Nanoparticle characterization: State of the art, challenges, and emerging technologies

Molecular Pharmaceutics

Volumn 10, Issue 6, 2013, Pages 2093-2110

  Cho, Eun Jung ^a   Holback, Hillary ^a   Liu, Karen C ^b   Abouelmagd, Sara A ^a,c   Park, Joonyoung ^a   Yeo, Yoon ^a,b  

^a PURDUE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b PURDUE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c Assiut University   (Egypt)

Author keywords

animal models; nanomedicine; nanoparticles; particle characterization* in vitro

Indexed keywords

BOVINE SERUM ALBUMIN; CHITOSAN; DEXTRAN; HEPARIN; MACROGOL; MONTMORILLONITE; NANOPARTICLE; PROTON; QUANTUM DOT;

ADSORPTION; BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY; BREAST CANCER; CANCER CHEMOTHERAPY; CELL CULTURE; CELL MIGRATION; CENTRIFUGATION; COLON CANCER; CONFOCAL MICROSCOPY; DIFFUSION; DISPERSION; DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG RELEASE; ELECTRON MICROSCOPY; FLUORESCENCE; FLUORESCENCE MICROSCOPY; GEL PERMEATION CHROMATOGRAPHY; HALF LIFE TIME; HUMAN; HYDRODYNAMICS; IN VIVO STUDY; IONIC STRENGTH; LIVER METASTASIS; LUNG CANCER; LUNG SMALL CELL CANCER; MICELLE; NONHUMAN; PARTICLE SIZE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SURFACE CHARGE; SUSPENSION; TEMPERATURE; TRANSGENIC ORGANISM; TURBIDITY; ZETA POTENTIAL;

ANIMALS; CHROMATOGRAPHY, GEL; FLUORESCENCE RESONANCE ENERGY TRANSFER; HUMANS; NANOMEDICINE; NANOPARTICLES; TEMPERATURE;

EID: 84878630525     PISSN: 15438384     EISSN: 15438392     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1021/mp300697h     Document Type: Review

References (211)

1. Dynamic Light Scattering: An introduction in 30 minutes. Malvern Instruments. http://www.malvern.com/malvern/kbase.nsf/allbyno/KB000734? opendocument (accessed on 11/1/12).
2. Dynamic Light Scattering: Common Terms Defined (MRK 1764-01). Malvern Instruments. http://www.malvern.com/common/downloads/campaign/MRK1764-01.pdf (accessed on 11/1/12).
3. Lu, X. Y.; Wu, D. C.; Li, Z. J.; Chen, G. Q. Polymer nanoparticles Prog. Mol. Biol. Transl. Sci. 2011, 104, 299-323
4. Hoo, C. M.; Starostin, N.; West, P.; Mecartney, M. L. A comparison of atomic force microscopy (AFM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS) methods to characterize nanoparticle size distributions J. Nanopart. Res. 2008, 10, 89-96
5. Mahl, D.; Diendorf, J.; Meyer-Zaika, W.; Epple, M. Possibilities and limitations of different analytical methods for the size determination of a bimodal dispersion of metallic nanoparticles Colloids Surf., A 2011, 377, 386-392
6. Boyd, R. D.; Pichaimuthu, S. K.; Cuenat, A. New approach to inter-technique comparisons for nanoparticle size measurements; using atomic force microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis and dynamic light scattering Colloids Surf., A 2011, 387, 35-42
7. Saveyn, H.; De Baets, B.; Thas, O.; Hole, P.; Smith, J.; Van der Meeren, P. Accurate particle size distribution determination by nanoparticle tracking analysis based on 2-D Brownian dynamics simulation J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2010, 352, 593-600
8. Finder, C.; Wohlgemuth, M.; Mayer, C. Analysis of particle size distribution by particle tracking Part. Part. Syst. Charact. 2004, 21, 372-378
9. Disk centrifuge. http://www.cpsinstruments.eu/centrifuge.html (accessed on 10/30/12).
10. Murdock, R. C.; Braydich-Stolle, L.; Schrand, A. M.; Schlager, J. J.; Hussain, S. M. Characterization of nanomaterial dispersion in solution prior to in vitro exposure using dynamic light scattering technique Toxicol. Sci. 2008, 101, 239-253
11. Jiang, J.; Oberdörster, G.; Biswas, P. Characterization of size, surface charge, and agglomeration state of nanoparticle dispersions for toxicological studies J. Nanopart. Res. 2009, 11, 77-89
12. Vasylkiv, O.; Sakka, Y. Synthesis and colloidal processing of zirconia nanopowder J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 2001, 84, 2489-2494
13. Bowen, P. Particle size distribution measurement from millimeters to nanometers and from rods to platelets J. Dispersion Sci. Technol. 2002, 23, 631-662
14. Brant, J.; Lecoanet, H.; Wiesner, M. R. Aggregation and deposition characteristics of fullerene nanoparticles in aqueous systems J. Nanopart. Res. 2005, 7, 545-553
15. Widegren, J.; Bergström, L. Electrostatic stabilization of ultrafine titania in ethanol J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 2002, 85, 523-528
16. Kirby, B. J.; Hasselbrink, E. F., Jr. Zeta potential of microfluidic substrates: 1. Theory, experimental techniques, and effects on separations Electrophoresis 2004, 25, 187-202
17. Kirby, B. J.; Hasselbrink, E. F., Jr. Zeta potential of microfluidic substrates: 2. Data for polymers Electrophoresis 2004, 25, 203-13
18. Hoffman, A. S. The origins and evolution of "controlled" drug delivery systems J. Controlled Release 2008, 132, 153-163
19. Anhalt, K.; Geissler, S.; Harms, M.; Weigandt, M.; Fricker, G. Development of a new method to assess nanocrystal dissolution based on light scattering Pharm. Res. 2012, 29, 2887-2901
20. Accardo, A.; Tesauro, D.; Roscigno, P.; Gianolio, E.; Paduano, L.; D'Errico, G.; Pedone, C.; Morelli, G. Physicochemical properties of mixed micellar aggregates containing CCK peptides and Gd complexes designed as tumor specific contrast agents in MRI J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2004, 126, 3097-3107
21. Cheng, C.; Wei, H.; Zhang, X.-Z.; Cheng, S.-X.; Zhuo, R.-X. Thermo-triggered and biotinylated biotin-P(NIPAAm-co-HMAAm)-b-PMMA micelles for controlled drug release J. Biomed. Mater. Res., Part A 2009, 88A, 814-822
22. Toncheva, V.; Schacht, E.; Ng, S. Y.; Barr, J.; Heller, J. Use of block copolymers of poly(ortho esters) and poly(ethylene glycol) micellar carriers as potential tumour targeting systems J. Drug Targeting 2003, 11 (6) 345-353
23. Yang, X.; Li, L.; Wang, Y.; Tan, Y. Preparation, pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution of micelles made of reverse thermo-responsive polymers Int. J. Pharm. 2009, 370, 210-215
24. Kalyanasundaram, K.; Thomas, J. K. Environmental effects on vibronic band intensities in pyrene monomer fluorescence and their application in studies of micellar systems J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1977, 99, 2039-2044
25. Chen, W.; Cheng, Y.; Wang, B. Dual-responsive boronate crosslinked micelles for targeted drug delivery Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2012, 51, 5293-5295
26. Lin, W.-J.; Juang, L.-W.; Lin, C.-C. Stability and release performance of a series of pegylated copolymeric micelles Pharm. Res. 2003, 20, 668-673
27. Xu, P.; Tang, H.; Li, S.; Ren, J.; Van Kirk, E.; Murdoch, W. J.; Radosz, M.; Shen, Y. Enhanced stability of core-surface cross-linked micelles fabricated from amphiphilic brush copolymers Biomacromolecules 2004, 5, 1736-1744
28. Yang, C.; Ebrahim Attia, A. B.; Tan, J. P. K.; Ke, X.; Gao, S.; Hedrick, J. L.; Yang, Y.-Y. The role of non-covalent interactions in anticancer drug loading and kinetic stability of polymeric micelles Biomaterials 2012, 33, 2971-2979
29. Zhao, X.; Poon, Z.; Engler, A. C.; Bonner, D. K.; Hammond, P. T. Enhanced stability of polymeric micelles based on postfunctionalized poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(γ-propargyl L-glutamate): the substituent effect Biomacromolecules 2012, 13, 1315-1322
30. Surfactant micelle characterization using dynamic light scattering (MRK809-01). Malvern Instruments. http://www.malvern.com/malvern/kbase.nsf/ allbyno/KB001097/file/MRK809-01.pdf (accessed on 11/15/12).
31. Zhang, X.-Z.; Wu, D.-Q.; Chu, C.-C. Synthesis, characterization and controlled drug release of thermosensitive IPN-PNIPAAm hydrogels Biomaterials 2004, 25, 3793-3805
32. Needham, D.; Anyarambhatla, G.; Kong, G.; Dewhirst, M. W. A new temperature-sensitive liposome for use with mild hyperthermia: characterization and testing in a human tumor xenograft model Cancer Res. 2000, 60, 1197-1201
33. Nakayama, M.; Okano, T.; Miyazaki, T.; Kohori, F.; Sakai, K.; Yokoyama, M. Molecular design of biodegradable polymeric micelles for temperature- responsive drug release J. Controlled Release 2006, 115, 46-56
34. Pişkin, E. Molecularly designed water soluble, intelligent, nanosize polymeric carriers Int. J. Pharm. 2004, 277, 105-118
35. Kim, Y.-H.; Kwon, I. C.; Bae, Y. H.; Kim, S. W. Saccharide effect on the lower critical solution temperature of thermosensitive polymers Macromolecules 1995, 28, 939-944
36. Zhang, L.; Chan, J. M.; Gu, F. X.; Rhee, J.-W.; Wang, A. Z.; Radovic-Moreno, A. F.; Alexis, F.; Langer, R.; Farokhzad, O. C. Self-assembled lipid - polymer hybrid nanoparticles: a robust drug delivery platform ACS Nano 2008, 2, 1696-1702
37. Sun, T.-M.; Du, J.-Z.; Yan, L.-F.; Mao, H.-Q.; Wang, J. Self-assembled biodegradable micellar nanoparticles of amphiphilic and cationic block copolymer for siRNA delivery Biomaterials 2008, 29, 4348-4355
38. Isaacs, S. R.; Choo, H.; Ko, W.-B.; Shon, Y.-S. Chemical, thermal, and ultrasonic stability of hybrid nanoparticles and nanoparticle multilayer films Chem. Mater. 2005, 18, 107-114
39. Na, K.; Bae, Y. H. Self-assembled hydrogel nanoparticles responsive to tumor extracellular pH from pullulan derivative/sulfonamide conjugate: characterization, aggregation, and adriamycin release in vitro Pharm. Res. 2002, 19, 681-688
40. Yokoyama, M.; Sugiyama, T.; Okano, T.; Sakurai, Y.; Naito, M.; Kataoka, K. Analysis of micelle formation of an adriamycin-conjugated poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(aspartic acid) block copolymer by gel permeation chromatography Pharm. Res. 1993, 10, 895-899
41. Masayuki, Y.; Kwon, G. S.; Teruo, O.; Yasuhisa, S.; Mayumi, N.; Kazunori, K. Influencing factors on in vitro micelle stability of adriamycin-block copolymer conjugates J. Controlled Release 1994, 28, 59-65
42. Opanasopit, P.; Yokoyama, M.; Watanabe, M.; Kawano, K.; Maitani, Y.; Okano, T. Influence of serum and albumins from different species on stability of camptothecin-loaded micelles J. Controlled Release 2005, 104, 313-321
43. Akiyoshi, K.; Kobayashi, S.; Shichibe, S.; Mix, D.; Baudys, M.; Wan Kim, S.; Sunamoto, J. Self-assembled hydrogel nanoparticle of cholesterol-bearing pullulan as a carrier of protein drugs: Complexation and stabilization of insulin J. Controlled Release 1998, 54, 313-320
44. Iijima, M.; Nagasaki, Y.; Okada, T.; Kato, M.; Kataoka, K. Core-Polymerized Reactive micelles from heterotelechelic amphiphilic block copolymers Macromolecules 1999, 32, 1140-1146
45. Jones, M.-C.; Leroux, J.-C. Polymeric micelles-a new generation of colloidal drug carriers Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 1999, 48, 101-111
46. Opanasopit, P.; Yokoyama, M.; Watanabe, M.; Kawano, K.; Maitani, Y.; Okano, T. Block copolymer design for camptothecin incorporation into polymeric micelles for passive tumor targeting Pharm. Res. 2004, 21, 2001-2008
47. Watanabe, M.; Kawano, K.; Yokoyama, M.; Opanasopit, P.; Okano, T.; Maitani, Y. Preparation of camptothecin-loaded polymeric micelles and evaluation of their incorporation and circulation stability Int. J. Pharm. 2006, 308, 183-189
48. Lu, J.; Owen, S. C.; Shoichet, M. S. Stability of self-assembled polymeric micelles in serum Macromolecules 2011, 44, 6002-6008
49. Chen, H.; Kim, S.; Li, L.; Wang, S.; Park, K.; Cheng, J.-X. Release of hydrophobic molecules from polymer micelles into cell membranes revealed by Förster resonance energy transfer imaging Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2008, 105, 6596-6601
50. Chen, H.; Kim, S.; He, W.; Wang, H.; Low, P. S.; Park, K.; Cheng, J.-X. Fast release of lipophilic agents from circulating PEG-PDLLA micelles revealed by in vivo forster resonance energy transfer imaging Langmuir 2008, 24, 5213-5217
51. Miller, T.; Rachel, R.; Besheer, A.; Uezguen, S.; Weigandt, M.; Goepferich, A. Comparative investigations on in vitro serum stability of polymeric micelle formulations Pharm. Res. 2012, 29, 448-459
52. Piston, D. W.; Kremers, G.-J. Fluorescent protein FRET: the good, the bad and the ugly Trends Biochem. Sci. 2007, 32, 407-414
53. Walkey, C. D.; Chan, W. C. Understanding and controlling the interaction of nanomaterials with proteins in a physiological environment Chem. Soc. Rev. 2012, 41, 2780-2799
54. Dobrovolskaia, M.; Aggarwal, P.; Hall, J.; McNeil, S. Preclinical studies to understand nanoparticle interaction with the immune system and its potential effects on nanoparticle biodistribution Mol. Pharmaceutics 2008, 5, 487-495
55. Tan, J.; Butterfield, D.; Voycheck, C.; Caldwell, K.; Li, J. Surface modification of nanoparticles by PEO/PPO block copolymers to minimize interactions with blood components and prolong blood circulation in rats Biomaterials 1993, 14, 823-833
56. Vonarbourg, A.; Passirani, C.; Saulnier, P.; Simard, P.; Leroux, J.; Benoit, J. Evaluation of pegylated lipid nanocapsules versus complement system activation and macrophage uptake J. Biomed. Mater. Res., Part A 2006, 78, 620-628
57. Senior, J.; Delgado, C.; Fisher, D.; Tilcock, C.; Gregoriadis, G. Influence of surface hydrophilicity of liposomes on their interaction with plasma protein and clearance from the circulation: studies with poly(ethylene glycol)-coated vesicles Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1991, 1062, 77-82
58. Torchilin, V.; Omelyanenko, V.; Papisov, M.; Bogdanov, A.; Trubetskoy, V.; Herron, J.; Gentry, C. Poly(ethylene glycol) on the liposome surface: on the mechanism of polymer-coated liposome longevity Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1994, 1195, 11-20
59. Matsumura, Y.; Maeda, H. A new concept for macromolecular therapeutics in cancer chemotherapy: mechanism of tumoritropic accumulation of proteins and the antitumor agent smancs Cancer Res. 1986, 46, 6387-6392
60. Bae, Y. H.; Park, K. Targeted drug delivery to tumors: myths, reality and possibility J. Controlled Release 2011, 153, 198-205
61. Dams, E.; Laverman, P.; Oyen, W.; Storm, G.; Scherphof, G.; van Der Meer, J.; Corstens, F.; Boerman, O. Accelerated blood clearance and altered biodistribution of repeated injections of sterically stabilized liposomes J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 2000, 292, 1071-1079
62. Wang, X.; Ishida, T.; Kiwada, H. Anti-PEG IgM elicited by injection of liposomes is involved in the enhanced blood clearance of a subsequent dose of PEGylated liposomes J. Controlled Release 2007, 119, 236-244
63. Garay, R.; El-Gewely, R.; Armstrong, J.; Garratty, G.; Richette, P. Antibodies against polyethylene glycol in healthy subjects and in patients treated with PEG-conjugated agents Expert Opin. Drug Delivery 2012, 9, 1319-1323
64. Amoozgar, Z.; Park, J.; Lin, Q.; Yeo, Y. Low molecular-weight chitosan as a pH-sensitive stealth coating for tumor-specific drug delivery Mol. Pharmaceutics 2012, 9, 1262-1270
65. Passirani, C.; Barratt, G.; Devissaguet, J.; Labarre, D. Long-circulating nanoparticles bearing heparin or dextran covalently bound to poly(methyl methacrylate) Pharm. Res. 1998, 15, 1046-1050
66. Doh, K.-O.; Yeo, Y. Application of polysaccharides for surface modification of nanomedicines Ther. Delivery 2012, 3, 1447-1456
67. Fang, C.; Shi, B.; Pei, Y.-Y.; Hong, M.-H.; Wu, J.; Chen, H.-Z. In vivo tumor targeting of tumor necrosis factor-alpha-loaded stealth nanoparticles: effect of MePEG molecular weight and particle size Eur. J. Pharm. Sci. 2006, 27, 27-36
68. Goppert, T. M.; Muller, R. H. Protein adsorption patterns on poloxamer- and poloxamine-stabilized solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 2005, 60, 361-372
69. Gessner, A.; Waicz, R.; Lieske, A.; Paulke, B.; Mader, K.; Muller, R. H. Nanoparticles with decreasing surface hydrophobicities: influence on plasma protein adsorption Int. J. Pharm. 2000, 196, 245-249
70. Zhang, W.; Liu, J.; Li, S.; Chen, M.; Liu, H. Preparation and evaluation of stealth Tashinone IIA-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles: Influence of Poloxamer 188 coating on phagocytic uptake J. Microencapsulation 2008, 25, 203-209
71. Bocca, C.; Caputo, O.; Cavalli, R. B.; Gabriel, L.; Miglietta, A.; Gasco, M. R. Phagocytic uptake of fluorescent stealth and non-stealth solid lipid nanoparticles Int. J. Pharm. 1998, 175, 185-193
72. Rolland, A.; Merdrignac, G.; Gouranton, J.; Bourel, D.; Le Verge, R.; Genetet, B. Flow cytometric quantitative evaluation of phagocytosis by human mononuclear and polymorphonuclear cells using fluorescent nanoparticles J. Immunol. Methods 1987, 96, 185-193
73. Vonarbourg, A.; Passirani, C.; Saulnier, P.; Benoit, J.-P. Parameters influencing the stealthiness of colloidal drug delivery systems Biomaterials 2006, 27, 4356-4373
74. Champion, J.; Mitragotri, S. Role of target geometry in phagocytosis Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2006, 103, 4930-4934
75. Arnida; Janat-Amsbury, M. M.; Ray, A.; Peterson, C. M.; Ghandehari, H. Geometry and surface characteristics of gold nanoparticles influence their biodistribution and uptake by macrophages Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 2011, 77, 417-423
76. Longmire, M. R.; Ogawa, M.; Choyke, P. L.; Kobayashi, H. Biologically optimized nanosized molecules and particles: more than just size Bioconjugate Chem. 2011, 22, 993-1000
77. Geng, Y.; Dalhaimer, P.; Cai, S.; Tsai, R.; Tewari, M.; Minko, T.; Discher, D. E. Shape effects of filaments versus spherical particles in flow and drug delivery Nat. Nano 2007, 2, 249-255
78. Bertholon, I.; Vauthier, C.; Labarre, D. Complement activation by core-shell poly(isobutylcyanoacrylate)-polysaccharide nanoparticles: influences of surface morphology, length, and type of polysaccharide Pharm. Res. 2006, 23, 1313-1323
79. Sahu, A.; Lambris, J. Structure and biology of complement protein C3, a connecting link between innate and acquired immunity Immunol. Rev. 2001, 180, 35-48
80. Laurell, C. Quantitative estimation of proteins by electrophoresis in agarose gel containing antibodies Anal. Biochem. 1966, 15, 45-52
81. Boackle, R.; Caughman, G.; Vesely, J.; Medgyesi, G.; Fudenberg, H. Potentiation of factor H by heparin: a rate-limiting mechanism for inhibition of the alternative complement pathway Mol. Immunol. 1983, 20, 1157-1164
82. Alhareth, K.; Vauthier, C.; Bourasset, F.; Gueutin, C.; Ponchel, G.; Moussa, F. Conformation of surface-decorating dextran chains affects the pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of doxorubicin-loaded nanoparticles Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 2012, 81, 453-457
83. Vauthier, C.; Persson, B.; Lindner, P.; Cabane, B. Protein adsorption and complement activation for di-block copolymer nanoparticles Biomaterials 2011, 32, 1646-1656
84. Labarre, D.; Vauthier, C.; Chauvierre, C.; Petri, B.; Muller, R.; Chehimi, M. M. Interactions of blood proteins with poly(isobutylcyanoacrylate) nanoparticles decorated with a polysaccharidic brush Biomaterials 2005, 26, 5075-5084
85. Suzuki, Y.; Miyatake, K.; Okamoto, Y.; Muraki, E.; Minami, S. Influence of the chain length of chitosan on complement activation Carbohydr. Polym. 2003, 54, 465-469
86. http://ncl.cancer.gov/assay-cascade.asp (accessed on 10/5/12).
87. Xu, P.; Gullotti, E.; Tong, L.; Highley, C. B.; Errabelli, D. R.; Hasan, T.; Cheng, J.-X.; Kohane, D. S.; Yeo, Y. Intracellular drug delivery by poly(lactic- co -glycolic acid) nanoparticles, revisited Mol. Pharmaceutics 2009, 6, 190-201
88. Ekkapongpisit, M.; Giovia, A.; Follo, C.; Caputo, G.; Isidoro, C. Biocompatibility, endocytosis, and intracellular trafficking of mesoporous silica and polystyrene nanoparticles in ovarian cancer cells: effects of size and surface charge groups Int. J. Nanomed. 2012, 7, 4147-4158
89. Brown, M.; Wittwer, C. Flow cytometry: Principles and clinical applications in hematology Clin. Chem. 2000, 46, 1221-1229
90. Anirudhan, T. S.; Sandeep, S. Synthesis, characterization, cellular uptake and cytotoxicity of a multifunctional magnetic nanocomposite for the targeted delivery and controlled release of doxorubicin to cancer cells J. Mater. Chem. 2012, 22, 12888-12899
91. Anirudhan, T. S.; Sandeep, S. Synthesis and characterization of a novel pH-controllable composite hydrogel for anticancer drug delivery New J. Chem. 2011, 35, 2869-2876
92. Fujii, K.; Kuroda, T.; Sakoda, K.; Iyi, N. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer and arrangements of fluorophores in integrated coumarin/cyanine systems within solid-state two-dimensional nanospace J. Photochem. Photobiol., A 2011, 225, 125-134
93. Gratton, S. E. A.; Ropp, P. A.; Pohlhaus, P. D.; Luft, J. C.; Madden, V. J.; Napier, M. E.; DeSimone, J. M. The effect of particle design on cellular internalization pathways Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2008, 105, 11613-11618
94. Kim, T. H.; Mount, C. W.; Gombotz, W. R.; Pun, S. H. The delivery of doxorubicin to 3-D multicellular spheroids and tumors in a murine xenograft model using tumor-penetrating triblock polymeric micelles Biomaterials 2010, 31, 7386-7397
95. Huang, R. B.; Mocherla, S.; Heslinga, M. J.; Charoenphol, P.; Eniola-Adefeso, O. Dynamic and cellular interactions of nanoparticles in vascular-targeted drug delivery Mol. Membr. Biol. 2010, 27, 312-327
96. Harush-Frenkel, O.; Altschuler, Y.; Benita, S. Nanoparticle-cell interactions: drug delivery implications Crit. Rev. Ther. Drug Carrier Syst. 2008, 25, 485-544
97. Soldati, T.; Schliwa, M. Powering membrane traffic in endocytosis and recycling Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 2006, 7, 897-908
98. Vandeurs, B.; Petersen, O. W.; Olsnes, S.; Sandvig, K. The ways of endocytosis Int. Rev. Cytol. 1989, 117, 131-177
99. Garnett, M. C.; Kallinteri, P. Nanomedicines and nanotoxicology: some physiological principles Occup. Med. 2006, 56, 307-311
100. Polo, S.; Di Fiore, P. P. Endocytosis conducts the cell signaling orchestra Cell 2006, 124, 897-900
101. Conner, S. D.; Schmid, S. L. Regulated portals of entry into the cell Nature 2003, 422, 37-44
102. Roth, M. G. Clathrin-mediated endocytosis before fluorescent proteins Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 2006, 7, 63-68
103. Rejman, J.; Oberle, V.; Zuhorn, I. S.; Hoekstra, D. Size-dependent internalization of particles via the pathways of clathrin-and caveolae-mediated endocytosis Biochem. J. 2004, 377, 159-169
104. Sabharanjak, S.; Mayor, S. Folate receptor endocytosis and trafficking Adv. Drug Delivery Rev. 2004, 56, 1099-1109
105. Grant, B. D.; Donaldson, J. G. Pathways and mechanisms of endocytic recycling Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 2009, 10, 597-608
106. Carver, L. A.; Schnitzer, J. E. Caveolae: Mining little caves for new cancer targets Nat. Rev. Cancer 2003, 3, 571-581
107. Ivanov, A. I. Pharmacological inhibition of endocytic pathways: is it specific enough to be useful? Methods Mol. Biol. 2008, 440, 15-33
108. Perumal, O. P.; Inapagolla, R.; Kannan, S.; Kannan, R. M. The effect of surface functionality on cellular trafficking of dendrimers Biomaterials 2008, 29, 3469-3476
109. Ranjan, A.; Pothayee, N.; Seleem, M. N.; Sriranganathan, N.; Kasimanickam, R.; Makris, M.; Riffle, J. S. In vitro trafficking and efficacy of core-shell nanostructures for treating intracellular Salmonella infections Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2009, 53, 3985-3988
110. Albanese, A.; Tang, P. S.; Chan, W. C. W. The effect of nanoparticle size, shape, and surface chemistry on biological systems Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 2012, 14, 1-16
111. Myung, J. H.; Gajjar, K. A.; Saric, J.; Eddington, D. T.; Hong, S. Dendrimer-mediated multivalent binding for the enhanced capture of tumor cells Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2011, 50, 11769-11772
112. Jiang, W.; KimBetty, Y. S.; Rutka, J. T.; ChanWarren, C. W. Nanoparticle-mediated cellular response is size-dependent Nat. Nano 2008, 3, 145-150
113. Liu, S. Q.; Wiradharma, N.; Gao, S. J.; Tong, Y. W.; Yang, Y. Y. Bio-functional micelles self-assembled from a folate-conjugated block copolymer for targeted intracellular delivery of anticancer drugs Biomaterials 2007, 28, 1423-1433
114. Bae, Y.; Nishiyama, N.; Kataoka, K. In vivo antitumor activity of the folate-conjugated pH-Sensitive polymeric micelle selectively releasing adriamycin in the intracellular acidic compartments Bioconjugate Chem. 2007, 18, 1131-1139
115. Park, J. H.; von Maltzahn, G.; Xu, M. J.; Fogal, V.; Kotamraju, V. R.; Ruoslahti, E.; Bhatia, S. N.; Sailor, M. J. Cooperative nanomaterial system to sensitize, target, and treat tumors Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2010, 107, 981-986
116. Kim, S. H.; Jeong, J. H.; Chun, K. W.; Park, T. G. Target-specific cellular uptake of PLGA nanoparticles coated with poly(L-lysine)-poly(ethylene glycol)-folate conjugate Langmuir 2005, 21, 8852-8857
117. Jiang, G.; Park, K.; Kim, J.; Kim, K. S.; Hahn, S. K. Target specific intracellular delivery of siRNA/PEI-HA complex by receptor mediated endocytosis Mol. Pharmaceutics 2009, 6, 727-737
118. Han, S. E.; Kang, H.; Shim, G. Y.; Kim, S. J.; Choi, H. G.; Kim, J.; Hahn, S. K.; Oh, Y. K. Cationic derivatives of biocompatible hyaluronic acids for delivery of siRNA and antisense oligonucleotides J. Drug Targeting 2009, 17, 123-132
119. Zhao, F.; Zhao, Y.; Liu, Y.; Chang, X. L.; Chen, C. Y.; Zhao, Y. L. Cellular uptake, intracellular trafficking, and cytotoxicity of nanomaterials Small 2011, 7, 1322-1337
120. Huang, J. G.; Leshuk, T.; Gu, F. X. Emerging nanomaterials for targeting subcellular organelles Nano Today 2011, 6, 478-492
121. Harush-Frenkel, O.; Debotton, N.; Benita, S.; Altschuler, Y. Targeting of nanoparticles to the clathrin-mediated endocytic pathway Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2007, 353, 26-32
122. Schnell, U.; Dijk, F.; Sjollema, K. A.; Giepmans, B. N. G. Immunolabeling artifacts and the need for live-cell imaging Nat. Methods 2012, 9, 152-158
123. Melan, M. A.; Sluder, G. Redistribution and differential extraction of soluble proteins in permeabilized cultured cells. Implications for immunofluorescence microscopy J. Cell. Sci. 1992, 101, 731-743
124. Slater, K. Cytotoxicity tests for high-throughput drug discovery Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2001, 12, 70-74
125. Decker, T.; Lohmann-Matthes, M.-L. A quick and simple method for the quantitation of lactate dehydrogenase release in measurements of cellular cytotoxicity and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) activity J. Immunol. Methods 1988, 115, 61-69
126. Lei, T. J.; Srinivasan, S.; Tang, Y.; Manchanda, R.; Nagesetti, A.; Fernandez-Fernandez, A.; McGoron, A. J. Comparing cellular uptake and cytotoxicity of targeted drug carriers in cancer cell lines with different drug resistance mechanisms Nanomedicine 2011, 7, 324-332
127. Gullotti, E.; Yeo, Y. Beyond the imaging: Limitations of cellular uptake study in the evaluation of nanoparticles J. Controlled Release 2012, 164, 170-176
128. Holback, H.; Yeo, Y. Intratumoral drug delivery with nanoparticulate carriers Pharm. Res. 2011, 28, 1819-1830
129. Lee, G. Y.; Kenny, P. A.; Lee, E. H.; Bissell, M. J. Three-dimensional culture models of normal and malignant breast epithelial cells Nat. Methods 2007, 4, 359-365
130. Mitra, M.; Mohanty, C.; Harilal, A.; Maheswari, U. K.; Sahoo, S. K.; Krishnakumar, S. A novel in vitro three-dimensional retinoblastoma model for evaluating chemotherapeutic drugs Mol. Vision 2012, 18, 1361-1378
131. Sun, T.; Jackson, S.; Haycock, J. W.; MacNeil, S. Culture of skin cells in 3D rather than 2D improves their ability to survive exposure to cytotoxic agents J. Biotechnol. 2006, 122, 372-381
132. Hosoya, H.; Kadowaki, K.; Matsusaki, M.; Cabral, H.; Nishihara, H.; Ijichi, H.; Koike, K.; Kataoka, K.; Miyazono, K.; Akashi, M.; Kano, M. R. Engineering fibrotic tissue in pancreatic cancer: A novel three-dimensional model to investigate nanoparticle delivery Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2012, 419, 32-37
133. Khademhosseini, A.; Eng, G.; Yeh, J.; Fukuda, J.; Blumling, J., III; Langer, R.; Burdick, J. A. Micromolding of photocrosslinkable hyaluronic acid for cell encapsulation and entrapment J. Biomed. Mater. Res., Part A 2006, 79, 522-532
134. Ho, W. J.; Pham, E. A.; Kim, J. W.; Ng, C. W.; Kim, J. H.; Kamei, D. T.; Wu, B. M. Incorporation of multicellular spheroids into 3-D polymeric scaffolds provides an improved tumor model for screening anticancer drugs Cancer Sci. 2010, 101, 2637-2643
135. Astashkina, A. I.; Mann, B. K.; Prestwich, G. D.; Grainger, D. W. A 3-D organoid kidney culture model engineered for high-throughput nephrotoxicity assays Biomaterials 2012, 33, 4700-4711
136. Ng, C. P.; Pun, S. H. A perfusable 3D cell-matrix tissue culture chamber for in situ evaluation of nanoparticle vehicle penetration and transport Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2008, 99, 1490-1501
137. Blake, A. J.; Pearce, T. M.; Rao, N. S.; Johnson, S. M.; Williams, J. C. Multilayer PDMS microfluidic chamber for controlling brain slice microenvironment Lab Chip 2007, 7, 842-849
138. Chang, R.; Emami, K.; Wu, H.; Sun, W. Biofabrication of a three-dimensional liver micro-organ as an in vitro drug metabolism model Biofabrication 2010, 2, 045004
139. Zhang, H.; Lee, M.-Y.; Hogg, M. G.; Dordick, J. S.; Sharfstein, S. T. Gene delivery in three-dimensional cell cultures by superparamagnetic nanoparticles ACS Nano 2010, 4, 4733-4743
140. Szot, C. S.; Buchanan, C. F.; Freeman, J. W.; Rylander, M. N. 3D in vitro bioengineered tumors based on collagen I hydrogels Biomaterials 2011, 32, 7905-7912
141. Gurski, L. A.; Jha, A. K.; Zhang, C.; Jia, X. Q.; Farach-Carson, M. C. Hyaluronic acid-based hydrogels as 3D matrices for in vitro evaluation of chemotherapeutic drugs using poorly adherent prostate cancer cells Biomaterials 2009, 30, 6076-6085
142. Loessner, D.; Stok, K. S.; Lutolf, M. P.; Hutmacher, D. W.; Clements, J. A.; Rizzi, S. C. Bioengineered 3D platform to explore cell-ECM interactions and drug resistance of epithelial ovarian cancer cells Biomaterials 2010, 31, 8494-8506
143. Zhang, S. G.; Gelain, F.; Zhao, X. J. Designer self-assembling peptide nanofiber scaffolds for 3D tissue cell cultures Semin. Cancer Biol. 2005, 15, 413-420
144. Derda, R.; Laromaine, A.; Mammoto, A.; Tang, S. K. Y.; Mammoto, T.; Ingber, D. E.; Whitesides, G. M. Paper-supported 3D cell culture for tissue-based bioassays Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2009, 106, 18457-18462
145. Minchinton, A. I.; Tannock, I. F. Drug penetration in solid tumours Nat. Rev. Cancer 2006, 6, 583-592
146. Kim, B.; Han, G.; Toley, B. J.; Kim, C.-k.; Rotello, V. M.; Forbes, N. S. Tuning payload delivery in tumour cylindroids using gold nanoparticles Nat. Nano 2010, 5, 465-472
147. Huang, S. K.; Mayhew, E.; Gilani, S.; Lasic, D. D.; Martin, F. J.; Papahadjopoulos, D. Pharmacokinetics and therapeutics of sterically stabilized liposomes in mice bearing C-26 colon carcinoma Cancer Res. 1992, 52, 6774-6781
148. Vaage, J.; Barberaguillem, E.; Abra, R.; Huang, A.; Working, P. Tissue distribution and therapeutic effect of intravenous free or encapsulated liposomal doxorubicin on human prostate carcinoma xenografts Cancer 1994, 73, 1478-1484
149. Vaage, J.; Mayhew, E.; Lasic, D.; Martin, F. Therapy of primary and metastatic mouse mammary carcinomas with doxorubicin encapsulated in long circulating liposomes Int. J. Cancer 1992, 51, 942-948
150. Vaage, J.; Donovan, D.; Mayhew, E.; Abra, R.; Huang, A. Therapy of human ovarian carcinoma xenografts using doxorubicin encapsulated in sterically stabilized liposomes Cancer 1993, 72, 3671-3675
151. Vaage, J.; Donovan, D.; Uster, P.; Working, P. Tumour uptake of doxorubicin in polyethylene glycol-coated liposomes and therapeutic effect against a xenografted human pancreatic carcinoma Br. J. Cancer 1997, 75, 482-486
152. O'Brien, M. E.; Wigler, N.; Inbar, M.; Rosso, R.; Grischke, E.; Santoro, A.; Catane, R.; Kieback, D. G.; Tomczak, P.; Ackland, S. P.; Orlandi, F.; Mellars, L.; Alland, L.; Tendler, C. Reduced cardiotoxicity and comparable efficacy in a phase III trial of pegylated liposomal doxorubicin HCl (CAELYX/Doxil) versus conventional doxorubicin for first-line treatment of metastatic breast cancer Ann. Oncol. 2004, 15, 440-449
153. Ranson, M. R.; Carmichael, J.; Obyrne, K.; Stewart, S.; Smith, D.; Howell, A. Treatment of advanced breast cancer with sterically stabilized liposomal doxorubicin: Results of a multicenter phase II trial J. Clin. Oncol. 1997, 15, 3185-3191
154. Van Oosterom, A. T.; Mouridsen, H. T.; Wildiers, J.; Paridaens, R.; Cocconi, G.; Rotmensz, N.; Sylvester, R. Carminomycin versus doxorubicin in advanced breast cancer, a randomized phase II study of the E.O.R.T.C. Breast Cancer Cooperative Group Eur. J. Cancer Clin. Oncol. 1986, 22, 601-605
155. Lawton, P. A.; Spittle, M. F.; Ostrowski, M. J.; Young, T.; Madden, F.; Folkes, A.; Hill, B. T.; MacRae, K. A comparison of doxorubicin, epirubicin and mitozantrone as single agents in advanced breast carcinoma Clin. Oncol. (R. Coll. Radiol.) 1993, 5, 80-84
156. Cowan, J. D.; Osborne, C. K.; Neidhart, J. A.; Von Hoff, D. D.; Constanzi, J. J.; Vaughn, C. B. A randomized trial of doxorubicin, mitoxantrone and bisantrene in advanced breast cancer (a South West Oncology Group Study) Invest. New Drugs 1985, 3, 149-152
157. Pfeiffer, P.; Cold, S.; Rose, C. Cytotoxic treatment of metastatic breast cancer. Which drugs and drug combinations to use? Acta Oncol. 1992, 31, 219-224
158. Duncan, R.; Seymour, L. W.; O'Hare, K. B.; Flanagan, P. A.; Wedge, S.; Hume, I. C.; Ulbrich, K.; Strohalm, J.; Subr, V.; Spreafico, F.; Grandi, M.; Ripamonti, M.; Farao, M.; Suarato, A. Preclinical evaluation of polymer-bound doxorubicin J. Controlled Release 1992, 19, 331-346
159. Duncan, R. Drug-polymer conjugates: potential for improved chemotherapy Anticancer Drugs 1992, 3, 175-210
160. Seymour, L. W.; Ferry, D. R.; Kerr, D. J.; Rea, D.; Whitlock, M.; Poyner, R.; Boivin, C.; Hesslewood, S.; Twelves, C.; Blackie, R.; Schatzlein, A.; Jodrell, D.; Bissett, D.; Calvert, H.; Lind, M.; Robbins, A.; Burtles, S.; Duncan, R.; Cassidy, J. Phase II studies of polymer-doxorubicin (PK1, FCE28068) in the treatment of breast, lung and colorectal cancer Int. J. Oncol. 2009, 34, 1629-1636
161. Li, C.; Yu, D. F.; Newman, R. A.; Cabral, F.; Stephens, L. C.; Hunter, N.; Milas, L.; Wallace, S. Complete regression of well-established tumors using a novel water-soluble poly(L-glutamic acid)-paclitaxel conjugate Cancer Res. 1998, 58, 2404-2409
162. Sabbatini, P.; Aghajanian, C.; Dizon, D.; Anderson, S.; Dupont, J.; Brown, J. V.; Peters, W. A.; Jacobs, A.; Mehdi, A.; Rivkin, S.; Eisenfeld, A. J.; Spriggs, D. Phase II study of CT-2103 in patients with recurrent epithelial ovarian, fallopian tube, or primary peritoneal carcinoma J. Clin. Oncol. 2004, 22, 4523-4531
163. Sabbatini, P.; Sill, M. W.; O'Malley, D.; Adler, L.; Secord, A. A. A phase II trial of paclitaxel poliglumex in recurrent or persistent ovarian or primary peritoneal cancer (EOC): A gynecologic oncology group study Gynecol. Oncol. 2008, 111, 455-460
164. Yang, D.; Yu, L.; Van, S. Clinically relevant anticancer polymer paclitaxel therapeutics Cancers 2010, 3, 17-42
165. McGuire, W. P.; Hoskins, W. J.; Brady, M. F.; Kucera, P. R.; Partridge, E. E.; Look, K. Y.; ClarkePearson, D. L.; Davidson, M. Cyclophosphamide and cisplatin compared with paclitaxel and cisplatin in patients with stage III and stage IV ovarian cancer N. Engl. J. Med. 1996, 334, 1-6
166. European Medicines Agency Questions and answers on the withdrawalof the marketing authorisation application for Opaxio (Paclitaxelpoliglumex). http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en-GB/document-library/Medicine-QA/2010/01/ WC500060347.pdf (accessed on 10/15/12).
167. Bibby, M. C. Orthotopic models of cancer for preclinical drug evaluation: advantages and disadvantages Eur. J. Cancer 2004, 40, 852-857
168. Kelland, L. R. "Of mice and men": values and liabilities of the athymic nude mouse model in anticancer drug development Eur. J. Cancer 2004, 40, 827-836
169. Damia, G.; D'Incalci, M. Contemporary pre-clinical development of anticancer agents-What are the optimal preclinical models? Eur. J. Cancer 2009, 45, 2768-2781
170. Kamb, A. What's wrong with our cancer models? Nat. Rev. Drug Discovery 2005, 4, 161-165
171. Sausville, E. A.; Burger, A. M. Contributions of human tumor xenografts to anticancer drug development Cancer Res. 2006, 66, 3351-3354
172. Talmadge, J. E.; Singh, R. K.; Fidler, I. J.; Raz, A. Murine models to evaluate novel and conventional therapeutic strategies for cancer Am. J. Pathol. 2007, 170, 793-804
173. Ishida, T.; Masuda, K.; Ichikawa, T.; Ichihara, M.; Irimura, K.; Kiwada, H. Accelerated clearance of a second injection of PEGylated liposomes in mice Int. J. Pharm. 2003, 255, 167-174
174. Ishida, T.; Maeda, R.; Ichihara, M.; Irimura, K.; Kiwada, H. Accelerated clearance of PEGylated liposomes in rats after repeated injections J. Controlled Release 2003, 88, 35-42
175. Ishida, T.; Ichihara, M.; Wang, X.; Yamamoto, K.; Kimura, J.; Majima, E.; Kiwada, H. Injection of PEGylated liposomes in rats elicits PEG-specific IgM, which is responsible for rapid elimination of a second dose of PEGylated liposomes J. Controlled Release 2006, 112, 15-25
176. Karathanasis, E.; Chan, L.; Karumbaiah, L.; McNeeley, K.; D'Orsi, C. J.; Annapragada, A. V.; Sechopoulos, I.; Bellamkonda, R. V. Tumor vascular permeability to a nanoprobe correlates to tumor-specific expression levels of angiogenic markers PLoS One 2009, 4, e5843
177. Greish, K. Enhanced permeability and retention of macromolecular drugs in solid tumors: A royal gate for targeted anticancer nanomedicines J. Drug Targeting 2007, 15, 457-464
178. Fang, J.; Nakamura, H.; Maeda, H. The EPR effect: Unique features of tumor blood vessels for drug delivery, factors involved, and limitations and augmentation of the effect Adv. Drug Delivery Rev. 2011, 63, 136-151
179. McDonald, D. M.; Baluk, P. Significance of blood vessel leakiness in cancer Cancer Res. 2002, 62, 5381-5385
180. Killion, J. J.; Radinsky, R.; Fidler, I. J. Orthotopic models are necessary to predict therapy of transplantable tumors in mice Cancer Metastasis Rev. 1998, 17, 279-284
181. Kung, A. L. Practices and pitfalls of mouse cancer models in drug discovery Adv. Cancer Res. 2007, 96, 191-212
182. Fidler, I. J.; Wilmanns, C.; Staroselsky, A.; Radinsky, R.; Dong, Z.; Fan, D. Modulation of tumor cell response to chemotherapy by the organ environment Cancer Metastasis Rev. 1994, 13, 209-222
183. Kuo, T. H.; Kubota, T.; Watanabe, M.; Furukawa, T.; Kase, S.; Tanino, H.; Saikawa, Y.; Ishibiki, K.; Kitajima, M.; Hoffman, R. M. Site-specific chemosensitivity of human small-cell lung carcinoma growing orthotopically compared to subcutaneously in SCID mice: the importance of orthotopic models to obtain relevant drug evaluation data Anticancer Res. 1993, 13, 627-630
184. Hoffman, R. M. Orthotopic metastatic (MetaMouse) models for discovery and development of novel chemotherapy Methods Mol. Med. 2005, 111, 297-322
185. Chishima, T.; Miyagi, Y.; Wang, X. E.; Yamaoka, H.; Shimada, H.; Moossa, A. R.; Hoffman, R. M. Cancer invasion and micrometastasis visualized in live tissue by green fluorescent protein expression Cancer Res. 1997, 57, 2042-2047
186. Kobayashi, M.; Murakami, T.; Uchibori, R.; Chun, N. A.; Kobayashi, E.; Morita, T.; Ozawa, K. Establishment and characterization of transplantable, luminescence labeled rat renal cell carcinoma cell lines J. Urol. 2010, 183, 2029-2035
187. Yamamoto, N.; Jiang, P.; Yang, M.; Xu, M.; Yamauchi, K.; Tsuchiya, H.; Tomita, K.; Wahl, G. M.; Moossa, A. R.; Hoffman, R. M. Cellular dynamics visualized in live cells in vitro and in vivo by differential dual-color nuclear-cytoplasmic fluorescent-protein expression Cancer Res. 2004, 64, 4251-4256
188. Yan, W.; Xiao, D.; Yao, K. Combined bioluminescence and fluorescence imaging visualizing orthotopic lung adenocarcinoma xenograft in vivo Acta Biochim. Biophys. Sin. 2011, 43, 595-600
189. Liu, J.; Wang, Y.; Qu, X.; Li, X.; Ma, X.; Han, R.; Hu, Z.; Chen, X.; Sun, D.; Zhang, R.; Chen, D.; Chen, D.; Chen, X.; Liang, J.; Cao, F.; Tian, J. In vivo quantitative bioluminescence tomography using heterogeneous and homogeneous mouse models Opt. Express 2010, 18, 13102-13113
190. El Hilali, N.; Rubio, N.; Martinez-Villacampa, M.; Blanco, J. Combined noninvasive imaging and luminometric quantification of luciferase-labeled human prostate tumors and metastases Lab. Invest. 2002, 82, 1563-1571
191. Rosol, T. J.; Tannehill-Gregg, S. H.; LeRoy, B. E.; Mandl, S.; Contag, C. H. Animal models of bone metastasis Cancer 2003, 97, 748-757
192. Patra, C. R.; Bhattacharya, R.; Wang, E.; Katarya, A.; Lau, J. S.; Dutta, S.; Muders, M.; Wang, S.; Buhrow, S. A.; Safgren, S. L.; Yaszemski, M. J.; Reid, J. M.; Ames, M. M.; Mukherjee, P.; Mukhopadhyay, D. Targeted delivery of gemcitabine to pancreatic adenocarcinoma using cetuximab as a targeting agent Cancer Res. 2008, 68, 1970-1978
193. Mugabe, C.; Matsui, Y.; So, A. I.; Gleave, M. E.; Baker, J. H.; Minchinton, A. I.; Manisali, I.; Liggins, R.; Brooks, D. E.; Burt, H. M. In vivo evaluation of mucoadhesive nanoparticulate docetaxel for intravesical treatment of non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer Clin. Cancer Res. 2011, 17, 2788-2798
194. Oh, P.; Borgstrom, P.; Czarny, M.; Schnitzer, J. Host microenvironment dictates tumor growth, angiogenesis and vascular permeability FASEB J. 2009, 23 (Meeting Abstract Supplement) 438.11
195. Schnitzer, J. E.; Oh, P.; Borgstrom, P. Ectopic, orthotopic model for resvascularization and tumor assessment. International Patent Publication WO2008108993, 2008.
196. Frost, G. I.; Lustgarten, J.; Dudouet, B.; Nyberg, L.; Hartley-Asp, B.; Borgstrom, P. Novel syngeneic pseudo-orthotopic prostate cancer model: vascular, mitotic and apoptotic responses to castration Microvasc. Res. 2005, 69, 1-9
197. Thomsen, M.; Yacoub-Youssef, H.; Marcheix, B. Reconstitution of a human immune system in immunodeficient mice: models of human alloreaction in vivo Tissue Antigens 2005, 66, 73-82
198. Legrand, N.; Weijer, K.; Spits, H. Experimental models to study development and function of the human immune system in vivo J. Immunol. 2006, 176, 2053-2058
199. Macchiarini, F.; Manz, M. G.; Palucka, A. K.; Shultz, L. D. Humanized mice: are we there yet? J. Exp. Med. 2005, 202, 1307-1311
200. Zhou, J. H.; Neff, C. P.; Liu, X. X.; Zhang, J.; Li, H. T.; Smith, D. D.; Swiderski, P.; Aboellail, T.; Huang, Y. Y.; Du, Q.; Liang, Z. C.; Peng, L.; Akkina, R.; Rossi, J. J. Systemic administration of combinatorial dsiRNAs via nanoparticles efficiently suppresses HIV-1 infection in humanized mice Mol. Ther. 2011, 19, 2228-2238
201. Sharpless, N. E.; DePinho, R. A. Model organisms-The mighty mouse: genetically engineered mouse models in cancer drug development Nat. Rev. Drug Discovery 2006, 5, 741-754
202. Adams, J. M.; Cory, S. Transgenic models of tumor development Science 1991, 254, 1161-1167
203. Heyer, J.; Kwong, L. N.; Lowe, S. W.; Chin, L. Non-germline genetically engineered mouse models for translational cancer research Nat. Rev. Cancer 2010, 10, 470-480
204. Mohammed, A.; Janakiram, N. B.; Lightfoot, S.; Gali, H.; Vibhudutta, A.; Rao, C. V. Early detection and prevention of pancreatic cancer: use of genetically engineered mouse models and advanced imaging technologies Curr. Med. Chem. 2012, 19, 3701-3713
205. Dinulescu, D. M.; Ince, T. A.; Quade, B. J.; Shafer, S. A.; Crowley, D.; Jacks, T. Role of K-ras and Pten in the development of mouse models of endometriosis and endometrioid ovarian cancer Nat. Med. 2005, 11, 63-70
206. Sengupta, P.; Basu, S.; Soni, S.; Pandey, A.; Roy, B.; Oh, M. S.; Chin, K. T.; Paraskar, A. S.; Sarangi, S.; Connor, Y.; Sabbisetti, V. S.; Kopparam, J.; Kulkarni, A.; Muto, K.; Amarasiriwardena, C.; Jayawardene, I.; Lupoli, N.; Dinulescu, D. M.; Bonventre, J. V.; Mashelkar, R. A.; Sengupta, S. Cholesterol-tethered platinum II-based supramolecular nanoparticle increases antitumor efficacy and reduces nephrotoxicity Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2012, 109, 11294-11299
207. Dibirdik, I.; Yiv, S.; Qazi, S.; Uckun, F., M. In vivo anti-cancer activity of a liposomal nanoparticle construct of multifunctional tyrosine kinase inhibitor 4-(4′-hydroxyphenyl)-amino-6,7-dimethoxyquinazoline J. Nanomed. Nanotechnol. 2010, 1, 001-004
208. Uckun, F. M.; Dibirdik, I.; Qazi, S.; Vassilev, A.; Ma, H.; Mao, C.; Benyumov, A.; Emami, K. H. Anti-breast cancer activity of LFM-A13, a potent inhibitor of Polo-like kinase (PLK) Bioorg. Med. Chem. 2007, 15, 800-814
209. Uckun, F. M.; Vassilev, A. O.; Dibirdik, I.; Liu, X. P.; Erbeck, D.; Tibbles, H. E.; Qazi, S.; Venkatachalam, T. K. Anti-cancer activity profile of 3′-azidothymidine 5′-[p-methoxyphenyl methoxyalaninyl phosphate] (Compound 003), a novel nucleoside analog Arzneim. Forsch. 2004, 54, 715-31
210. Kelly, K. A.; Bardeesy, N.; Anbazhagan, R.; Gurumurthy, S.; Berger, J.; Alencar, H.; Depinho, R. A.; Mahmood, U.; Weissleder, R. Targeted nanoparticles for imaging incipient pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma PLoS Med. 2008, 5, e85
211. Valencia, P. M.; Farokhzad, O. C.; Karnik, R.; Langer, R. Microfluidic technologies for accelerating the clinical translation of nanoparticles Nat. Nanotechnol. 2012, 7, 623-629