Towards personalized cell-replacement therapies for brain repair

Personalized Medicine

Volumn 6, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 293-313

  Lavdas, Alexandros A ^a   Matsas, Rebecca ^a  

^a HELLENIC PASTEUR INSTITUTE   (Greece)

Author keywords

Autologous transplantation; Cell replacement therapy; CNS; Olfactory ensheathing cells; Schwann cells; Stem cells

Indexed keywords

BRAIN DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; CELL ADHESION MOLECULE; CELL EXTRACT; CHONDROITIN ABC LYASE; CILIARY NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; CYCLIC AMP; FORSKOLIN; GLIAL CELL LINE DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; GROWTH FACTOR; NERVE CELL ADHESION MOLECULE; NERVE GROWTH FACTOR; NEURITE PROMOTING FACTOR; NEUROTROPHIN 3; OCTAMER TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR 4; POLYSIALIC ACID; ROLIPRAM; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR NANOG; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR SOX2;

ALLERGIC ENCEPHALOMYELITIS; AUTOIMMUNITY; BRAIN DAMAGE; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL FUSION; CELL MIGRATION; CELL SURVIVAL; CORD BLOOD STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION; DEMYELINATING DISEASE; DNA METHYLATION; EMBRYONIC STEM CELL; GENE EXPRESSION; GENETIC TRANSDUCTION; GLIA CELL; HEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION; HUMAN; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE TREATMENT; MESENCHYMAL STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION; MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS; NEURAL STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION; NONHUMAN; NONVIRAL GENE DELIVERY SYSTEM; OLFACTORY ENSHEATHING CELL; PARKINSON DISEASE; PHENOTYPE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RETINA DEGENERATION; REVIEW; SCHWANN CELL; SOMATIC GENE THERAPY; SPINAL CORD INJURY; STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION; TREATMENT RESPONSE;

EID: 67651177837     PISSN: 17410541     EISSN: 1744828X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2217/pme.09.4     Document Type: Review

References (238)

1. Ramon y Cajal S: Degeneration and Regeneration of the Nervous System. Hafner, NY, USA (1928).
2. Raisman G: What hope for repair of the brain? Ann. Neurol. 3, 101-106 (1978).
3. Aguayo AJ, David S, Bray GM: Influences of the glial environment on the elongation I of axons after injury: transplantation studies in adult rodents. J. Exp. Biol. 95, 231-240 (1981).
4. Richardson PM, McGuinness UM, Aguayo AJ: Axons from CNS neurons regenerate into PNS grafts. Nature 284, 264-265 (1980).
5. Caroni P, Savio T, Schwab ME: Central nervous system regeneration: oligodendrocytes and myelin as non-permissive substrates for neurite growth. Prog. Brain Res. 78, 363-370 (1988).
6. Schwab ME, Caroni P: Oligodendrocytes and CNS myelin are nonpermissive substrates for neurite growth and fibroblast spreading in vitro. J. Neurosci. 8, 2381-2393 (1988).
7. Reynolds BA, Weiss S: Generation of neurons and astrocytes from isolated cells of the adult mammalian central nervous system. Science 255, 1707-1710 (1992).
8. Ming GL, Song H: Adult neurogenesis in the mammalian central nervous system. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 28, 223-250 (2005).
9. Takahashi K, Tanabe K, Ohnuki M et al.: Induction of pluripotent stem cells from adult human fibroblasts by defined factors. Cell 131, 861-872 (2007).
10. Takahashi K, Yamanaka S: Induction of pluripotent stem cells from mouse embryonic and adult fibroblast cultures by defined factors. Cell 126, 663-676 (2006).
11. Saric T, Hescheler J: Stem cells and nuclear reprogramming. Minim. Invasive Ther. Allied Technol. 17, 64-78 (2008).
12. Franklin RJ, Hinks GL: Understanding CNS remyelination: clues from developmental and regeneration biology. J. Neurosci. Res. 58, 207-213 (1999).
13. Prineas JW, Barnard RO, Revesz T, Kwon EE, Sharer L, Cho ES: Multiple sclerosis. Pathology of recurrent lesions. Brain 116(Part 3), 681-693 (1993).
14. Prineas JW, Barnard RO, Kwon EE, Sharer LR, Cho ES: Multiple sclerosis: remyelination of nascent lesions. Ann. Neurol. 33, 137-151 (1993).
15. De Stefano N, Matthews PM, Fu L et al.: Axonal damage correlates with disability in patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. Results of a longitudinal magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Brain 121(Part 8), 1469-1477 (1998).
16. Yu TW, Hao JC, Lim W, Tessier-Lavigne M, Bargmann CI: Shared receptors in axon guidance: SAX-3/Robo signals via UNC-34/enabled and a netrin-independent UNC-40/DCC function. Nat. Neurosci. 5, 1147-1154 (2002).
17. Skutella T, Nitsch R: New molecules for hippocampal development. Trends Neurosci. 24, 107-113 (2001).
18. Zou Y, Stoeckli E, Chen H, Tessier-Lavigne M: Squeezing axons out of the gray matter: a role for slit and semaphorin proteins from midline and ventral spinal cord. Cell 102, 363-375 2000).
19. Flanagan JG, Vanderhaeghen P: The ephrins and Eph receptors in neural development. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 21, 309-345 (1998).
20. Raper, JA: Semaphorins and their receptors in vertebrates and invertebrates. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 10, 88-94 (2000).
21. Holder N, Klein R: Eph receptors and ephrins: effectors of morphogenesis. Development 126, 2033-2044 (1999).
22. Cheng HJ, Bagri A, Yaron A, Stein E, Pleasure SJ, Tessier-Lavigne M: Plexin-A3 Mediates semaphorin signaling and regulates the development of hippocampal axonal projections. Neuron 32, 249-263 (2001).
23. Goshima. Y, Ito T, Sasaki Y, Nakamura F: Semaphorins as signals for cell repulsion and invasion. J. Clin. Invest. 109, 993-998 (2002).
24. Filbin MT: Myelin-associated inhibitors of axonal regeneration in the adult mammalian CNS. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 4, 703-713 (2003).
25. He Z, Koprivica V: The Nogo signaling pathway for regeneration block. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 27, 341-368 (2004).
26. Yiu G, He Z: Signaling mechanisms of the myelin inhibitors of axon regeneration. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 13, 545-551 (2003).
27. Yiu G, He Z: Glial inhibition of CNS axon regeneration. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 7, 617-627 (2006).
28. Silver J, Miller JH: Regeneration beyond the glial scar. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 5, 146-156 (2004).
29. Morgenstern DA, Asher RA, Fawcett JW: Chondroitin sulphate proteoglycans in the CNS injury response. Prog. Brain Res. 137, 313-332 (2002).
30. Faulkner JR, Herrmann JE, Woo MJ, Tansey KE, Doan NB, Sofroniew MV: Reactive astrocytes protect tissue and preserve function after spinal cord injury. J. Neurosci. 24, 2143-2155 (2004).
31. Fernandez E, Mannino S, Tufo T et al.: The adult 'paraplegic' rat: treatment with cell graftings. Surg. Neurol. 65, 223-237 (2006).
32. Oudega M, Xu XM: Schwann cell transplantation for repair of the adult spinal cord. J. Neurotrauma 23, 453-467 (2006).
33. Farin A, Liu CY, Elder JB, Langmoen IA, Apuzzo ML: The biological restoration of central nervous system architecture and function: part 1-foundations and historical landmarks in contemporary stem cell biology. Neurosurgery 64, 15-39 (2009) (Discussion 34).
34. Evans MJ, Kaufman MH: Establishment in culture of pluripotential cells from mouse embryos. Nature 292, 154-156 (1981).
35. Martin GR: Isolation of a pluripotent cell line from early mouse embryos cultured in medium conditioned by teratocarcinoma stem cells. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 78, 7634-7638 (1981).
36. Thomson JA, Itskovitz-Eldor J, Shapiro SS et al.: Embryonic stem cell lines derived from human blastocysts. Science 282, 1145-1147 (1998).
37. Lerou PH, Daley GQ: Therapeutic potential of embryonic stem cells. Blood Rev. 19, 321-331 (2005).
38. Kim JH, Auerbach JM, Rodriguez-Gomez JA et al.: Dopamine neurons derived from embryonic stem cells function in an animal model of Parkinson's disease. Nature 418, 50-56 (2002).
39. Nishimura F, Yoshikawa M, Kanda S et al.: Potential use of embryonic stem cells for the treatment of mouse parkinsonian models: improved behavior by transplantation of in vitro differentiated dopaminergic neurons from embryonic stem cells. Stem Cells 21, 171-180 (2003).
40. McDonald JW, Liu XZ, Ou Y et al.: Transplanted embryonic stem cells survive, differentiate and promote recovery in injured rat spinal cord. Nat. Med. 5, 1410-1412 (1999).
41. Li L, Baroja ML, Majumdar A et al.: Human embryonic stem cells possess immune-privileged properties. Stem Cells 22, 448-456 (2004).
42. Drukker M, Katchman H, Katz G et al.: Human embryonic stem cells and their differentiated derivatives are less susceptible to immune rejection than adult cells. Stem Cells 24, 221-229 (2006).
43. Okamura RM, Lebkowski J, Au M, Priest CA, Denham J, Majumdar AS: Immunological properties of human embryonic stem cell-derived oligodendrocyte progenitor cells. J Neuroimmunol. 192, 134-144 (2007).
44. Low CB, Liou YC, Tang BL: Neural differentiation and potential use of stem cells from the human umbilical cord for central nervous system transplantation therapy. J. Neurosci. Res. 86, 1670-1679 (2008).
45. Ende N, Weinstein F, Chen R, Ende M: Human umbilical cord blood effect on sod mice (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis). Life Sci. 67, 53-59 (2000).
46. Weiss ML, Medicetty S, Bledsoe AR et al.: Human umbilical cord matrix stem cells: preliminary characterization and effect of transplantation in a rodent model of Parkinson's disease. Stem Cells 24, 781-792 (2006).
47. Chen J, Sanberg PR, Li Y et al.: Intravenous administration of human umbilical cord blood reduces behavioral deficits after stroke in rats. Stroke 32, 2682-2688 (2001).
48. Newcomb JD, Ajmo CT Jr, Sanberg CD, Sanberg PR, Pennypacker KR, Willing AE: Timing of cord blood treatment after experimental stroke determines therapeutic efficacy. Cell Transplant. 15, 213-223 (2006).
49. Saporta S, Kim JJ, Willing AE, Fu ES, Davis CD, Sanberg PR: Human umbilical cord blood stem cells infusion in spinal cord injury: engraftment and beneficial influence on behavior. J Hematother. Stem Cell Res. 12, 271-278 (2003).
50. Zhao ZM, Li HJ, Liu HY et al.: Intraspinal transplantation of CD34' human umbilical cord blood cells after spinal cord hemisection injury improves functional recovery in adult rats. Cell Transplant. 13, 113-122 (2004).
51. Kuh SU, Cho YE, Yoon DH, Kim KN, Ha Y: Functional recovery after human umbilical cord blood cells transplantation with brain-derived neutrophic factor into the spinal cord injured rat. Acta Neurochir. (Wien) 147, 985-992 (2005) (Discussion 992).
52. Dasari VR, Spomar DG, Gondi CS et al.: Axonal remyelination by cord blood stem cells after spinal cord injury. J. Neurotrauma 24, 391-410 (2007).
53. Fischer UM, Harting MT, Jimenez F et al.: Pulmonary passage is a major obstacle for intravenous stem cell delivery: the pulmonary first pass effect. Stem Cells Dev. (2008) (Epub ahead of print).
54. Young HE, Black AC Jr: Adult stem cells. Anat. Rec. A Discov. Mol. Cell. Evol. Biol. 276, 75-102 (2004).
55. Walker MR, Patel KK, Stappenbeck TS: The stem cell niche. J. Pathol. 217, 169-180 (2009).
56. Pluchino S, Martino G: The therapeutic use of stem cells for myelin repair in autoimmune demyelinating disorders. J. Neurol. Sci. 233, 117-119 (2005).
57. Miller RH: The promise of stem cells for neural repair. Brain Res. 1091, 258-264 (2006).
58. Pluchino S, Quattrini A, Brambilla. E et al.: Injection of adult neurospheres induces recovery in a chronic model of multiple sclerosis. Nature 422, 688-694 (2003).
59. Einstein O, Karussis D, Grigoriadis N et al.: Intraventricular transplantation of neural precursor cell spheres attenuates acute experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. Mol. Cell. Neurosci. 24, 1074-1082 (2003).
60. Einstein O, Fainstein N, Vaknin I et al.: Neural precursors attenuate autoimmune encephalomyelitis by peripheral immunosuppression. Ann. Neurol. 61, 209-218 (2007).
61. Einstein O, Grigoriadis N, Mizrachi-Kol R et al.: Transplanted neural precursor cells reduce brain inflammation to attenuate chronic experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Exp. Neurol. 198, 275-284 (2006).
62. Doetsch F, Petreanu L, Caille I, Garcia-Verdugo JM, Alvarez-Buylla A: EGF converts transit-amplifying neurogenic precursors in the adult brain into multipotent stem cells. Neuron 36, 1021-1034 (2002).
63. Marskail GP 2nd, Laywell ED, Zheng T, Steindler DA, Scott EW: In vitro-derived 'neural stem cells' function as neural progenitors without the capacity for self-renewal. Stem Cells 24, 731-738 (2006).
64. Louis SA, Rietze RL, Deleyrolle L et al.: Enumeration of neural stem and progenitor cells in the neural colony-forming cell assay. Stem Cells 26, 988-996 (2008).
65. Kan I, Melamed E, Offen D: Autotransplantation of bone marrow-derived stem cells as a therapy for neurodegenerative diseases. Handb. Exp. Pharmacol. 180, 219-242 (2007).
66. Van Wijmeersch B, Sprangers B, Dubois B, Waer M, Billiau AD: Autologous and allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for multiple sclerosis: perspective on mechanisms of action. J. Neuroimmunol. 197, 89-98 (2008).
67. Sprangers B, Van Wijmeersch B, Luyckx A et al.: Allogeneic bone marrow transplantation and donor lymphocyte infusion in a mouse model of irradiation-induced myelodysplastic/myeloproliferation syndrome (MD/ MPS): evidence for a graft-versus-MD/MPS effect. Leukemia 23(2), 340-349 (2009).
68. Van Wijmeersch B, Sprangers B, Rutgeerts O et al.: Allogeneic bone marrow transplantation in models of experimental autoinumme encephalomyelitis: evidence for a graft-versus-autoimmunity effect. Biol. Blood Marrow Transplant. 13, 627-637 (2007).
69. Kopen GC, Prockop DJ, Phinney DG: Marrow stromal cells migrate throughout forebrain and cerebellum, and they differentiate into astrocytes after injection into neonatal mouse brains. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 96, 10711-10716 (1999).
70. Zhao LR, Duan WM, Reyes M, Keene CD, Verfaillie CM, Low WC: Human bone marrow stem cells exhibit neural phenotypes and ameliorate neurological deficits after grafting into the ischemic brain of rats. Exp. Neurol. 174, 11-20 (2002).
71. Dezawa M, Kanno H, Hoshino M et al.: Specific induction of neuronal cells from bone marrow stromal cells and application for autologous transplantation. J. Clin. Invest. 113, 1701-1710 (2004).
72. Hellmann MA, Panet H, Barhum Y, Melamed E, Offen D: Increased survival and migration of engrafted mesenchymal bone marrow stem cells in 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned rodents. Neurosci. Lett. 395, 124-128 (2006).
73. Ye M, Wing XJ, Zhang YH et al.: Therapeutic effects of differentiated bone marrow stromal cell transplantation on rat models of Parkinson's disease. Parkinsonism Relat. Disord. 13, 44-49 (2007).
74. Ferrero I, Mazzini L, Rustichelli D et al.: Bone marrow mesenchymal.stem cells from healthy donors and sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis patients. Cell Transplant. 17, 255-266 (2008).
75. Mazzini L, Mareschi K, Ferrero I et al.: Autologous mesenchymal stem cells: clinical applications in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neurol. Res. 28, 523-526 (2006).
76. Mazzini L, Fagioli F, Boccaletti R et al.: Stem cell therapy in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: a methodological approach in humans. Amyotroph. Lateral Scler. Other Motor Neuron Disord. 4, 158-161 (2003).
77. Mazzini L, Mareschi K, Ferrero I et al.: Stem cell treatment in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J. Neurol. Sci. 265, 78-83 (2008).
78. Silani V, Cova L, Corbo M, Ciammola. A, Polli E: Stem-cell therapy for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Lancet 364, 200-202 (2004).
79. Vercelli A, Mereuta OM, Garbossa D et al.: Human mesenchymal stem cell transplantation extends survival, improves motor performance and decreases neuroinflammation in mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neurobiol. Dis. 31, 395-405 (2008).
80. Chen CW, Boiteau RM, Lai WF, Barger SW, Cataldo AM: sAPPα enhances the transdifferentiation of adult bone marrow progenitor cells to neuronal phenotypes. Curr. Alzheimer Res. 3, 63-70 (2006).
81. Phinney DG, Prockop DJ: Concise review: mesenchymal stem/multipotent stromal cells: the state of transdifferentiation and modes of tissue repair - current views. Stem Cells 25, 2896-2902 (2007).
82. Jiang Y, Henderson D, Blackstad M, Chen A, Miller RF, Verfaillie CM: Neuroectodermal differentiation from mouse multipotent adult progenitor cells. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 100 (Suppl. 1), 11854-11860 (2003).
83. Jiang Y, Jahagirdar BN, Reinhardt RL et al.: Pluripotency of mesenchymal stem cells derived from adult marrow. Nature 418, 41-49 (2002).
84. Wilmut I, Schnieke AE, McWhir J, Kind AJ, Campbell KH: Viable offspring derived from fetal and adult mammalian cells. Nature 385, 810-813 (1997).
85. Munsie MJ, Michalska AE, O'Brien CM, Trounson AO, Pera MF, Mountford PS: Isolation of pluripotent embryonic stem cells from reprogrammed adult mouse somatic cell nuclei. Curr. Biol. 10, 989-992 (2000).
86. Byrne JA, Pedersen DA, Clepper LL et al.: Producing primate embryonic stem cells by somatic cell nuclear transfer. Nature 450, 497-502 (2007).
87. Cowan CA, Atienza J, Melton DA, Eggan K: Nuclear reprogramming of somatic cells after fusion with human embryonic stem cells. Science 309, 1369-1373 (2005).
88. Matveeva NM, Shilov AG, Kaftanovskaya EM et al.: In vitro and in vivo study of pluripotency in intraspecific hybrid cells obtained by fusion of routine embryonic stem cells with splenocytes. Mol. Reprod. Dev. 50, 128-138 (1998).
89. Tada M, Takahama Y, Abe K, Nakatsuji N, Tada T: Nuclear reprogramming of somatic cells by in vitro hybridization with ES cells. Curr. Biol. 11, 1553-1558 (2001).
90. Ying QL, Nichols J, Evans EP, Smith AG: Changing potency by spontaneous fusion. Nature 416, 545-548 (2002).
91. Ambrosi DJ, Tanasijevic B, Kaur A et al.: Genome-wide reprogramming in hybrids of somatic cells and embryonic stem cells. Stem Cells 25, 1104-1113 (2007).
92. Yu J, Vodyanik MA, He P, Slukvin II, Thomson JA: Human embryonic stem cells reprogram myeloid precursors following cell-cell fusion. Stem Cells 24, 168-176 (2006).
93. Hakelien AM, Landsverk HB, Robl JM, Skalhegg BS, Collas P: Reprogramming fibroblasts to express T-cell functions using cell extracts. Nat. Biotechnol. 20, 460-466 (2002).
94. Taranger CK, Noer A, Sorensen AL, Hakelien AM, Boquest AC, Collas P: Induction of dedifferentiation, genomewide transcriptional programming, and epigenetic reprogramming by extracts of carcinoma and embryonic stem cells. Mol. Biol. Cell 16, 5719-5735 (2005).
95. Freberg CT, Dahl JA, Timoskainen S, Collas P: Epigenetic reprogramming of OCT4 and NANOG regulatory regions by embryonal carcinoma cell extract. Mol. Biol. Cell 18, 1543-1553 (2007).
96. Eckfeldt CE, Mendenhall EM, Verfaillie CM: The molecular repertoire of the 'almighty' stem cell. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 6, 726-737 (2005).
97. Boyer LA, Lee TI, Cole MF et al.: Core transcriptional regulatory circuitry in human embryonic stem cells. Cell 122, 947-956 (2005).
98. Loh YH, Wu Q, Chew JL et al.: The-Oct4 and Nanog transcription network regulates pluripotency in mouse embryonic stem cells. Nat. Genet. 38, 431-440 (2006).
99. Okita K, Ichisaka T, Yamanaka S: Generation of germline-competent induced pluripotent stem cells. Nature 448, 313-317 (2007).
100. Maherali N, Sridharan R, Xie W et al.: Directly reprogrammed fibroblasts show global epigenetic remodeling and widespread tissue contribution. Cell Stem Cell 1, 55-70 (2007).
101. Wernig M, Meissner A, Foreman R et al.: In vitro reprogramming of fibroblasts into a pluripotent ES-cell-like state. Nature 448, 318-324 (2007).
102. Park IH, Daley GQ: Human iPS cell derivation/reprogramming. Curr. Protoc. Stem Cell Biol. Chapter 4, Unit 4A, 1 (2009).
103. Meissner A, Wernig M, Jaenisch R: Direct reprogramming of genetically unmodified fibroblasts into pluripotent stem cells. Nat. Biotechnol. 25, 1177-1181 (2007).
104. Blelloch R, Venere M, Yen J, Ramalho-Santos M: Generation of induced pluripotent stem cells in the absence of drug selection. Cell Stem Cell 1, 245-247 (2007).
105. Yu J, Vodyanik MA, Smuga-Otto K et al.: Induced pluripotent stem cell lines derived from human somatic cells. Science 318, 1917-1920 (2007).
106. Kim JB, Zaehres H, Wu G et al.: Pluripotent stem cells induced from adult neural stem cells by reprogramming with two factors. Nature 454, 646-650 (2008).
107. Kim JB, Sebastiano V, Wu G et al.: Oct4-induced pluripotency in adult neural stem cells. Cell 136, 411-419 (2009).
108. Hanna J, Wernig M, Markoulaki S et al.: Treatment of sickle cell anemia mouse model with WS cells generated from autologous skin. Science 318, 1920-1923 (2007).
109. Nakagawa M, Koyanagi M, Tanabe K et al.: Generation ofinduced pluripotent stem cells without Myc from mouse and human fibroblasts. Nat. Biotechnol. 26, 101-106 (2008).
110. Wernig M, Meissner A, Cassady JP, Jaenisch R: c-Myc is dispensable for direct reprogramming of mouse fibroblasts. Cell Stem Cell 12, 10-12 (2008).
111. Cao F, Drukker M, Lin S et al.: Molecular imaging of embryonic stem cell misbehavior and suicide gene ablation. Cloning Stem Cells 9, 107-117 (2007).
112. Jung J, Hackett NR, Pergolizzi RG, Pierre-Destine L, Krause A, Crystal RG: Ablation of tumor-derived stem cells transplanted to the central nervous system by genetic modification of embryonic stem cells with a suicide gene. Hum. Gene Ther. 18, 1182-1192 (2007).
113. Stadtfeld M, Nagaya M, Utikal J, Weir G, Hochedlinger K: Induced pluripotent stem cells generated without viral integration. Science 322, 945-949 (2008).
114. Okita K, Nakagawa M, Hyenjong H, Ichisaka T, Yamanaka S: Generation of mouse induced pluripotent stem cells without viral vectors. Science 322, 949-953 (2008).
115. Kaji K, Norrby K, Paca A, Mileikovsky M, Mohseni P, Woltjen K: Virus-free induction of pluripotency and subsequent excision of reprogramming factors. Nature 458(7239), 771-775 (2009).
116. Woltjen K, Michael IP, Mohseni P et al.: piggyBac transposition reprograms fibroblasts to induced pluripotent stem cells. Nature 458(7239), 766-770 (2009).
117. Laflamme MA, Chen KY, Naumova AV et al.: Cardiomyocytes derived from human embryonic stem cells in pro-survival factors enhance function of infarcted rat hearts. Nat. Biotechnol. 25, 1015-1024 (2007).
118. Wernig M, Tucker KL, Gornik V et al.: Tau EGFP embryonic stem cells: an efficient tool for neuronal lineage selection and transplantation. J. Neurosci. Res. 69, 918-924 (2002).
119. Blakemore WF, Crang AJ: The use of cultured autologous Schwann cells to remyelinate areas of persistent demyelination in the central nervous system. J. Neurol. Sci. 70, 207-223 (1985).
120. Blakemore WF: Remyelination by Schwann cells of axons demyelinated by intraspinal injection of 6-aminonicorinamide in the rat. J. Neurocytol. 4, 745-757 (1975).
121. Blakemore WF: Remyelination of CNS axons by Schwann cells transplanted from the sciatic nerve. Nature 266, 68-69 (1977).
122. Cameron-Curry P, Le Douarin NM: Oligodendrocyte precursors originate from both the dorsal and the ventral parts of the spinal cord. Neuron 15, 1299-1310 (1995).
123. Bronner-Fraser M: Neural crest cell migration in the developing embryo. Trends Cell Biol. 3, 392-397 (1993).
124. Dupin E, Baroffio A, Dulac C, Cameron-Curry P, Le Douarin NM: Schwann-cell differentiation in clonal cultures of the neural crest, as evidenced by the anti-Schwann cell myelin protein monoclonal antibody. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 87, 1119-1123 (1990).
125. Anderson DJ: Cell and molecular biology of neural crest cell lineage diversification. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 3, 8-13 (1993).
126. Jessen KR, Mirsky R: Schwann cells: early lineage, regulation of proliferation and control of myelin formation. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2, 575-581 (1992).
127. Mirsky R, Jessen KR: Schwann cell development, differentiation and myelination. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 6, 89-96 (1996).
128. Hirano A, Zimmerman HM, Levine S: Electron microscopic observations of peripheral myelin in a central nervous system. lesion. Acta Neuropathol. 12, 348-365 (1969).
129. Beattie MS, Bresnahan JC, Komon J et al.: Endogenous repair after spinal cord contusion injuries in the rat. Exp. Neurol. 148, 453-463 (1997).
130. Bresnahan JC: An electron-microscopic analysis of axonal alterations following blunt contusion of the spinal cord of the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta). J. Neurol. Sci. 37, 59-82 (1978).
131. Takami T, Oudega M, Bates ML, Wood PM, Kleitman N, Bringe MB: Schwann cell but not olfactory ensheathing glia transplants improve hindlimb locomotor performance in the moderately contused adult rat thoracic spinal cord. J Neurosci. 22, 6670-6681 (2002).
132. Gilmore SA, Duncan D: On the presence of peripheral-like nervous and connective tissue within irradiated spinal cord. Anat. Rec. 160, 675-690 (1968).
133. Feigin I, Ogata J: Schwann cells and peripheral myelin within human central nervous tissues: the mesenchymal character of Schwann cells. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 30, 603-612 (1971).
134. Black JA, Waxman SG, Smith KJ: Remyelination of dorsal column axons by endogenous Schwann cells restores the normal pattern of Nav1.6 and Kv1.2 at nodes of Ranvier. Brain 129, 1319-1329 (2006).
135. Blight AR, Young W: Central axons in injured cat spinal cord recover electrophysiological function following remyelination by Schwann cells. J. Neurol. Sci. 91, 15-34 (1989).
136. Bachelin C, Lachapelle F, Girard C et al.: Efficient myelin repair in the macaque spinal cord by autologous grafts of Schwann cells. Brain 128, 540-549 (2005).
137. Baron-Van Evercooren A, Avellana-Adalid V, Lachapelle F, Liblau R: Schwann cell transplantation and myelin repair of the CNS. Mult. Scler. 3, 157-161. (1997).
138. Fouad K, Schnell L, Bunge MB, Schwab ME, Liebscher T, Pearse DD: Combining Schwann cell bridges and olfactory-ensheathing glia grafts with chondroitinase promotes locomotor recovery after complete transection of the spinal cord. J. Neurosci. 25, 1169-1178 (2005).
139. Kromer LF, Cornbrooks CJ: Transplants of Schwann cell cultures promote axonal regeneration in the adult mammalian brain. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 82, 6330-6334 (1985).
140. Franklin RJ: Rcmyelination of the demyelinated CNS: the case for and against transplantation of central, peripheral and olfactory glia. Brain Res. Bull. 57, 827-832 (2002).
141. Girard C, Bemelmans AP, Dufour N et al.: Grafts of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurotrophin 3-transduced primate Schwann cells lead to functional recovery of the demyelinated mouse spinal cord. J. Neurosci. 25, 7924-7933 (2005).
142. Honmou O, Felts PA, Waxman SG, Kocsis JD: Restoration of normal conduction properties in demyelinated spinal cord axons in the adult rat by transplantation of exogenous Schwann cells. J. Neurosci. 16, 3199-3208 (1996).
143. Pearse DD, Pereira FC, Marcillo AE et al.: cAMP and Schwann cells promote axonal growth and functional recovery after spinal cord injury. Nat. Med. 10, 610-616 (2004).
144. Casella GT, Bunge RP, Wood PM: Improved method for harvesting human Schwann cells from mature peripheral nerve and expansion in vitro. Glia 17, 327-338 (1996).
145. Levi AD, Bunge RP, Lofgren JA et al.: The influence of heregulins on human Schwann cell proliferation. J. Neurosci. 15, 1329-1340 (1995).
146. Rutkowski JL, Kirk CJ, Lemer MA, Tennekoon GI: Purification and expansion of human Schwann cells in vitro. Nat. Med. 1, 80-83 (1995).
147. Porter S, Clark MB, Glaser L, Bunge RP: Schwann cells stimulated to proliferate in the absence of neurons retain full functional capability. J. Neurosci. 6, 3070-3078 (1986).
148. Funk D, Fricke C, Schlosshauer B: Aging Schwann cells in vitro. Eur. J. Cell Biol. 86, 207-219 (2007).
149. Langford LA, Porter S, Bunge RP: Immortalized rat Schwann cells produce rumours in vivo. J. Neuracytol. 17, 521-529 (1988).
150. Caddick J, Kingham PJ, Gardiner NJ, Wiberg M, Terenghi G: Phenotypic and functional characteristics of mesenchymal stem cells differentiated along a Schwann cell lineage. Glia 54, 840-849 (2066).
151. Toma JG, Akhavan M, Fernandes KJ et al.: Isolation of multipotent adult stem cells from the dermis of mammalian skin. Nat. Cell Biol. 3, 778-784 (2001).
152. Fernandes KJ, McKenzie IA, Mill P et al.: A dermal niche for multipotent adult skin-derived precursor cells. Nat. Cell Biol. 6, 1082-1093 (2004).
153. McKenzie IA, Biernaskie J, Toma JG, Midha R, Miller FD: Skin-derived precursors generate myelinating Schwann cells for the injured and dysmyelinated nervous system. J. Neurosci. 26, 6651-6660 (2006).
154. Gilmore SA: Autoradiographic studies of intramedullary Schwann cells in irradiated spinal cords of immature rats. Anat. Rec. 171, 517-528 (1971).
155. Raisman G: Use of Schwann cells to induce repair of adult CNS tracts. Rev. Neurol. (Paris) 153, 521-525 (1997).
156. Schaal SM, Kitay BM, Cho KS et al.: Schwann cell transplantation improves reticulospinal axon growth and forelimb strength after severe cervical spinal cord contusion. Cell Transplant. 16, 207-228 (2007).
157. Firouzi M, Moshayedi P, Saberi H et al.: Transplantation of Schwann cells to subarachnoid space induces repair in contused rat spinal cord. Neurosci. Lett. 402, 66-70 (2006).
158. Kohama I, Lankford KL, Preiningerova J, White FA, Vollmer TL, Kocsis JD: Transplantation of cryopreserved adult human Schwann cells enhances axonal conduction in demyelinated spinal cord. J. Neurosci. 21, 944-950 (2001).
159. Heumann R, Lindholm D, Bandtlow C et al.: Differential regulation of mRNA encoding nerve growth factor and its receptor in rat sciatic nerve during development, degeneration, and regeneration: role of macrophages. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 84, 8735-8739 (1987).
160. Bandtlow CE, Heumann R, Schwab ME, Thoenen H: Cellular localization of nerve growth factor synthesis by in situ hybridization. EMBO J 6, 891-899, (1987).
161. Hess DM, Scott MO, Potluri S, Pitts EV, Cisterni C, Balice-Gordon RJ: Localization of TrkC to Schwann cells and effects of neurotrophin-3 signaling at neuromuscular synapses. J. Comp. Neurol. 501, 465-482 (2007).
162. Acheson A, Barker PA, Alderson RF, Miller FD, Murphy RA: Detection of brain-derived neurotrophic factor-like activity in fibroblasts and Schwann cells: inhibition by antibodies to NGF. Neuron 7, 265-275 (1991).
163. Meyer M, Matsuoka I, Wetmore C, Olson L, Thoenen H: Enhanced synthesis of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in the lesioned peripheral nerve: different mechanisms are responsible for the regulation of BDNF and NGF mRNA. J. Cell Biol. 119, 45-54 (1992).
164. Neuberger TJ, De Vries GH: Distribution of fibroblast growth factor in cultured dorsal root ganglion neurons and Schwann cells. II. Redistribution after neural injury. J. Neurocytol. 22, 449-460 (1993).
165. Springer JE, Mu X, Bergmann LW, Trojanowski JQ: Expression of GDNF mRNA in rat and human nervous tissue. Exp. Neurol. 127, 167-170 (1994).
166. Rende M, Muir D, Ruoslahti E, Hagg T, Varon S, Manthorpe M: Immunolocalization of ciliary neuronotrophic factor in adult rat sciatic nerve. Glia 5, 25-32 (1992).
167. Cornbrooks CJ, Carey DJ, McDonald JA, Timpl R, Bunge RP: In vivo and in vitro observations on laminin production by Schwann cells. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 80, 3850-3854 (1983).
168. Kurkinen M, Alitalo K: Fibronectin and procollagen produced by a clonal line of Schwann cells. FEBS Lett. 102, 64-68 (1979).
169. Halfpenny C, Benn T, Scolding N: Cell transplantation, myelin repair, and multiple sclerosis. Lancet Neurol. 1, 31-40 (2002).
170. Franklin RJ, Blakemore WF: Requirements for Schwann cell migration within CNS environments: a viewpoint. Int. J. Dev. Neurosci. 11, 641-649 (1993).
171. Blakemore WF, Franklin RJ: Transplantation options for therapeutic central nervous system remyelination. Cell Transplant. 9, 289-294 (2000).
172. Iwashita Y, Fawcett JW, Crang AJ, Franklin RJ, Blakemore WF: Schwann cells transplanted into normal and X-irradiated adult white matter do not migrate extensively and show poor long-term survival. Exp. Neurol. 164, 292-302 (2000).
173. Baron-Van Evercooren A, Clerin-Duhamel E, Lapie P, Gansmuller A, Lachapelle F, Gumpel M: The fate of Schwann cells transplanted in the brain during development. Dev. Neurosci. 14, 73-84 (1992).
174. Lakatos A, Franklin RJ, Barnett SC: Olfactory ensheathing cells and Schwann cells differ in their in vitro interactions with astrocytes. Glia 32, 214-225 (2000).
175. Wilby MJ, Muir EM, Fok-Seang J, Gour BJ, Blaschuk OW, Fawcett JW: N-Cadherin inhibits Schwann cell migration on astrocytes. Mol. Cell. Neurosci. 14, 66-84 (1999).
176. Ghirnikar RS, Eng LF: Astrocyte-Schwann cell interactions in culture. Glia 11, 367-377 (1994).
177. Ghinikar RS, Eng LF: Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan staining in astrocyte-Schwann cell co-Cultures. Glia 14, 145-152 (1995).
178. Santos-Silva A, Fairless R, Frame MC et al.: FGF/heparin differentially regulates Schwann cell and olfactory ensheathing cell interactions with astrocytes: a role in astrocytesis. J. Neurosci. 27, 7154-7167 (2007).
179. Woodhoo A, Sahni V, Gilson J et al.: Schwann cell precursors: a favourable cell for myelin repair in the central nervous system. Brain 130, 2175-2185 (2007).
180. Arenas E, Persson H: Neurotrophin-3 prevents the death of adult central noradrenergic neurons in vivo. Nature 367, 368-371 (1994).
181. Giehl KM, Tetzlaff W: BDNF and NT-3, but not NGF, prevent axotomy-induced death of rat corticospinal neurons in vivo. Eur. J. Neurosci. 8, 1167-1175 (1996).
182. Jakeman LB, Wei P, Guan Z, Stokes BT: Brain-derived neurotrophic factor stimulates hindlimb stepping and sprouting of cholinergic fibers after spinal cord injury. Exp. Neurol. 154, 170-184 (1998).
183. Schnell L, Schneider R, Kolbeck R, Barde YA, Schwab ME: Neurotrophin-3 enhances sprouting of corticospinal tract during development and after adult spinal cord lesion. Nature 367, 170-173 (1994).
184. Houle JD, Ye JH: Changes occur in the ability to promote axonal regeneration as the post-injury period increases. Neuroreport 8, 751-755 (1997).
185. Houweling DA, Lankhorst AJ, Gispen WH, Bar PR, Joosten EA: Collagen containing neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) attracts regrowing injured corticospinal axons in the adult rat spinal cord and promotes partial functional recovery. Exp. Neurol. 153, 49-59 (1998).
186. Houweling DA, van Asseldonk JT, Lankhorst AJ et al.: Local application of collagen containing brain-derived neurotrophic factor decreases the loss of function after spinal cord injury in the adult rat. Neurosci. Lett. 251, 193-196 (1998).
187. Xu XM, Guenard V, Kleitman N, Aebischer P, Bunge MB: A combination of BDNF and NT-3 promotes supraspinal axonal regeneration into Schwann cell grafts in adult rat thoracic spinal cord. Exp. Neurol. 134, 261-272 (1995).
188. Bamber NI, Li H, Lu X, Oudega M, Aebischer P, Xu XM: Neurotrophins BDNF and NT-3 promote axonal re-entry into the distal host spinal cord through Schwann cell-seeded mini-channels. Eur. J. Neurosci. 13, 257-268 (2001).
189. Iannotti C, Li H, Yan P, Lu X, Wirthlin L, Xu XM: Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor-enriched bridging transplants promote propriospinal axonal regeneration and enhance myelination after spinal cord injury. Exp. Neurol. 183, 379-393 (2003).
190. Song HJ, Ming GL, Poo MM: cAMP-induced switching in turning direction of nerve growth cones. Nature 388, 275-279 (1997).
191. Ming GL, Song HJ, Berninger B, Holt CE, Tessier-Lavigne M, Poo MM. cAMP-dependent growth cone guidance by netrin-1. Neuron 19, 1225-1235 (1997).
192. Cai D, Qiu J, Cao Z, McAtee M, Bregman BS, Filbin MT: Neuronal cyclic AMP controls the developmental loss in ability of axons to regenerate. J. Neurosci. 21, 4731-4739 (2001).
193. McKeon RJ, Schreiber RC, Rudge JS, Silver J: Reduction of neurite outgrowth in a model of glial scarring following CNS injury is correlated with the expression of inhibitory molecules on reactive astrocytes. J. Neurosci. 11, 3398-3411 (1991).
194. Chau CH, Shum DK, Li H et al.: Chondroitinase ABC enhances axonal regrowth through Schwann cell-seeded guidance channels after spinal cord injury. FASEB J. 18, 194-196 (2004).
195. Sirko S, von Holst A, Wizenmann A, Gotz M, Faissner A: Chondroitin sulfate glycosaminoglycans control proliferation, radial glia cell differentiation and neurogenesis in neural stem/progenitor cells. Development 134(15), 2727-2738 (2007).
196. Arvidsson A, Collin T, Kirik D, Kokaia Z, Lindvall O: Neuronal replacement from endogenous precursors in the adult brain after stroke. Nat. Med. 8, 963-970 (2002).
197. Magavi SS, Leavitt BR, Macklis JD: Induction of neurogenesis in the neocortex of adult mice. Nature 405, 951-955 (2000).
198. Rolls A, Shechter R, London A et al.: Two faces of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan in spinal cord repair: a role in microglia/ macrophage activation. PLoS Med. 5, E171 (2008).
199. Feltri ML, Scherer SS, Wrabetz L, Kamholz J, Shy ME: Mitogen-expanded Schwann cells retain the capacity to myelinate regenerating axons after transplantation into rat sciatic nerve. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 89, 8827-8831 (1992).
200. Owens GC, Bunge RP: Schwann cells infected with a recombinant retrovirus expressing myelin-associated glycoprotein antisense RNA do not form myelin. Neuron 7, 565-575 (1991).
201. Tuszynski MH, Weidner N, McCormack M, Miller I, Powell H, Conner J: Grafts of genetically modified Schwann cells to the spinal cord: survival axon growth, and myelination. Cell Transplant. 7, 187-196 (1998).
202. Menei P, Montero-Menei C, Whittemore SR, Bunge RP, Bunge MB: Schwann cells genetically modified to secrete human BDNF promote enhanced axonal regrowth across transected adult rat spinal cord. Eur. J. Neurosci. 10, 607-621 (1998).
203. Lawrence JM, Keegan DJ, Muir EM et al.: Transplantation of Schwann cell line clones secreting GDNF or BDNF into the retinas of dystrophic Royal College of Surgeons rats. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 45, 267-274 (2004).
204. Hu Y, Leaver SG, Plant GW et al.: Lentiviral-mediated transfer of CNTF to schwann cells within reconstructed peripheral nerve grafts enhances adult retinal ganglion cell survival and axonal regeneration. Mol. Ther. 11, 906-915 (2005).
205. Lavdas AA, Franceschini I, Dubois-Dalcq M, Matsas R: Schwann cells genetically engineered to express PSA show enhanced migratory potential without impairment of their myelinating ability in vitro. Glia 53, 868-878 (2006).
206. Durbec P, Cremer H: Revisiting the function of PSA-NCAM in the nervous system. Mol. Neurobiol. 24, 53-64 (2001).
207. El Maarouf A, Petridis AK, Rutishauscr U: Use of polysialic acid in repair of the central nervous system. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 103, 16989-16994 (2006).
208. Johnson CP, Fujimoto I, Rutishauser U, Leckband DE: Direct evidence that neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) polysialylation increases intermembrane repulsion and abrogates adhesion. J. Biol. Chem. 280, 137-145 (2005).
209. Fujimoto I, Bruses JL, Rutishauser U: Regulation of cell adhesion by polysialic acid. Effects on cadherin, immunoglobulin cell adhesion molecule, and integrin function and independence from neural cell adhesion molecule binding or signaling activity. J. Biol. Chem. 276, 31745-31751 (2001).
210. Zhang Y, Ghadiri-Sani M, Zhang X, Richardson PM, Yeh J, Bo X: Induced expression of polysialic acid in the spinal cord promotes regeneration of sensory axons. Mol. Cell. Neurosci. 35, 109-119 (2007).
211. Papastefanaki F, Chen J, Lavdas A, Thomaidou D, Schachner M, Matsas R: Grafts of Schwann cells engineered to express PSA-NCAM promote functional recovery after spinal cord- injury. Brain 130(Part 8), 2159-2174 (2007).
212. Guo JS, Zeng YS, Li HB et al.: Cotransplant of neural stem cells and NT-3 gene modified Schwann cells promote the recovery of transected spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 45, 15-24 (2007).
213. Dong Z, Dean C, Walters JE, Mirsky R, Jessen KR: Response of Schwann cells to mitogens in vitro is determined by pre-exposure to serum, time in vitro, and developmental age. Glia 20, 219-230 (1997).
214. Pollock GS, Franceschini IA, Graham G, Marchionni MA, Barnett SC: Neuregulin is a mitogen and survival factor for olfactory bulb ensheathing cells and an isoform is produced by astrocytes. Eur. J. Neurosci. 11, 769-780 (1999).
215. Franceschini IA, Barnett SC: Low-affinity NGF-receptor and E-N-CAM expression define two types of olfactory nerve ensheathing cells that share a common lineage. Dev. Biol. 173, 327-343 (1996).
216. Ramon-Cueto A, Valverde F: Olfactory bulb ensheathing glia: a unique cell type with axonal growth-promoting properties. Glia 14, 163-173 (1995).
217. Smith PM, Sim FJ, Barnett SC, Franklin RJ: SCIP/Oct-6, Krox-20, and desert hedgehog mRNA expression during CNS remyelination by transplanted olfactory ensheathing cells. Glia 36, 342-353 (2001).
218. Sasaki M, Black JA, Lankford KL, Tokuno HA, Waxman SG, Kocsis JD: Molecular reconstruction of nodes of Ranvier after remyelination by transplanted olfactory ensheathing cells in the demyelinated spinal cord. J. Neurosci. 26, 1803-1812 (2006).
219. Sasaki M, Hains BC, Lankford KL, Waxman SG, Kocsis JD: Protection of corticospinal tract neurons after dorsal spinal cord transection and engraftment of olfactory ensheathing cells. Glia 53, 352-359 (2006).
220. Richter MW, Fletcher PA, Liu J, Tetzlaff W, Roskams AJ: Lamina propria and olfactory bulb ensheathing cells exhibit differential integration and migration and promote differential axon sprouting in the lesioned spinal cord. J. Neurosci. 25, 10700-10711 (2005).
221. Franssen EH, Roet KC, de Brec FM, Verhaagen J: Olfactory ensheathing glia and Schwann cells exhibit a distinct interaction behavior with meningeal cells. J. Neurosci. Res. 87(7), 1556-1564 (2009).
222. Au E, Richter MW, Vincent AJ et al.: SPARC from olfactory ensheathing cells stimulates Schwann cells to promote neurite outgrowth and enhances spinal cord repair. J. Neurosci. 27, 7208-7221 (2007).
223. Franssen EH, de Brec FM, Verhaagen J: Olfactory ensheathing glia: their contribution to primary olfactory nervous system regeneration and their regenerative potential following transplantation into the injured spinal cord. Brain Res. Rev. 56, 236-258 (2007).
224. Raisman G: Repair of spinal cord injury by transplantation of olfactory ensheathing cells. C. R. Biol. 330, 557-560 (2007)
225. Ruitenberg MJ, Vukovic J, Satich J, Busfield SJ, Plant GW: Olfactory ensheathing cells: characteristics, genetic engineering, and therapeutic potential. J. Neurotrauma 23, 468-478 (2006).
226. Ruitenberg MJ, Vukovic J: Promoting central nervous system regeneration: lessons from cranial nerve I. Restor. Neurol. Neurosci. 26, 183-196 (2008).
227. Boyd JG, Lee J, Skihar V, Doucette R, Kawaja MD: LacZ-expressing olfactory ensheathing cells do not associate with myelinated axons after implantation into the compressed spinal cord. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 101, 2162-2166 (2004).
228. Lu P, Yang H, Culbertson M, Graham L, Roskams AJ, Tuszynski MH: Olfactory ensheathing cells do not exhibit unique migratory or axonal growth-promoting properties after spinal cord injury. J. Neurosci. 26, 11120-11130 (2006).
229. Riddell JS, Enriquez-Denton M, Toft A, Fairless R, Barnett SC: Olfactory ensheathing cell grafts have minimal influence on regeneration at the dorsal root entry zone following rhizotomy. Glia 47, 150-167 (2004).
230. Ramer LM, Richter MW, Roskams AJ, Tetzlaff W, Ramer MS: Peripherally-derived olfactory ensheathing cells do not promote primary afferent regeneration following dorsal root injury. Glia 47, 189-206 (2004).
231. Ramon-Cueto A, Plant GW, Avila J, Bunge MB: Long-distance axonal regeneration in the transected adult rat spinal cord is promoted by olfactory ensheathing glia transplants. J. Neurosci. 18, 3803-3815 (1998).
232. Caroni P, Schwab ME: Antibody against myelin-associated inhibitor of neurite growth neutralizes nonpermissive substrate properties of CNS white matter. Neuron 1, 85-96 (1988).
233. Schwab ME, Caroni P: Antibody against myelin-associated inhibitor of neurite growth neutralizes nonpermissive substrate properties of CNS white matter. Neuron 60, 404-405 (2008).
234. Walmsley AR, Mir AK: Targeting the Nogo-A signalling pathway to promote recovery following acute CNS injury. Curr. Pharm. Des. 13, 2470-2484 (2007).
235. Baptiste DC, Fehlings MG: Emerging drugs for spinal cord injury. Expert Opin. Emerg. Drugs 13, 63-80 (2008).
236. Baptiste DC, Fehlings MG: Update on the treatment of spinal cord injury. Prog. Brain Res. 161, 217-233 (2007).
237. Yu P, Huang L, Zou J et al.: Immunization with recombinant Nogo-66 receptor (NgR) promotes axonal regeneration and recovery of function after spinal cord injury in rats. Neurobiol. Dis. 32, 535-542 (2008).
238. Eftekharpour E, Karimi-Abdolrezaee S, Fehlings MG: Current status of experimental cell replacement approaches to spinal cord injury. Neurosurg. Focus 24, E19 (2008).