakur, L. K., Singh, S. K., Dua, A., and Ganguly, S. (2012). Contaminants in milk and impact of heating: an assessment study. Indian J. Public Health 56, 95-99. doi: 10.4103/0019-557X.96985
16. Aydin, A., Gunsen, U., and Demirel, S. (2008). Total aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A levels in Turkish wheat flour. J. Food Drug Anal. 16, 48-53.
17. Azziz-Baumgartner, E., Lindblade, K., Gieseker, K., Rogers, H. S., Kieszak, S., Njapau, H., et al. (2005). Case-control study of an acute aflatoxicosis outbreak, Kenya, 2004. Environ. Health Perspect. 113, 1779-1783.
18. Bankole, S. A., Adenusi, A. A., Lawal, O. S., and Adesanya, O. O. (2010). Occurrence of aflatoxin B1 in food products derivabl e from 'egusi' melon seeds consumed in southwestern Nigeria. Food Control 21, 974-976. doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2009.11.014
19. Bbosa, G. S., Kitya, D., Lubega, A., Ogwal-Okeng, J., Anokbonggo, W. W., and Kyegombe, D. B. (2013). "Review of the biological and health effects of aflatoxins on bodyorgans and body systems, "in Aflatoxins-Recent Advances and Future Prospects, ed. M. Razzaghi-Abyaneh (Rijeka: InTech), 239-265.
20. Bennett, J. W., and Klich, M. (2003). Mycotoxins. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 16, 497-516. doi: 10.1128/CMR.16.3.497-516.2003
21. Bhatnagar, D., Ehrlich, K. C., and Cleveland, T. E. (2003). Molecular genetic analysis and regulation of aflatoxin biosynthesis. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 61, 83-93. doi: 10.1007/s00253-002-1199-x
22. Bhatt, R. V., and Krishnamachari, K. A. V. R. (1978). Food toxins and disease outbreaks in India. Arogya J. Health Sci. 4, 92-100.
23. Boutrif, E. (1998). Prevention of aflatoxin in pistachios. Food Nutr. Agric. 21, 32-38.
24. Brown, D. W., Adams, T. H., and Keller, N. P. (1996). Aspergillus has distinct fatty acid synthases for primary and secondary metabolism. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 19, 14873-14877. doi: 10.1073/pnas.93.25.14873
25. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDCP] (2004). Outbreak of Aflatoxin Poisoning-Eastern and Central Provinces, Kenya, January-July 2004. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5334a4.htm [accessed October 10, 2016]
26. Chang, P. K., Cary, J. W., Bhatnagar, D., Cleveland, T. E., Bennett, J. W., Linz, J. E., et al. (1993). Cloning of the Aspergillus parasiticus apa-2 gene associated with the regulation of aflatoxin biosynthesis. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59, 3273-3279.
27. Chang, P. K., Skory, C. D., and Linz, J. E. (1992). Cloning of a gene associated with aflatoxin B1 biosynthesis in Aspergillus parasiticus. Curr. Genet. 21, 231-233. doi: 10.1007/BF00336846
28. Cheftel, J. C. (1989). "Extrusion cooking and food safety, "in Extrusion Cooking, eds C. Mercier, P. Linko, and J. M. Harper (Eagan, MN: American Association of Cereal Chemists), 435-461.
29. Chen, Z. Y., Brown, R. L., Damann, K. E., and Cleveland, T. E. (2007). Identification of maiz kernel endosperm proteins associated with resistance to aflatoxin contamination by Aspergillus flavus. Phytopathology 97, 1094-1103. doi: 10.1094/PHYTO-97-9-1094
30. Cleveland, T. E. (2006). "The use of crop proteomics and fungal genomics inelucidating fungus-crop interactions, "in Proceedings of the Myco-Globe Conference, Bari, 32.
31. Cole, R. J., and Cox, E. H. (1987). Handbook of Toxic Fungal Metabolites. New York, NY: Academic Press.
32. Cornea, C. P., Ciuca, M., Voaides, C., Gagiu, V., and Pop, A. (2011). Incidence of fungal contamination in a Romanian bakery: a molecular approach. Rom. Biotechnol. Lett. 16, 5863-5871.
33. Costa-Fernandez, J. M., and Sanz-Medel, A. (2000). Room temperature phosphorescence biochemical sensors. Quim. Anal. 19, 189-204.
34. Cotty, P. J., and Jaime-Garcia, R. (2007). Influences of climate on aflatoxin producing fungi and aflatoxin contamination. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 119, 109-115. doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.07.060
35. Cserhati, M., Kriszt, B., Krifaton, C., Szoboszlay, S., Hahn, J., Toth, S., et al. (2013). Mycotoxin-degradation profile of Rhodococcus strains. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 166, 176-185. doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.06.002
36. Cusato, S., Gameiro, A. H., Corassin, C. H., Sant'Ana, A. S., Cruz, A. G., Faria, J. D. A. F., et al. (2013). Food safety systems in a small dairy factory: implementation, major challenges, and assessment of systems' performances. Foodborne Pathog. Dis. 10, 6-12. doi: 10.1089/fpd.2012.1286
37. Dorner, J. W. (2009). Development of biocontrol technology to manage aflatoxin contamination in peanuts. Peanut Sci. 36, 60-67. doi: 10.3146/AT07-002.1
38. Ehrlich, K. C. (2009). Predicted roles of uncharacterized clustered genes in aflatoxin biosynthesis. Toxins 1, 37-58. doi: 10.3390/toxins1010037
39. Ehrlich, K. K., and Cotty, P. J. (2004). An isolate of Aspergillus flavus used to reduce aflatoxin contamination in cottonseed has a defective polyketide synthase gene. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 65, 473-478. doi: 10.1007/s00253-004-1670-y
40. Etzel, R. A. (2002). Mycotoxins. JAMA 287, 425-427. doi: 10.1001/jama.287.4.425
41. European Commission (2009). The Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) Annual Report 2008. Luxembourg: European Communities.
42. Ezra, D., Skovorodnikova, J., Kroitor-Keren, T., Denisov, Y., and Liarzi, O. (2010). Development of methods for detection and Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of the sterile, endophytic fungus Muscodor albus. Biocontrol Sci. Technol. 20, 83-97. doi: 10.1080/09583150903420049
43. Faisal, K., Periasamy, V. S., Sahabudeen, S., Radha, A., Anandhi, R., and Akbarsha, M. A. (2008). Spermatotoxic effect of aflatoxin B1 in rat: extrusion of outer densefibres and associated axonemal microtubule doublets of sperm flagellum. Reproduction 135, 303-310. doi: 10.1530/REP-07-0367
44. Fallah, A. A., Rahnama, M., Jafari, T., and Saei-Dehkordi, S. S. (2011). Seasonal variation of aflatoxin M1 contamination in industrial and traditional Iranian dairy products. Food Control 22, 1653-1656. doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2011.03.024
45. Frisvad, J. C., Smedsgaard, J., Samson, R. A., Larsen, T. O., and Thrane, U. (2007). Fumonisin B2 Production by Aspergillus niger. J. Agric. Food Chem. 55, 9727-9732. doi: 10.1021/jf0718906
46. Gallo, A., Solfrizzo, M., Epifani, F., Panzarini, G., and Perrone, G. (2016). Effect of temperature and water activity on gene expression and aflatoxin biosynthesis in Aspergillus flavus on almond medium. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 217, 162-169. doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2015.10.026
47. Galvano, F., Galofaro, V., and Galvano, G. (1996). Occurrence and stability of aflatoxin M1 in milk and milk products. A worldwide review. J. Food Prot. 59, 1079-1090. doi: 10.4315/0362-028X-59.10.1079
48. Giray, B., Girgin, G., Engin, A. B., Aydin, S., and Sahin, G. (2007). Aflatoxin levels in wheat samples consumed in some regions of Turkey. Food Control 18, 23-29. doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2005.08.002
49. Gong, Y., Hounsa, A., Egal, S., Turner, P. C., Sutcliffe, A. E., Hall, A. J., et al. (2004). Postweaning exposure to aflatoxin results in impaired child growth: a longitudinal study in Benin, West Africa. Environ. Health Perspect. 112, 1334-1338. doi: 10.1289/ehp.6954
50. Griffin, G. J., and Garren, K. H. (1976). Colonization of rye green manure and peanut fruit debris by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger group in field soils. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 32, 28-32.
51. Guan, S., Ji, C., Zhou, T., Li, J., Ma, Q., and Niu, T. (2008). Aflatoxin B1 degradation by Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and other microbes selected using coumarin medium. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 9, 1489-1503. doi: 10.3390/ijms9081489
52. Gupta, R., and Sharma, V. (2011). Ameliorative effects of tinospora cordifolia root extracton histopathological and biochemical changes induced by aflatoxin-b (1) in mice kidney. Toxicol. Int. 18, 94-98. doi: 10.4103/0971-6580.84259
53. Hameed, H. G. (1993). Extrusion and Chemical Treatments for Destruction of Aflatoxin in Naturally-Contaminated Corn. Ph. D. thesis, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ.
54. Hedayati, M. T., Pasqualotto, A. C., Warn, P. A., Bowyer, P., and Denning, D. W. (2007). Aspergillus flavus: human pathogen, allergen and micotoxin producer. Microbiology 153, 1677-1692. doi: 10.1099/mic.0.2007/007641-0
55. Hendrickse, R. G. (1997). Of sick Turkeys, Kwashiorkor, malaria, perinatal mortality, Herion addicts and food poisoning: research on influence of aflatoxins on child health in the tropics. J. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 91, 87-93.
56. Holbrook, C. C. Jr., Guo, B., Wilson, D. M., and Timper, P. (2006). "The U.S. breeding program to develop peanut with drought tolerance and reduced aflatoxin contamination [abstract], "in Proceedings of the International Conference on Groundnut Aflatoxin Management and Genomics, Guangzhou.
57. Hussain, I., and Anwar, J. (2008). A study on contamination of aflatoxin M1 in raw milk in the Punjab province of Pakistan. Food Control 19, 393-395. doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2007.12.002
58. IARC (2002). Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, Vol. 82. Lyon: International Agency for Cancer Research.
59. Idris, Y. M. A., Mariod, A. A., Elnour, I. A., and Mohamed, A. A. (2010). Determination of aflatoxin levels in Sudanese edible oils. Food Chem. Toxicol. 48, 2539-2541. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2010.05.021
60. Inan, F., Pala, M., and Doymaz, I. (2007). Use of ozone in detoxification of aflatoxin B1 in red pepper. J. Stored Prod. Res. 43, 425-429. doi: 10.1016/j.jspr.2006.11.004
61. Iqbal, S. Z., Mustafa, H. G., Asi, M. R., and Jinap, S. (2014). Variation in vitamin E level and aflatoxins contamination in different rice varieties. J. Cereal Sci. 60, 352-355. doi: 10.1016/j.jcs.2014.05.012
62. Jacobsen, B. J. (2008). "Predicting the Incidence of Mycotoxins, "in Proceeding of 26th Annual International Symposium on Man and His Environment in Health and Disease: Molds & Mycotoxins, Hidden Connections for Chronic Diseases, (Dallas, TX: American Environmental Health Foundation), 13-17.
63. Jaimez, J., Fente, C. A., Vazquez, B. I., Franco, C. M., Cepeda, A., Mahuzier, G., et al. (2000). Application of the assay of aflatoxins by liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection in food analysis. J. Chromatogr. A 882, 1-10. doi: 10.1016/S0021-9673(00)00212-0
64. Jelinek, C. F., Pohland, A. E., and Wood, G. E. (1989). Worldwide occurrence of mycotoxins in foods and feeds-an update. J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 72, 223-230.
65. Kader, A. A., and Hussein, A. M. (2009). Harvesting and Postharvest Handling of Dates. Aleppo: ICARDA.
66. Kensler, T. W., Roebuck, B. D., Wogan, G. N., and Groopman, J. D. (2011). Aflatoxin: a 50-year odyssey of mechanistic and translational toxicology. Toxicol. Sci. 120, 28-48. doi: 10.1093/toxsci/kfq283
67. Krishnamachari, K. A. V. R., Bhat, R. V., Nagarajan, V., and Tilak, T. B. G. (1975). Hepatitis due to aflatoxicosis-An outbreak in western India. Lancet 1, 1061-1063. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(75)91829-2
68. Kumar, V., Basu, M. S., and Rajendran, T. P. (2008). Mycotoxin research and mycoflora in some commercially important agricultural commodities. Crop Prot. 27, 891-905. doi: 10.1016/j.cropro.2007.12.011
69. Kurtzman, C. P., Horn, B. W., and Hesseltine, C. W. (1987). Aspergillus nomius, a new aflatoxin-producing species related to Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 53, 147-158. doi: 10.1016/S0168-6496(03)00154-5
70. Laag, E. M., and Abdel Aziz, H. O. (2013). Effect of aflatoxin-B1 on rat cerebellar cortex: light and electron microscopic study. Egypt. J. Histol. 36, 601-610. doi: 10.1097/01.EHX.0000432619.75801.15
71. Lancaster, M. C., Jenkins, F. P., and Philip, J. M. C. (1961). Toxicity associated with certain samples of ground nuts. Nature 12, 1095-1096. doi: 10.1038/1921095a0
72. Lee, L. S., Goynes, W. R., and Lacey, P. E. (1986). Aflatoxin in Arizona cottonseed: simulation of insect vectored infection of cotton bolls by Aspergillus flavus. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 63:468.
73. Li, G. R., Wu, J. J., Jin, W. J., and Xie, J. W. (2003). Antioxygen quenching room temperature phosphorescence stabilized by deoxycholate aggregate. Talanta 60, 552-562. doi: 10.1016/S0039-9140(03)00185-1
74. Lockis, V. R., Cruz, A. G., Walter, E. H., Faria, J. A., Granato, D., and Sant'Ana, A. S. (2011). Prerequisite programs at schools: diagnosis and economic evaluation. Foodborne Pathog. Dis. 8, 213-220. doi: 10.1089/fpd.2010.0645
75. Lorbeer, J. W., Ransom, V. E., and Tuffley, J. J. (2000). Nature and source of Inoculums of Aspergillus niger Causing the Aspergillus Black Mold Disease of Onions in New York. Geneva, NY: New York State Integrated Pest Management Grants Program, 1-6.
76. Macia-Vicente, J. G., Jansson, H. B., Talbot, N. J., and Lopez-Llorca, L. V. (2009). Real-time PCR quantification and live-cell imaging of endophytic colonization of barley (Hordeumvulgare) roots by Fusarium equiseti and Pochonia chlamydosporia. New Phytol. 182, 213-228. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2008.02743.x
77. Magan, N., and Aldred, D. (2007). Post-harvest control strategies: minimizing mycotoxins in the food chain. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 119, 131-139. doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.07.034
78. Magan, N., Aldred, D., Hope, R., and Mitchell, D. (2010). Environmental factors and interactions with mycoflora of grain and grapes: effects on growth and deoxynivalenol and ochratoxin production by Fusarium culmorum and Aspergillus carbonarius. Toxins 2, 353-366. doi: 10.3390/toxins2030353
79. Magan, N., Medina, A., and Aldred, D. (2011). Possible climate change effects on mycotoxin contamination of food crops pre-and post-harvest. Plant Pathol. 60, 150-163. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3059.2010.02412.x
80. Magnoli, C., Astoreca, A., Ponsone, L., Fernandez-Juri, M. G., Chiacchiera, S., and Dalcero, A. (2006). Ochratoxin A and the occurrence of ochratoxin A-producing black aspergilla in stored peanut seeds from Cordoba, Argentina. J. Sci. Food Agric. 86, 2369-2373. doi: 10.1002/jsfa.2625
81. Mahanti, N., Bhatnagar, D., Cary, J. W., Joubran, J., and Linz, J. E. (1996). Structure and function of fas-1A, a gene encoding a putative fatty acid synthetase directly involved in aflatoxin biosynthesis in Aspergillus parasiticus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62, 191-195.
82. Maldonado-Siman, E., Bai, L., Ramírez-Valverde, R., Gong, S., and Rodríguez-de Lara, R. (2014). Comparison of implementing HACCP systems of exporter Mexican and Chinese meat enterprises. Food Control 38, 109-115. doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.10.017
83. Massey, T. E., Stewart, R. K., Daniels, J. M., and Liu, L. (1995). Biochemical and molecular aspects of mammalian susceptibility to aflatoxin B-1 Carcinogenicity. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 208, 213-227. doi: 10.3181/00379727-208-43852A
84. Medina, A., Rodriguez, A., and Magan, N. (2014). Effect of climate change on aspergillus flavus and aflatoxin B1 production. Front. Microbiol. 5:348. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00348
85. Mehrzad, J., Devriendt, B., Baert, K., and Cox, E. (2014). Aflatoxin B1 interferes with the antigen-presenting capacity of porcine dendritic cells. Toxicol. Vitro 28, 531-537. doi: 10.1016/j.tiv.2013.11.015
86. Mogensen, J. M., Frisvad, J. C., Thrane, U., and Nielsen, K. F. (2009). Production of fumonisin B2 and B4 by Aspergillus niger on grapes and raisins. J. Agric. Food Chem. 58, 954-958. doi: 10.1021/jf903116q
87. Mohammed, A. M., and Metwally, N. S. (2009). Antiaflatoxicogenic activities of someaqueous plant extracts against AFB1 induced renal and cardiac damage. J. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 4, 1-16. doi: 10.3923/jpt.2009.1.16
88. Mukherjee, S., Dawe, A. L., and Creamer, R. (2010). Development of a transformation system in the swainsonine producing, slow growing endophytic fungus, Undifilum oxytropis. J. Microbiol. Methods 81, 160-165. doi: 10.1016/j.mimet.2010.02.015
89. Nakai, V. K., Rocha, L. O., Goncalez, E., Foneseca, H., Ortega, E. M., and Correa, B. (2008). Distribution of fungi and aflatoxins in stored peanut variety. Food Chemistry 106, 190-285. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.05.087
90. Nesci, A. V., Bluma, R. V., and Etcheverry, M. G. (2005). In vitro selection of maize rhizobac-teria to study potential bio-logical control of Aspergillus section Flavi and aflatoxin production. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 113, 159-171. doi: 10.1007/s10658-005-5548-3
91. Ngindu, A., Kenya, P. R., and Ocheng, D. M. (1982). Outbreak of acute hepatitis by aflatoxin poisoning in Kenya. Lancet 319, 1346-1348. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(82)92411-4
92. Nielsen, H. B., Sonne, A. M., Grunert, K. G., Banati, D., Pallak-Toth, A., Lakner, Z., et al. (2009). Consumer perception of the use of high-pressure processing and pulsed electric field technologies in food production. Appetite 52, 115-126. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2008.09.010
93. Oyelami, O. A., Maxwell, S. M., Adelusola, K. A., Aladekoma, T. A., and Oyelese, A. O. (1995). Aflatoxins in the autopsy brain tissue of children in Nigeria. Mycopathology 132, 35-38. doi: 10.1007/BF01138602
94. Palumbo, J. D., Baker, J. L., and Mahoney, N. E. (2006). Isolation of bacterial antagonists of Aspergillus flavus from almonds. Microb. Ecol. 52, 45-52. doi: 10.1007/s00248-006-9096-y
95. Park, D. L. (2002). Effect of processing on aflatoxin. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 504, 173-179. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4615-0629-4_17
96. Paterson, R., and Lima, N. (2010). How will climate change affect mycotoxins in food? Food Res. Int. 43, 1902-1914. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2009.07.010
97. Paterson, R., and Lima, N. (2011). Further mycotoxin effects from climate change. Food Res. Int. 44, 2555-2566. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2011.05.038
98. Paterson, R., and Lima, N. (2012). "Climate change, fumonisins and animal feed, "in Nutrieconomics: Balancing Global Nutrition and Productivity, ed. E. M. Binder (Tulln: BiominWorld Nutrition Forum), 241-247.
99. Payne, G. A., and Brown, M. P. (1998). Genetics and physiology of aflatoxin biosynthesis. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 36, 329-362. doi: 10.1146/annurev.phyto.36.1.329
100. Payne, G. A., Nystrom, G. J., Bhatnagar, D., Cleveland, T. E., and Woloshuk, C. P. (1993). Cloning of the afl-2 gene involved in aflatoxin biosynthesis from Aspergillus flavus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59, 156-162.
101. Piemarini, S., Micheli, L., Ammida, N. H. S., Palleschi, G., and Moscone, D. (2007). Electrical immunosensor array using a 96-well screen-printed microplate for aflatoxin B1 detection. Biosens. Bioelectron. 22, 1434-1440. doi: 10.1016/j.bios.2006.06.029
102. Pitt, J. I. (2000). Toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins. Br. Med. Bull. 56, 184-192. doi: 10.1258/0007142001902888
103. Prasher, D. C., Eckenrode, V. K., Ward, W. W., Prendergast, F. G., and Cormier, M. J. (1992). Primary structure of the Aequorea victoria green-fluorescent protein. Gene 111, 229-233. doi: 10.1016/0378-1119(92)90691-H
104. Price, M. S., Yu, J., Nierman, W. C., Kim, H. S., Pritchard, B., Jacobus, C. A., et al. (2006). The aflatoxin pathway regulator AflR induces gene transcription inside and outside of the aflatoxin biosynthetic cluster. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 255, 275-279. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2005.00084.x
105. Qian, G., Tang, L., Guo, X., Wang, F., Massey, M. E., Su, J., et al. (2014). Aflatoxin B1 modulates the expression of phenotypic markers and cytokines by splenic lymphocytes of male F344 rats. J. Appl. Toxicol. 34, 241-249. doi: 10.1002/jat.2866
106. Qureshi, H., Hamid, S. S., Ali, S. S., Anwar, J., Siddiqui, A. A., and Khan, N. A. (2015). Cytotoxic effects of aflatoxin B1 on human brain microvascular endothelial cells of the blood-brain barrier. Med. Mycol. 53, 409-416. doi: 10.1093/mmy/myv010
107. Reddy, B. N., and Raghavender, C. N. (2007). Outbreaks of aflatoxicoses in India. Afr. J. Food Agric. Nutr. Dev. 7, 1-15.
108. Reddy, K. R. N. (2010). An overview of mycotoxin contamination in foods and itsimplications for human health. Toxin Rev. 29, 3-26. doi: 10.3109/15569541003598553
109. Reiter, E., Zentek, J., and Razzazi, E. (2009). Review on sample preparation strategies and methods used for the analysis of aflatoxins in food and feed. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 53, 508-524. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.200800145
110. Romani, L. (2004). Immunity to fungal infections. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 4, 1-23. doi: 10.1038/nri1255
111. Rooney-Latham, S., Janousek, C. N., Eskalen, A., and Gubler, W. D. (2008). First report of Aspergillus carbonarius causing sour rot of table grapes (Vitisvinifera) in California. Plant Dis. 92:651. doi: 10.1094/PDIS-92-4-0651A
112. Roze, L. V., Hong, S. Y., and Linz, J. E. (2013). Aflatoxin biosynthesis: current frontiers. Annu. Rev. Food Sci. Technol. 4, 293-311. doi: 10.1146/annurev-food-083012-123702
113. Rustom, I. Y. S. (1997). Aflatoxin in food and feed: occurence, legislation and inactivation by physical methods. Food Chem. 59, 57-67. doi: 10.1016/S0308-8146(96)00096-9
114. Saalia, F. K., and Phillips, R. D. (2011a). Degradation of aflatoxins by extrusion cooking: effects on nutritional quality of extrudates. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 44, 1496-1501. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2011.01.021
115. Saalia, F. K., and Phillips, R. D. (2011b). Reduction of aflatoxins in peanut meal by extrusion cooking in the presence of nucleophiles. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 44, 1511-1516. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2011.02.012
116. Sanchis, V., and Magan, N. (2004). "Environmental profiles for growth and mycotoxin production, Chapter 8, "in Mycotoxins in Food: Detection and Control, eds N. Magan and M. Olsen (Cambridge, MA: Woodhead Publishing Ltd), 174-189.
117. Schmidt-Heydt, M., Abdel-Hadi, A., Magan, N., and Geisen, R. (2009). Complex regulation of the aflatoxin biosynthesis gene cluster of A. flavus in relation to various combinations of water activity and temperature. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 135, 231-237. doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2009.07.026
118. Schmidt-Heydt, M., Parra, R., Geisen, R., and Magan, N. (2011). Modelling the relationship between environmental factors, transcriptional genes and deoxynivalenol mycotoxin production by two Fusarium species. J. R. Soc. Interface 8, 117-126. doi: 10.1098/rsif.2010.0131
119. Schmidt-Heydt, M., Rufer, C. E., Abdel-Hadi, A., Magan, N., and Geisen, R. (2010). The production of aflatoxin B1 or G1 by Aspergillus parasiticus at various combinations of temperature and water activity is related to the ratio of aflS to aflR expression. Mycotoxin Res. 26, 241-246. doi: 10.1007/s12550-010-0062-7
120. Schuster, E., Dunn, C., van Frisvad, J., and Dijck, P. W. (2002). On the safety of Aspergillus niger: a review. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 59, 426-435. doi: 10.1007/s00253-002-1032-6
121. Seo, J. H., Min, W. K., Kweon, D. H., Park, K., and Park, Y. C. (2011). Characterization of monoclonal antibody against aflatoxin B (1) produced in hybridoma 2C12 and its single-chain variable fragment expressed in recombinant Escherichia coli. Food Chem. 126, 1316-1323. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.11.088
122. Severns, D. E., Clements, M. J., Lambert, R. J., and White, D. G. (2003). Comparison of Aspergillus ear rot and aflatoxin contamination in grain of high-oil and normal oil corn hybrids. J. Food Prot. 66, 637-643. doi: 10.4315/0362-028X-66.4.637
123. Sharmila Banu, G., Kumar, G., and Murugesan, A. G. (2009). Ethanolic leaves extract of Trianthema portulacastrum L. ameliorates aflatoxin B(1) induced hepaticdamage in rats. Indian J. Clin. Biochem. 24, 250-256. doi: 10.1007/s12291-009-0074-2
124. Shcherbakova, L., Statsyuk, N., Mikityuk, O., Nazarova, T., and Dzhavakhiya, V. (2015). Aflatoxin B1 degradation by metabolites of Phoma glomerata PG41 isolated from natural substrate colonized by aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus. Jundishapur J. Microbiol. 8:e24324. doi: 10.5812/jjm.24324
125. Sirot, V., Fremy, J. M., and Leblanc, J. C. (2013). Dietary exposure to mycotoxins and health risk assessment in the second French total diet study. Food Chem. Toxicol. 52, 1-11. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2012.10.036
126. Squire, R. A. (1981). Ranking animal carcinogens: a proposed regulatory approach. Science 214, 877-880. doi: 10.1126/science.7302565
127. Stoloff, L., and Trucksess, M. W. (1981). Effect of boiling, frying, and baking on recovery of aflatoxin from naturally contaminated corn grits or cornmeal. J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 64, 678-680.
128. Sulyok, M., Beed, F., Boni, S., Abass, A., Mukunzi, A., and Krska, R. (2015). Quantitation of multiple mycotoxins and cyanogenic glucosides in cassava samples from Tanzania and Rwanda by an LC-MS/MS-based multi-toxin method. Food Addit. Contam. Part A Chem. Anal. Control, Expo. Risk Assess. 32, 488-502.
129. Tabari, M., Karim, G., Ghavami, M., and Chamani, M. (2011). Method validation for aflatoxin M1 determination in yoghurt using immunoaffinity column clean-up prior to high-performance liquid chromatography. Toxicol. Ind. Health 27, 629-635. doi: 10.1177/0748233710394236
130. Tandon, B. N., Krishnamurthy, L., Koshy, A., Tandon, H. D., Ramalingaswamy, V., Bhandari, J. R., et al. (1977). Study of an epidemic of jaundice presumably due to toxic hepatitis in North-West India. Gastroenterology 72, 488-494.
131. Teniola, O. D., Addo, P. A., Brost, I. M., Farber, P., Jany, K. D., Alberts, J. F., et al. (2005). Degradation of aflatoxin B1 by cell-free extracts of Rhodococcus erythropolis and Mycobacterium fluoranthenivorans sp. nov. DSM44556T. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 105, 111-117. doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2005.05.004
132. Torres, P., Guzman-Ortiz, M., and Ramirez-Wong, B. (2001). Revising the role of pH and thermal treatments in aflatoxin content reduction during the tortilla and deep frying processes. J. Agric. Food Chem. 49, 2825-2829. doi: 10.1021/jf0007030
133. Townsend, C. A., Christensen, S. B., and Trautwein, K. (1984). Hexanoate as a starter unit in polyketide synthesis. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 106, 3868-3869. doi: 10.1021/ja00325a031
134. Trail, F., Manhanti, N., and Linz, J. (1995a). Molecular biology of aflatoxin biosynthesis. Microbiology 141, 755-765. doi: 10.1099/13500872-141-4-755
135. Trail, F., Mahanti, N., Rarick, M., Mehigh, R., Liang, S. H., Zhou, R., et al. (1995b). Physical and transcriptional map of an aflatoxin gene cluster in Aspergillus parasiticus and functional disruption of a gene involved early in the aflatoxin pathway. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61, 2665-2673.
136. Umoh, N. J., Lesi, O. A., Mendy, M., Bah, E., Akano, A., Whittle, H., et al. (2011). Aetiological differences in demographical, clinical and pathological characteristics of hepatocellular carcinoma in The Gambia. Liver Int. 31, 215-221. doi: 10.1111/j.1478-3231.2010.02418.x
137. Van Egmond, H. P. (1991). Mycotoxins. Int. Dairy Fed. Spec. Issue 101, 131-135.
138. Veldman, A., Meijs, J. A. C., Borggreve, G. J., and Heeres van der Tol, J. J. (1992). Carryover of aflatoxin from cows' food to milk. Animal Production 55, 163-168. doi: 10.1017/S0003356100037417
139. Verma, R. J. (2004). Aflatoxin causes DNA damage. Int. J. Hum. Genet. 4, 231-236.
140. Waliyar, F., Osiru, M., Ntare, B. R., Vijay, K. K., Sudini, H., Traore, A., et al. (2015). Aflatoxins in maize and other crops. World Mycotoxin J. 8, 245-252. doi: 10.3920/WMJ2014.1766
141. Waliyar, F., Osiru, M., Sudini, H., and Njoroge, S. (2013). "Reducing aflatoxins in groundnuts through integrated management and biocontrol, "in Aflatoxins-Finding Solutions for Improved Food Safety, eds L. J. Unnevehr and D. Grace (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute), 1-2.
142. Waller, J. M., Bigger, M., and Hillocks, R. A. (2007). Coffee Pests, Diseases and Their Management. Cambridge, MA: CAB International.
143. Weidenborner, M. (2001). Encyclopedia of Food Mycotoxins. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.
144. Wen, Y., Hatabayashi, H., Arai, H., Kitamoto, H. K., and Yabe, K. (2005). Function of the cypX and moxY genes in aflatoxin biosynthesis in Aspergillus parasiticus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71, 3192-3198. doi: 10.1128/AEM.71.6.3192-3198.2005
145. Williams, J. H., Phillips, T. D., Jolly, P. E., Stiles, J. K., Jolly, C. M., and Aggarwal, D. (2004). Human aflatoxicosis in developing countries: a review of toxicology, exposure, potential health consequences, and interventions. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 80, 1106-1122.
146. Wolf-Hall, C. (2010). "Fungal and mushroom toxins, "in Pathogens and Toxins in Foods: Challenges and Interventions, eds V. K. Juneja and J. N. Sofos (Washington, DC: ASM Press), 275-285.
147. Wood, G. E. (1991). Aflatoxin M1, Mycotoxins and Phytoalexins. London: CRC Press, 145-163.
148. Wu, F. (2010). The Global Burden of Disease Caused by Foodborne Aflatoxin. WHO Commissioned Report. Geneva: World Health Organization Food Borne Disease Burden Epidemiology Reference Group.
149. Wu, F., Bhatnagar, D., Bui-Klimke, T., Carbone, I., Hellmich, R., and Munkvold, G. (2011). Climate change impacts on mycotoxin risks in US maize. World Mycotoxin J. 4, 79-93. doi: 10.3920/WMJ2010.1246
150. Wu, S., Duan, N., Zhu, C., Ma, X., Wang, M., and Wang, Z. (2011). Magnetic nanobead-based immunoassay for the simultaneous detection of aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A using upconversion nanoparticles as multicolor labels. Biosens. Bioelectron. 30, 35-42. doi: 10.1016/j.bios.2011.08.023
151. Wu, Q., Jezkova, A., Yuan, Z., Pavlikova, L., Dohnal, V., and Kuca, K. (2009). Biological degradation of aflatoxins. Drug Metab. Rev. 41, 1-7. doi: 10.1080/03602530802563850
152. Yabe, K., Ando, Y., and Hamasaki, T. (1991). A metabolic grid among versiconal hemiacetal acetate, versiconol acetate, versiconol and versiconal during aflatoxin biosynthesis. J. Gen. Microbiol. 137, 2469-2475. doi: 10.1099/00221287-137-10-2469
153. Yabe, K., Chihaya, N., Hamamatsu, S., Sakuno, E., Hamasaki, T., Nakajima, H., et al. (2003). Enzymatic conversion of averufin to hydroxyversicolorone and elucidation of a novel metabolic grid involved in aflatoxin biosynthesis. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69, 66-73. doi: 10.1128/AEM.69.1.66-73.2003
154. Yabe, K., and Nakajima, H. (2004). Enzyme reactions and genes in aflatoxin biosynthesis. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 64, 745-755. doi: 10.1007/s00253-004-1566-x
155. Yazdanpanah, H., Mohammadi, T., Abouhossain, G., and Cheraghali, A. M. (2005). Effect of roasting on degradation of aflatoxins in contaminated pistachio nuts. Food Chem. Toxicol. 43, 1135-1139. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2005.03.004
156. Yu, J. (2012). Current understanding on aflatoxin biosynthesis and future perspective in reducing aflatoxin contamination. Toxins 4, 1024-1057. doi: 10.3390/toxins4111024
157. Yu, J., Bhatnagar, D., and Ehrlich, K. C. (2002). Aflatoxin biosynthesis. Revista Iberoam. Micol. 19, 191-200.
158. Yu, J., Chang, P. K., Ehrlich, K. C., Cary, J. W., Bhatnagar, D., Cleveland, T. E., et al. (2004). Clustered pathway genes in aflatoxin biosynthesis. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70, 1253-1262. doi: 10.1128/AEM.70.3.1253-1262.2004
159. Zhao, L. H., Guan, S., Gao, X., Ma, Q. G., Lei, Y. P., and Bai, X. M. (2011). Preparation, purification and characteristics of an aflatoxin degradation enzyme from Myxococcus fulvus ANSM068. J. Appl. Microbiol. 110, 147-155. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2010.04867.x