Electronic thin-film reliability

Electronic Thin-Film Reliability

Volumn 9780521516136, Issue , 2012, Pages 1-396

  Tu, King Ning ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEPOSITION; ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT; RELIABILITY; RELIABILITY ANALYSIS; STATISTICAL MECHANICS; STUDENTS; THERMOELECTRIC EQUIPMENT; THIN FILM CIRCUITS;

ATOMIC DIFFUSIONS; ELECTRONIC DEVICE; GRADUATE STUDENTS; IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS; NANOSCALE DOMAIN; PACKAGING TECHNOLOGIES; PROCESSING OF THIN FILMS; THIN FILM RELIABILITY;

THIN FILMS;

EID: 84929756290     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511777691     Document Type: Book

References (171)

1. Yuan, Taur and Tak H Ning, Fundamentals of Modern VLSI Devices (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1998).
2. S. M Sze (ed.), VLSI Technology (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1983).
3. K N Tu, J W Mayer, and L C Feldman, Electronic Thin Film Science (Macmillan, New York, 1992).
4. M Ohring, Reliability and Failure of Electronic Materials and Devices (Academic Press, San Diego, 1998).
5. K N Tu, Solder Joint Technology (Springer, New York, 2007).
6. K L Puttlitz and K A Stalter (eds), Handbook of Lead-Free Solder Technology for Microelectronic Assemblies (Marcel Dekker, New York, 2004).
7. International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors, Semiconductor Industry Association (San Jose, 2009). See website http://public.itrs.net/.
8. J L Vossen and W Kern, Thin Film Processes (Academic Press, New York, 1978).
9. M Ohring, The Materials Science of Thin Films (Academic Press, Boston, 1992).
10. J C Slater, Introduction to Chemical Physics (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1939).
11. L Maissel and R Glang (eds), Handbook of Thin Film Technology (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1970).
12. L Eckertova, Physics of Thin Films (Plenum Press, New York, 1986).
13. J W Mayer and S S Lau, Electronic Materials Science (Macmillan, New York, 1989).
14. B H Flowers and E Mendoza, Properties of Matter (Wiley, New York, 1970).
15. D L Goodstein, States of Matter (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1975).
16. P Haasen, Physical Metallurgy (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1978).
17. C Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics, 6th edn (Wiley, New York, 1986).
18. C Kittel and H Kroemer, Thermal Physics, 2nd edn (W. H. Freeman, New York, 1980).
19. A Guinier and R Jullien, The Solid State (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1989).
20. A B Pippard, The Elements of Classical Thermodynamics (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1966).
21. R E Hummel, Electronic Properties of Materials, 3rd edn (Springer, New York, 2001).
22. W D Callister Jr., Materials Science and Engineering an Introduction, 5th edn (Wiley, New York, 2000).
23. H Udin, “Measurement of solid/gas and solid/liquid interfacial energies”, in Metal Interfaces (American Society for Metals, Cleveland, OH, 1952).
24. L E Murr, Interfacial Phenomena in Metals and Alloys (Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1975).
25. G A Somorjai, Chemistry in Two Dimensions: Surfaces (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 1981).
26. A W Adamson, Physical Chemistry of Surfaces, 4th edn (Wiley, Newark, NJ, 1982).
27. A Zangwill, Physics at Surfaces (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988).
28. A P Sutton and R W Balluffl, Interfaces in Crystalline Materials (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1995).
29. J A Venables, Introduction to Surface and Thin Film Processes (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000).
30. P G Shewmon, Diffusion in Solids, 2nd edn (The Minerals, Metals, and Materials Society, Warrendale, PA, 1989).
31. R J Borg and G J Dienes, An Introduction to Solid State Diffusion (Academic Press, Boston, MA, 1988).
32. H S Carslaw and J C Jaeger, Conduction of Heat in Solids, 2nd edn (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1980).
33. J Crank, Mathematics of Diffusion (Oxford University Press, Fair Lawn, NJ, 1956).
34. R P Feynman, R B Leighton, and M Sands, The Feynman Lectures on Physics, vol. I (Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1963).
35. S Glasstone, K J Laidler and H Eyring, The Theory of Rate Processes (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1941).
36. D Gupta and P S Ho (eds), Diffusion Phenomena in Thin Films and Micro-electronic Materials (Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ, 1988).
37. C Kittel and H Kroemer, Thermal Physics (Wiley, New York, 1970).
38. J R Manning, Diffusion Kinetics for Atoms in Crystals (Van Nostrand, Princeton, NJ, 1968).
39. M E Glicksman, Diffusion in Solids (Wiley-Interscience, New York, 2000).
40. R W Balluffi, S M Allen and W C Carter, Kinetics of Materials (Wiley-Interscience, New York, 2005).
41. D Turnbull, “Phase changes,” Solid State Physics 3 (1965) 225.
42. J W Christian, The Theory of Transformation in Metals and Alloys (Pergamon Press, New York, 1965).
43. D A Porter and K E Easterling, Phase Transformations in Metals and Alloys (Chapman and Hall, London, 1992).
44. P G Shewmon, Transformations in Metals (Indo American Books, Delhi, 2006).
45. P G Shewmon, Diffusion in Solids, 2nd edn (TMS, Warrendale, PA, 1989).
46. A P Sutton and R W Balluffi, Interfaces in Crystalline Materials (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1995).
47. V V Slezov, Chapter 4 in Kinetics of First-order Phase Transitions (Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2009).
48. A M Gusak and K N Tu, “Kinetic theory of flux-driven ripening,” Phys. Rev. B66, (2002) 115-403.
49. R P Feynman, R B Leighton and M Sands, The Feynman Lectures on Physics (Vol. II, Ch. 38) (Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1964).
50. J P Hirth and J Lothe, Theory of Dislocations (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1969).
51. R W Hoffman, “Nanomechanics of thin films: emphasis: tensile properties,” in Physics of Thin Films (Vol. 3, p. 211), eds G.Hass and R. E.Thun (Academic Press, New York, 1964).
52. H B Huntington, “The elastic constants of crystals,” in Solid State Physics, Vol. 7, eds F.Seitz and D.Turnbull (Academic Press, New York, 1958).
53. N F Mott and H Jones, The Theory of the Properties of Metals and Alloys (Dover, New York, 1958).
54. A S Nowick and B S Berry, Anelastic Relaxation in Crystalline Solids (Academic Press, New York, 1972).
55. M Murakami and A Segmiiller, in Analytical Techniques for Thin Films, eds K N Tu and R.Rosenberg, Vol. 27 in Treatises on Materials Science and Technology (Academic Press, Boston, 1988).
56. A J Schell-Sorokin and R M Tromp, “Mechanical stresses in (sub)monolayer epitaxial films,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 64 (1990), 1039.
57. P Chaudhari, “Grain growth and stress relief in thin films,” J. of Vac. Sci. Tech. 9 (1972), 520.
58. W D Nix, “Mechanical properties of thin films,” Metallurgical Transaction, A. Physical Metallurgy and Materials Science 20 (1989), 2217-2245.
59. F Spaepen, “Interfaces and stress in thin films,” Acta Mat. 48 (2000), 31-42.
60. G A Somorjai, Chemistry in Two Dimensions: Surfaces (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 1981)
61. A Zangwill, Physics of Surfaces (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988).
62. C Ratsch, M F Gyure, R E Caflisch, F Gibou, M Petersen, M Kang, J Garcia and D D Vvedensky, “Level-set method for island dynamics in epitaxial growth,” Phys. Rev. B65 (2002) 195-403.
63. C Ratsch, A P Seitsonen and M Scheffler, “Strain-dependence of surface diffusion: Ag on Ag(111) and Pt(111),” Phys. Rev. B 55 (1997) 6750.
64. W W Mullins, “Solid surface morphologies governed by capillarity,” in Metals Surfaces (ASM, Metal Park, Ohio, 1963).
65. M Zinke-Allmang, L C Feldman and S Nakahara, “Role of Ostwald ripening in islanding processes,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 51 (1987) 975.
66. F Allen and E Kasper, “Models of silicon growth and dopan incorporation,” Chapter 4 in Silicon Molecular Beam Epitaxy (Vol. I, p. 65), eds E.Kasper and J. C.Bean (CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1988).
67. J W Mayer, J M Poate and K N Tu, Thin films and solid-phase reactions, Science, 190 (1975), 228-234.
68. K N Tu and J W Mayer, “Silicide Formation,” Ch. 10 of Thin Films: Interdiffusion and Reactions, eds J. M.Poate, K. N.Tu and J. W.Mayer (Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1978).
69. Marc-A Nicolet and S S Lau, “Formation and characterization of transition-metal sili-cides,” in VLSI Electronics, Vol. 6, eds N. G.Einspruch and G. B.Larrabee (Academic Press, New York, 1983).
70. L J Chen and K N Tu, “Epitaxial growth of transition-metal silicides on silicon,” Materials Science Reports 6 (1991), 53-140.
71. U Goesele and K N Tu, “Growth kinetics of planar binary diffusion couples: thin film case versus bulk cases”, J. Appl. Phys. 53 (1982), 3252.
72. S H Chen, L R Zheng, C B Carter and J W Mayer, “Transmission electron microscopy studies on the lateral growth of nickel silicides”, J. Appl. Phys. 57 (1985), 258.
73. H Foell, P S Ho and K. N Tu, “Cross-sectional TEM of silicon-silicide interfaces”, J. Appl. Phys. 52 (1981), 250.
74. R T Tung and J L Batstone, “Control of pinholes in epitaxial CoSi2 layers on Si(111)”, Appl. Phys. Lett. 52 (1988), 648.
75. Kuo-Chang Lu, Wen-Wei Wu, Han-Wei Wu, Carey M Tanner, Jane P Chang, Lih J Chen and K N Tu, “In-situ control of atomic-scale Si layer with huge strain in the nano-heterostructure NiSi/Si/NiSi through point contact reaction,” Nano Letters 7:8 (2007), 2389-94, s.
76. Y C Chou, W W Wu, L J Chen and K NTu, “Homogeneous nucleation of epitaxial CoSi2 and NiSi in Si nanowires,” Nano Lett. 9 (2009), 2337-42.
77. D Turnbull and R H Hoffman, “The effect of relative crystal and boundary orientations on grain boundary diffusion rates,” Acta Met. 2 (1954), 419.
78. A D LeClaire, “The analysis of grain boundary diffusion measurements,” Brit. J. Appl. Phys. 14 (1963), 351.
79. R W Balluffi and J M Blakely, “Special aspects of diffusion in thin films,” in Low Temperature Diffusion and Applications to Thin Films, eds A.Ganguler, P. S.Ho and K. N.Tu (Elsevier, Sequoia, Lausanne, 1975), 363.
80. D Gupta, D R Campbell and P S Ho, Ch. 7 of “Grain boundary diffusion” in Thin Films- Interdiffusion and Reactions, eds J. M.Poate, K. N.Tu and J. W.Mayer (Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1978).
81. J C M Hwang and R W Balluffi, “Measurement of grain boundary diffusion at low temperature by the surface accumulation method: I. Method and analysis,” J. of Appl. Phys., 50 (1979), 1339-48.
82. J C Fisher, “Calculation of diffusion penetration curves for surface and grain boundary diffusion,” J. Appl. Phys. 22 (1951), 74.
83. R T P Whipple, “Concentration contours in grain boundary diffusion,” Phil. Mag. 45 (1954), 1225.
84. K N Tu, “Kinetics of thin-film reactions between Pb and the AgPd alloy,” J. of Appl. Phys., 48 (1977), 3400.
85. J W Cahn and R W Balluffi, “Diffusional mass-transport in polycrystals containing stationary or migrating grain boundaries,” Script. Met. 13 (1979), 499-502.
86. K N Tu, J Tersoff, T C Chou and C Y Wong, “Chemically induced grain boundary migration in doped poly-crystalline Si films”, Solid State Communications 66 (1988), 93-7.
87. I Prigogine, Introduction to Thermodynamics of Irreversible Processes, 3rd edn (Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1967).
88. David V.Ragone, “Nonequilibrium thermodynamics”, Ch. 8 of Thermodynamic of Materials, Vol. II (Wiley, New York, 1995).
89. Paul Shewmon, Diffusion in Solids, 2nd edn (TMS, Warrendale, PA, 1989).
90. R W Balluffi, S M Allen and W C Carter, “Irreversible thermodynamics: coupled forces and fluxes”, Ch. 2 of Kinetics of Materials (Wiley-Interscience, New York, 2005).
91. J C M Li, “Caratheodory's principle and the thermodynamic potential in irreversible thermodynamics”, J. Phys. Chem., 66 (1962), 1414-20.
92. K N Tu, “Electromigration in stressed thin films”, Phys. Rev. B45 (1992), 1409-13.
93. H B Huntington and A R Grone, “Current-induced marker motion in gold wires,” J. Phys. Chem. Solids 20 (1961), 76.
94. I Ames, F M d’Heurle and R Horstman, “Reduction of electromigration in aluminum films by copper doping,” IBM J. Res. Develop. 4 (1970), 461.
95. I A Blech, “Electromigration in thin aluminum films on titanium Nitride,” J. Appl. Phys. 47 (1976), 1203-8.
96. I A Blech and C Herring, “Stress generation by electromigration,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 29 (1976), 131-3.
97. P S Ho and T Kwok, “Electromigration in metals,” Rep. Prog. Phys. 52 (1989), 301.
98. K N Tu, “Electromigration in stressed thin films,” Phys. Rev. B 45 (1992), 1409-13.
99. R S Sorbello, in Solid State Physics, eds H.Ehrenreich and F.Spaepen (Academic Press, New York, 1997), Vol. 51, pp. 159-231.
100. R Kirchheim, “Stress and electromigration in Al-lines of integrated circuits,” Acta Metall. Mater. 40 (1992), 309-23.
101. N A Gjostein, in Diffusion, ed. H. I.Aaronson (American Society for Metals, Metals Park, OH, 1973), Ch. 9, p. 241.
102. M A Korhonen, P Borgesen, K N Tu and Che-Yu Li, “Stress evolution due to electromigration in confined metal lines”, J. Appl. Phys. 73 (1993), 3790-9.
103. J J Clement and C V Thompson, “Modeling electromigration-induced stress evolution in confined metal lines,” J. Appl. Phys. 78 (1995), 900.
104. P C Wang, G S CargillIII, I C Noyan and C K Hu, “Electromigration-induced stress in aluminum conductor lines measured by X-ray microdiffration,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 72 (1998), 1296.
105. A A MacDowell, R S Celestre, N Tamura, R Spolenak, B Valek, W L Brown, J CBravman, H A Padmore, B W Batterman and J R Patel, “Submicron X-ray Diffraction,” Nuclear Inst. and Meth. A 467 (2001), 936.
106. K Chen, N Tamura, B C Valek and K N Tu, “Plastic deformation in Al (Cu) interconnects stressed by electromigration and studied by synchrotron polychromatic X-ray microdiffraction,” J. Appl. Phys. 104 (2008), 013-513.
107. K N Tu, C C Yeh, C Y Liu and Chih Chen, “Effect of current crowding on vacancy diffusion and void formation in electromigration,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 76 (2000), 988-90.
108. C C Yeh and K NTu, “Numerical simulation of current crowding phenomena and their effects on electromigration in VLSI interconnects,” J. Appl. Phys. 88 (2000), 5680-86.
109. Albert T Wu, A M Gusak, K N Tu and C R Kao, “Electromigration induced grain rotation in anisotropic conduction beta-Sn,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 86 (2005), 241-902.
110. F M d’Heurle and P S Ho, “ Thin Films: Interdiffusion and Reactions,” eds J. M.Poate, K. N.Tu and J. W.Mayer (Wiley-Interscience, NY, 1978), 243.
111. C K Hu and J M E Harper, “Copper interconnects and reliability,” Mater. Chem. Phys. 52 (1998), 5.
112. R Rosenberg, D C Edelstein, C K Hu and K P Rodbell, “Copper metallization for high performance silicon technology,” Annual Review Mater. Sci. 30 (2000), 229.
113. E T Ogawa, K D Li, V A Blaschke and P S Ho, “Electromigration reliability issues in dual-damascene Cu interconnections,” IEEE Trans. Reliability 51 (2002), 403.
114. K N Tu, “Recent advances on electromigration in very-large-scale-integration of interconnects,” J. Appl. Phys. 94 (2003), 5451-73.
115. J S Huang, H K Liou and K N Tu, “Polarity effect of electromigration in Ni2Si contacts on Si,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 76 (1996), 2346-49.
116. H Okabayashi, H Kitamura, M Komatsu and H Mori, “In-situ side-view observation of electromigration in layered Al lines by ultrahigh voltage transmission electron microscopy,” AIP Conf. Proc. 373 (1996), 214 (see Figs. 2 and 4).
117. S Shingubara, T Osaka, S Abdeslam, H Sakue and T Takahagi, “Void formation mechanism at no current stressed area,” AIP Conf. Proc. 418 (1998), 159 (see Table I).
118. M Hasunuma, H Toyota, T Kawanoue, S Ito, H Kaneko and M Miyauchi, “A highly reliable Al line with controlled texture and grain boundaries,” Materials Reliability in Microelectronics V 391 (1995).
119. C K Hu, L Gignac, S G Malhotra, R. Rosenberg and S. Boettcher In-situ control of atomic-scale Si layer with huge, “Mechanisms for very long electromigration lifetime in dual-damascence Cu interconnections,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 78 (2001), 904.
120. M Shatzkes and J R Lloyd, “A model for conductor failure considering diffusion concurrently with electromigration resulting in a current exponent of 2,” J. Appl. Phys. 59 (1986), 3890.
121. C S Hau-Riege and C V Thompson, “Electromigration in Cu interconnects with very different grain structures,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 78 (2001), 3451.
122. K L Lee, C K Hu and K N Tu, “In-situ scanning electron microscope comparison studies on electromigration of Cu and Cu(Sn) alloys for advanced chip interconnects,” J. Appl. Phys. 78 (1995), 4428.
123. M Y Yan, K N Tu, A V Vairagar, S G Mhaisalkar and Ahila Krishnamoorthy, “Confinement of electromigration induced void propagation in Cu interconnect by a buried Ta diffusion barrier layer,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 87 (2005), 261-906.
124. A V Vairagar, S G Mhaisalkar, Ahila Krishnamoorthy, K N Tu, A M Gusak, M A Meyer and Ehrenfried Zschech, “In-situ observation of electromigration induced void migration in dual-damascene Cu interconnect structures,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 85 (2004), 2502-4.
125. C W Park and R W Vook, “Activation energy for electromigration in Cu films,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 59 (1991), 175.
126. J R Lloyd and J J Clement, “Electromigration in copper conductors,” Thin Solid Films 262 (1995), 135.
127. L Lu, Y Shen, X Chen, L Qian and K Lu, “Ultrahigh strength and high electrical conductivity in copper,” Science 304 (2004), 422.
128. Kuen-Chia Chen, Wen-Wei Wu, Chien-Neng Liao A, L J Chen and K N Tu, “Observation of atomic diffusion at twin-modified grain boundaries in copper,” Science 231 (2008), 1066-9.
129. PaulShewmon A, “Diffusion in solids,” Ch. 7 of “ Thermo- and Electro-Transport in Solids” (TMS, Warrendale, PA, 1989).
130. D V Ragone, “Thermodynamics of materials,” Vol. II, Ch. 8 of Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics (Wiley, New York, 1995).
131. R W Balluffi, S M Allen and W C Carter, “Irreversible thermodynamics: coupled forces and fluxes,” Ch. 2 of Kinetics of Materials (Wiley-Interscience, Hoboken, NJ, 2005).
132. W Roush and J Jaspal, “Thermomigration in Pb-In solder,” IEEE Proc. CH1781 (1982), 342-45.
133. D R Campbell, K N Tu and R E Robinson, “Interdiffusion in a bulk couple of Pb-PbIn alloy,” Acta Met. 24 (1976), 609.
134. H Ye, C Basaran and D C Hopkins, “Thermomigration in Pb-Sn solder joints under joule heating during electric current stressing,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 82 (2003), 1045-7.
135. Y C Chuang and C Y Liu, “Thermomigration in eutectic SnPb alloy,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 88 (2006), 174-105.
136. Hsiang-Yao Hsiao and Chih Chen, “Thermomigration in Pb-free SnAg solder joint under alternating current stressing,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 94 (2009), 092-107.
137. Annie Huang, A M Gusak, K N Tu and Yi-Shao Lai, “Thermomigration in SnPb composite flip-chip solder joints,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 88 (2006), 141-911.
138. C Herring, “Diffusional viscosity of a polycrystalline solid,” J. Appl. Phys. 21 (1950), 437.
139. B Chalmers, Physical Metallurgy (Wiley, New York, 1959).
140. A S Nowick and B S Berry, Anelastic Relaxation in Crystalline Solids (Academic Press, New York, 1972).
141. M F Ashby and D R H.Jones, Engineering Materials I (Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1980).
142. Fan-Yi Ouyang, Kai Chen, K N Tu and Yi-Shao Lai, “Effect of current crowding on whisker growth at the anode in flip chip solder joints,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 91 (2007), 231-919.
143. K N Tu, “Interdiffusion and reaction in bimetallic CuSn thin films,” Acta Met. 21 (1973), 347.
144. K N Tu and R D Thompson, “Kinetics of interfacial reaction in bimetallic CuSn thin films,” Acta Met. 30 (1982), 947.
145. K N Tu, “Irreversible processes of spontaneous whisker growth in bimetallic CuSn thin film reactions,” Phys. Rev. B49 (1994), 2030-4.
146. G T T Sheng, C F Hu, W J Choi, K N Tu, Y Y Bong and Luu Nguyen, A, “Tin whiskers studied by focused ion beam imaging and transmission electron microscopy,” J. Appl. Phys. 92 (2002), 64-9.
147. W J Choi, T Y. Lee, K N. Tu, N Tamura, R. S Celestre, A A MacDowell, Y Y Bong and L Nguyen, “Tin whisker studied by synchrotron radiation micro-diffraction,” Acta Mat. 51 (2003), 6253-61.
148. M Ohring, Reliability and Failure of Electronic Materials and Devices (Academic Press, San Diego, 1998).
149. W J Bertram, “Yield and reliability,” Ch. 14 of VLSI Technology, ed. S. M.Sze (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1983).
150. J R Black, “Mass transport of Al by momentum exchange with conducting electrons,” Proc. IEEE Int. Rel. Phys. Symp. (1967), 144-59.
151. M Shatzkes and J R Lloyd, “A model for conductor failure considering diffusion concurrently with electromigration resulting in a current exponent of 2,” J. Appl. Phys. 9 (1986), 3890-3.
152. R Rosenberg and M Ohring, “Void formation and growth during electromigration in thin films,” J. Appl. Phys. 42 (1971), 5671-9.
153. J J Clement, “Electromigration modeling for integrated circuit interconnect reliability analysis,” IEEE Trans. on Device and Materials Reliability 1 (2001), 33-42.
154. S Brandenburg and S Yeh, Proceedings of Surface Mount International Conference and Exhibition, SMI98, San Jose, CA, Aug. 1998, pp. 337-44.
155. Everett C C Yeh, W J. Choi, K N. Tu, P Elenius and H Balkan, “Current-crowding-induced electromigration failure in flip chip solder joints,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 80 (4) (2002), 580-2.
156. Lingyun Zhang, Shengquan Ou, Joanne Huang, K N. Tu, Stephen Gee and Luu Nguyen, “Effect of current crowding on void propagation at the interface between intermetallic compound and solder in flip chip solder joints,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 88 (2006), 012-106.
157. S W Liang, Y W Chang, T L Shao, A ChihChen and K N Tu, “Effect of three-dimensional current and temperature distribution on void formation and propagation in flip chip solder joints during electromigration,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 89 (2006), 022-117.
158. T V Zaporozhets, A M Gusak, K N Tu and S G Mhaisalkar, “Three-dimensional simulation of void migration at the interface between thin metallic film and dielectric under electromigration,” J. Appl. Phys. 98, 103508 (2005).
159. Y-S Lai, S Sathe, C-L Kao, and C-W Lee, “Integrating electrothermal coupling analysis in the calibration of experimental electromigration reliability of flip-chip packages,” in Proceedings of ECTC 2005 (55th Electronic Components and Technology Conference), Lake Buena Vista, FL, USA, 2005, pp. 1421-6.
160. S Adachi, “GaAs, AlAs, and AlxGa1x As material parameters for use in research and device applications,” J. Appl. Phys. 58, R1 (1985).
161. N P Bansal and R H Doremus, Handbook of Glass Properties (Academic Press, Orlando, 1986).
162. Battelle-Columbus Laboratories, Engineering Property Data on Selected Ceramics, Vol. 1, Nitrides, Metals and Ceramics Information Center, Battelle's Columbus Laboratories (1976). Internal Report-M.C.I.C.-HB-07 Vol I.
163. K W Böer, Survey of Semiconductor Physics (Von Nostrand Reinhold, 1990).
164. W A Brantley, “Calculated elastic constants for stress problems associated with semiconductor devices,” J. Appl. Phys. 44 (1973), 534.
165. J W Cahn, “On spinodal decomposition in cubic crystals,” Acta. Met. 10 (1962), 179.
166. D E Gray (Coord. Ed.), American Institute of Physics Handbook (McGrawHill Book Company, 1972).
167. H B Huntington, in Solid State Physics Vol. 7, eds F.Seitz and D.Turnbull (Academic Press, New York, 1958), 213.
168. C Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics, 2nd edn (John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1953).
169. J F Nye, Physical Properties of Crystals (Oxford, Clarendon Press, London, 1957).
170. G Simmons and H Wing, Single Crystal Elastic Constants and Calculated Aggregate Properties (MIT Press, Cambridge, 1971).
171. H-J Gossmann, F W Sinden and L C Feldman, “Evolution of terrace size distributions during thin-film growth by step-mediated epitaxy,” J. Appl. Phys. 67 (1990), 745.