The Nogo signaling pathway for regeneration block

Annual Review of Neuroscience

Volumn 27, Issue , 2004, Pages 341-368

  He, Zhigang ^a   Koprivica, Vuk ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Axon regeneration; Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan; Myelin associated glycoprotein; Nogo A; Oligodendrocyte myelin glycoprotein; p75; RhoA

Indexed keywords

4 (1 AMINOETHYL) N (4 PYRIDYL)CYCLOHEXANECARBOXAMIDE; CALCIUM; CYCLIC AMP; CYCLIC NUCLEOTIDE; GANGLIOSIDE GD 1B; GLIAL CELL LINE DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; GLYCOPROTEIN; GROWTH FACTOR RECEPTOR; GUANOSINE TRIPHOSPHATASE; LIM PROTEIN; MEMBRANE PROTEIN; MYELIN ASSOCIATED GLYCOPROTEIN; NOGO 66 RECEPTOR; OLIGODENDROCYTE MYELIN GLYCOPROTEIN; PHOSPHATIDYLINOSITOL 3 KINASE; PLEXIN B1; PROTEIN CDC42; PROTEIN NOGO A; PROTEIN P75; PROTEOCHONDROITIN SULFATE; RAC1 PROTEIN; RHOA GUANINE NUCLEOTIDE BINDING PROTEIN; ROUNDABOUT RECEPTOR; SEMAPHORIN; SEMAPHORIN 4D; SLIT PROTEIN; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ACTIN POLYMERIZATION; ASTROCYTE; CELL PROLIFERATION; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; ENZYME ACTIVITY; ENZYME REGULATION; GROWTH CONE; GROWTH INHIBITION; HUMAN; HYDROLYSIS; LIGAND BINDING; MICROGLIA; MOLECULAR INTERACTION; MYELINATION; NERVE BLOCK; NERVE CELL PLASTICITY; NERVE FIBER DEGENERATION; NERVE FIBER GROWTH; NERVE FIBER REGENERATION; NERVE FUNCTION; NONHUMAN; OLIGODENDROGLIA; PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN BINDING; PROTEIN PHOSPHORYLATION; REVIEW; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

ANIMALS; BRAIN INJURIES; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; GROWTH CONES; GROWTH INHIBITORS; HUMANS; MYELIN PROTEINS; NERVE REGENERATION; RECEPTORS, CELL SURFACE; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

EID: 3943082076     PISSN: 0147006X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144340     Document Type: Review

References (187)

1. Aizawa H, Wakatsuki S, Ishii A, Moriyama K, Sasaki Y, et al. 2001. Phosphorylation of cofilin by LIM-kinase is necessary for semaphorin 3A-induced growth cone collapse. Nat. Neurosci. 4:367-73
2. Amano M, Ito M, Kimura K, Fukata Y, Chihara K, et al. 1996. Phosphorylation and activation of myosin by Rho-associated kinase (Rho-kinase). J. Biol. Chem. 271:20246-49
3. Aurandt J, Vikis HG, Gutkind JS, Ahn N, Guan KL. 2002. The semaphorin receptor plexin-B1 signals through a direct interaction with the Rho-specific nucleotide exchange factor, LARG. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99:12085-90
4. Banati RB, Graeber MB. 1994. Surveillance, intervention and cytotoxicity: is there a protective role of microglia? Dev. Neurosci. 16:114-27
5. Bandtlow C, Zachleder T, Schwab ME. 1990. Oligodendrocytes arrest neurite growth by contact inhibition. J. Neurosci. 10:3837-48
6. Bandtlow CE, Schmidt MF, Hassinger TD, Schwab ME, Kater SB. 1993. Role of intracellular calcium in NI-35-evoked collapse of neuronal growth cones. Science 259:80-83
7. Barton WA, Liu BP, Tzvetkova D, Jeffrey PD, Fournier AE, et al. 2003. Structure and axon outgrowth inhibitor binding of the Nogo-66 receptor and related proteins. EMBO J. 22:3291-302
8. Bartsch U, Bandtlow CE, Schnell L, Bartsch S, Spillmann AA, et al. 1995. Lack of evidence that myelin-associated glycoprotein is a major inhibitor of axonal regeneration in the CNS. Neuron 15:1375-81
9. Bashaw GJ, Kidd T, Murray D, Pawson T, Goodman CS. 2000. Repulsive axon guidance: Abelson and Enabled play opposing roles downstream of the roundabout receptor. Cell 101:703-15
10. Bekar LK, Walz W. 1999. Evidence for chloride ions as intracellular messenger substances in astrocytes. J. Neurophysiol. 82:248-54
11. Benfey M, Aguayo AJ. 1982. Extensive elongation of axons from rat brain into peripheral nerve grafts. Nature 296:150-52
12. Berry M. 1982. Post-injury myelin-breakdown products inhibit axonal growth: an hypothesis to explain the failure of axonal regeneration in the mammalian central nervous system. Bibl. Anat. 23:1-11
13. Bradbury EJ, Moon LD, Popat RJ, King VR, Bennett GS, et al. 2002. Chondroitinase ABC promotes functional recovery after spinal cord injury. Nature 416:636-40
14. Bregman BS, Kunkel-Bagden E, Reier PJ, Dai HN, McAtee M, Gao D. 1993. Recovery of function after spinal cord injury: mechanisms underlying transplant-mediated recovery of function differ after spinal cord injury in newborn and adult rats. Exp. Neurol. 123:3-16
15. Bregman BS, Kunkel-Bagden E, Schnell L, Dai HN, Gao D, Schwab ME. 1995. Recovery from spinal cord injury mediated by antibodies to neurite growth inhibitors. Nature 378:498-501
16. Bunge RP. 1968. Glial cells and the central myelin sheath. Physiol. Rev. 48:197-251
17. Cai D, Deng K, Mellado W, Lee J, Ratan RR, Filbin MT. 2002. Arginase I and polyamines act downstream from cyclic AMP in overcoming inhibition of axonal growth MAG and myelin in vitro. Neuron 35:11-19
18. Cai D, Qiu J, Cao Z, McAtee M, Bregman BS, Filbin MT. 2001. Neuronal cyclic AMP controls the developmental loss in ability of axons to regenerate. J. Neurosci. 21:4731-39
19. Cai D, Shen Y, De Bellard M, Tang S, Filbin MT. 1999. Prior exposure to neurotrophins blocks inhibition of axonal regeneration by MAG and myelin via a cAMP-dependent mechanism. Neuron 22:89-101
20. Carbonetto S, Evans D, Cochard P. 1987. Nerve fiber growth in culture on tissue substrata from central and peripheral nervous systems. J. Neurosci. 7:610-20
21. Caroni P, Schwab ME. 1988a. Antibody against myelin-associated inhibitor of neurite growth neutralizes nonpermissive substrate properties of CNS white matter. Neuron 1:85-96
22. Caroni P, Schwab ME. 1988b. Two membrane protein fractions from rat central myelin with inhibitory properties for neurite growth and fibroblast spreading. J. Cell Biol. 106:1281-88
23. Chao MV. 2003. Neurotrophins and their receptors: a convergence point for many signalling pathways. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 4:299-309
24. Chen MS, Huber AB, van der Haar ME, Frank M, Schnell L, et al. 2000. Nogo-A is a myelin-associated neurite outgrowth inhibitor and an antigen for monoclonal antibody IN-1. Nature 403:434-39
25. Collins BE, Yang LJ, Mukhopadhyay G, Filbin MT, Kiso M, et al. 1997. Sialic acid specificity of myelin-associated glycoprotein binding. J. Biol. Chem. 272:1248-55
26. Crutcher KA. 1989. Tissue sections from the mature rat brain and spinal cord as substrates for neurite outgrowth in vitro: extensive growth on gray matter but little growth on white matter. Exp. Neurol. 104:39-54
27. David S, Aguayo AJ. 1981. Axonal elongation into peripheral nervous system "bridges" after central nervous system injury in adult rats. Science 214:931-33
28. David S, Bouchard C, Tsatas O, Giftochristos N. 1990. Macrophages can modify the nonpermissive nature of the adult mammalian central nervous system. Neuron 5:463-69
29. David S, Lacroix S. 2003. Molecular approaches to spinal cord repair. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 26:411-40
30. Davies SJ, Fitch MT, Memberg SP, Hall AK, Raisman G, Silver J. 1997. Regeneration of adult axons in white matter tracts of the central nervous system. Nature 390:680-83
31. Davies SJ, Goucher DR, Doller C, Silver J. 1999. Robust regeneration of adult sensory axons in degenerating white matter of the adult rat spinal cord. J. Neurosci. 19:5810-22
32. Dechant G, Barde YA. 2002. The neurotrophin receptor p75(NTR): novel functions and implications for diseases of the nervous system. Nat. Neurosci. 5:1131-36
33. DeBellard ME, Tang S, Mukhopadhyay S, Shen Y, Filbin MT. 1996. Myelin-associated glycoprotein inhibits axon regeneration from a variety of neurons via interactions with a sialoglycoprotein. Mol. Cell. Neurosci. 7:89-101
34. Dergham P, Ellezam B, Essagian C, Avedissian H, Lubell WD, McKerracher L. 2002. Rho signaling pathway targeted to promote spinal cord repair. J. Neurosci. 22:6570-77
35. Dickson BJ. 2001. Rho GTPases in growth cone guidance. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 11:103-10
36. Dickson BJ. 2002. Molecular mechanisms of axon guidance. Science 298:1959-64
37. Ding J, Hu B, Tang LS, Yip HK. 2001. Study of the role of the low-affinity neurotrophin receptor p75 in naturally occurring cell death during development of the rat retina. Dev. Neurosci. 23:390-98
38. Domeniconi M, Cao Z, Spencer T, Sivasankaran R, Wang K, et al. 2002. Myelin-associated glycoprotein interacts with the nogo66 receptor to inhibit neurite outgrowth. Neuron 35:283-90
39. Dobrowsky RT, Carter BD. 2000. p75 neurotrophin receptor signaling: mechanisms for neurotrophic modulation of cell stress? J. Neurosci. Res. 61:237-43
40. Driessens MH, Hu H, Nobes CD, Self A, Jordens I, et al. 2001. Plexin-B semaphorin receptors interact directly with active Rac and regulate the actin cytoskeleton by activating Rho. Curr. Biol. 11:339-44
41. Dubreuil CI, Winton MJ, McKerracher L. 2003. Rho activation patterns after spinal cord injury and the role of activated Rho in apoptosis in the central nervous system. J. Cell Biol. 162:233-43
42. Ellerbroek SM, Wennerberg K, Burridge K. 2003. Serine phosphorylation negatively regulates RhoA in vivo. J. Biol. Chem. 278:19023-31
43. Ernfors P, Hallbook F, Ebendal T, Shooter EM, Radeke MJ, et al. 1988. Developmental and regional expression of beta-nerve growth factor receptor mRNA in the chick and rat. Neuron 1:983-96
44. Ettienne-Manneville S, Hall A. 2002. Rho GT-Pases in cell biology. Nature 420:629-35
45. Fawcett JW, Asher RA. 1999. The glial scar and central nervous system repair. Brain Res. Bull. 49:377-91
46. Filbin MT. 2003. Myelin-associated inhibitors of axonal regeneration in the adult mammalian CNS. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 4:703-13
47. Fitch MT, Silver J. 1999. Beyond the glial scar. In CNS Regeneration-Basic Science and Clinical Advances. ed. MH Tuszynski & J Kordower, pp. 55-87. New York: Academic
48. Fournier AE, GrandPré T, Strittmatter SM. 2001. Identification of a receptor mediating Nogo-66 inhibition of axonal regeneration. Nature 409:341-46
49. Fournier AE, Gould GC, Liu BP, Strittmatter SM, 2002. Truncated soluble Nogo receptor binds Nogo-66 and blocks inhibition of axon growth by myelin. J. Neurosci. 22:8876-83
50. Fournier AE, Takizawa BT, Strittmatter SM, 2003. Rho kinase inhibition enhances axonal regeneration in the injured CNS. J. Neurosci. 23:1416-23
51. Galbiati F, Razani B, Lisanti MP. 2001. Emerging themes in lipid rafts and caveolae. Cell 106:403-11
52. Gehrmann J. 1996. Microglia: a sensor to threats in the nervous system? Res. Virol. 147:79-88
53. Gianola S, Savio T, Schwab ME, Rossi F. 2003. Cell-autonomous mechanisms and myelin-associated factors contribute to the development of Purkinje axon intracortical plexus in the rat cerebellum. J. Neurosci. 23:4613-24
54. Goldberg JL, Barres BA. 2000. The relationship between neuronal survival and regeneration. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 23:579-612
55. Goldberg JL, Klassen MP, Hua Y, Barres BA. 2002. Amacrine-signaled loss of intrinsic axon growth ability by retinal ganglion cells. Science 296:1860-64
56. Gomez TM, Spitzer NC. 2000. Regulation of growth cone behavior by calcium: new dynamics to earlier perspectives. J. Neurobiol. 44:174-83
57. GrandPré T, Li S, Strittmatter SM. 2002. Nogo-66 receptor antagonist peptide promotes axonal regeneration. Nature 417:547-51
58. GrandPré T, Nakamura F, Vartanian T, Strittmatter SM. 2000. Identification of the Nogo inhibitor of axon regeneration as a Reticulon protein. Nature 403:439-44
59. Graef IA, Wang F, Charron F, Chen L, Neilson J, et al. 2003. Neurotrophins and netrins require calcineurin/NFAT signaling to stimulate outgrowth of embryonic axons. Cell 113:657-70
60. Habib AA, Marton LS, Allwardt B, Gulcher JR, Mikol DD, et al. 1998a. Expression of the oligodendrocyte-myelin glycoprotein by neurons in the mouse central nervous system. J. Neurochem. 70:1704-11
61. Habib AA, Gulcher JR, Hognason T, Zheng L, Stefansson K. 1988b. The OMgp gene, a second growth suppressor within the NF1 gene. Oncogene 16:1525-31
62. Hall A. 1998. Rho GTPases and the actin cytoskeleton. Science 279:509-14
63. Hannila SS, Kawaja MD. 1999. Nerve growth factor-induced growth of sympathetic axons into the optic tract of mature mice is enhanced by an absence of p75NTR expression. J. Neurobiol. 39:51-66
64. Hasan SJ, Keirstead HS, Muir GD, Steeves JD. 1993. Axonal regeneration contributes to repair of injured brainstem-spinal neurons in embryonic chick. J. Neurosci. 13:492-507
65. He XL, Bazan JF, McDermott G, Park JB, Wang K, et al. 2003. Structure of the nogo receptor ectodomain. A recognition module implicated in myelin inhibition. Neuron 38:177-85
66. He Z, Wang KC, Koprivica V, Ming G, Song HJ. 2002. Knowing how to navigate: mechanisms of semaphorin signaling in the nervous system. Sci. STKE 119:RE1
67. Hempstead BL. 2002. The many faces of p75NTR. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 12:260-67
68. Higuchi H, Yamashita T, Yoshikawa H, TohyamaM. 2003. PKA phosphorylates the p75 receptor and regulates its localization to lipid rafts. EMBO J. 22:1790-800
69. Hong K, Nishiyama M, Henley J, Tessier-Lavigne M, Poo M. 2000. Calcium signalling in the guidance of nerve growth by netrin-1. Nature 403:93-98
70. Horner PJ, Gage FH. 2000. Regenerating the damaged central nervous system. Nature 407:963-70
71. Hu H, Marton TF, Goodman CS. 2001. Plexin B mediates axon guidance in Drosophila by simultaneously inhibiting active Rac and enhancing RhoA signaling. Neuron 32:39-51
72. Huang DW, McKerracher L, Braun PE, David S. 1999. A therapeutic vaccine approach to stimulate axon regeneration in the adult mammalian spinal cord. Neuron 24:639-47
73. Huber AB, Weinmann O, Brösamle C, Oertle T, Schwab ME. 2002. Patterns of Nogo mRNA and protein expression in the developing and adult rat and after CNS lesions. J. Neurosci. 22:3553-67
74. Huber AB, Kolodkin AL, Ginty DD, Cloutier JF. 2003. Signaling at the growth cone: ligand-receptor complexes and the control of axon growth and guidance. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 26:509-63
75. Hunt D, Mason MR, Campbell G, Coffin R, Anderson PN. 2002. Nogo receptor mRNA expression in intact and regenerating CNS neurons. Mol. Cell Neurosci. 20:537-52
76. Hutson JJD, Bothwell M. 2001. Expression and function of Xenopus laevis p75(NTR) suggest evolution of developmental regulatory mechanisms. J. Neurobiol. 49:79-98
77. Janmey PA, Stossel TP. 1987. Modulation of gelsolin function by phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate. Nature 325:362-64
78. Jin Z, Strittmatter SM. 1997. Rac1 mediates collapsin-1-induced growth cone collapse. J. Neurosci. 17:6256-63
79. Johnson PW, Abramow-Newerly W, Seilheimer B, Sadoul R, Tropak MB, et al. 1989. Recombinant myelin-associated glycoprotein confers neural adhesion and neurite outgrowth function. Neuron 3:377-85
80. Josephson A, Widenfalk J, Widmer HW, Olson L, Spenger C. 2001. NOGO mRNA expression in adult and fetal human and rat nervous tissue and in weight drop injury. Exp. Neurol. 169:319-28
81. Kalil K, Reh T. 1982. A light and electron microscopic study of regrowing pyramidal tract fibers. J. Comp. Neurol. 211:265-75
82. Keirstead HS, Hasan SJ, Muir GD, Steeves JD. 1992. Suppression of the onset of myelination extends the permissive period for the functional repair of embryonic spinal cord. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 89:11664-68
83. Khan U, Starega U, Seeley PJ. 1990. Selective growth of hippocampal neurites on cryostat sections of rat brain. Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res. 54:87-92
84. Kim JE, Li S, GrandPréT, Qiu D, Strittmatter SM. 2003. Axon regeneration in young adult mice lacking nogo-a/b. Neuron 38:187-99
85. Kim JE, Bonilla IE, Qiu D, Strittmatter SM. 2003a. Nogo-C is sufficient to delay nerve regeneration. Mol. Cell Neurosci. 23:451-59
86. Kimura K, Ito M, Amano M, Chihara K, Fukata Y, et al. 1996. Regulation of myosin phosphatase by Rho and Rho-associated kinase (Rho-kinase). Science 273:245-48
87. Kohn J, Aloyz RS, Toma JG, Haak-Frendscho M, Miller FD. 1999. Functionally antagonistic interactions between the TrkA and p75 neurotrophin receptors regulate sympathetic neuron growth and target innervation. J. Neurosci. 19:5393-408
88. Kottis V, Thibault P, Mikol D, Xiao ZC, Zhang R, et al. 2002. Oligodendrocyte-myelin glycoprotein (OMgp) is an inhibitor of neurite outgrowth. J. Neurochem. 82:1566-69
89. Fruttiger M, Montag D, Schachner M, Martini R. 1995. Crucial role for the myelin-associated glycoprotein in the maintenance of axon-myelin integrity. Eur. J. Neurosci. 7:511-15
90. Kuhn TB, Brown MD, Wilcox CL, Raper JA, Bamburg JR. 1999. Myelin and collapsin-1 induce motor neuron growth cone collapse through different pathways: inhibition of collapse by opposing mutants of rac1. J Neurosci. 19:1965-75
91. Lai C, Watson JB, Bloom FE, Sutcliffe JG, Milner RJ. 1987. Neural protein 1B236/myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG) defines a subgroup of the immunoglobulin superfamily. Immunol. Rev. 100:129-51
92. Lassmann H, Bartsch U, Montag D, Schachner M. 1997. Dying-back oligodendrogliopathy: a late sequel of myelin-associated glycoprotein deficiency. Glia 19:104-10
93. Lehmann M, Fournier A, Selles-Navarro I, Dergham P, Sebok A, et al. 1999. Inactivation of Rho signaling pathway promotes CNS axon regeneration. J. Neurosci. 19:7537-47
94. Li C, Tropak MB, Gerlai R, Clapoff S, Abramow-Newerly W, et al. 1994. Myelination in the absence of myelin-associated glycoprotein. Nature 369:747-50
95. Liesi P, Silver J. 1988. Is astrocyte laminin involved in axon guidance in the mammalian CNS? Dev. Biol. 130:774-85
96. Liu BP, Fournier A, GrandPré T, Strittmatter SM. 2002. Myelin-associated glycoprotein as a functional ligand for the Nogo-66 receptor. Science 297:1190-93
97. Luo L. 2000. Rho GTPases in neuronal morphogenesis. Nature Rev. Neurosci. 1:173-80
98. Luo L. 2002. Actin cytoskeleton regulation in neuronal morphogenesis and structural plasticity. Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 18:601-35
99. Martinez-Murillo R, Fernandez AP, Bentura ML, Rodrigo J. 1998. Subcellular localization of low-affinity nerve growth factor receptor-immunoreactive protein in adult rat purkinje cells following traumatic injury. Exp. Brain Res. 119:47-57
100. McCormick F. 1995. Ras signaling and NF1. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 5:51-55
101. McGee AW, Strittmatter SM. 2003. The Nogo-66 receptor: focusing myelin inhibition of axon regeneration. Trends Neurosci. 26:193-98
102. McKeon RJ, Schreiber RC, Rudge JS, Silver J. 1991. Reduction of neurite outgrowth in a model of glial scarring following CNS injury is correlated with the expression of inhibitory molecules on reactive astrocytes. J. Neurosci. 11:3398-411
103. McKerracher L, David S, Jackson DL, Kottis V, Dunn RJ, Braun PE. 1994. Identification of myelin-associated glycoprotein as a major myelin-derived inhibitor of neurite growth. Neuron 13:805-11
104. Mikol DD, Stefansson K. 1988. A phosphatidylinositol-linked peanut agglutinin-binding glycoprotein in central nervous system myelin and on oligodendrocytes. J. Cell Biol. 106:1273-79
105. Mikol DD, Gulcher JR, Stefansson K. 1990. The oligodendrocyte-myelin glycoprotein belongs to a distinct family of proteins and contains the HNK-1 carbohydrate. J. Cell Biol. 110:471-79
106. Ming GL, Song HJ, Berninger B, Holt CE, Tessier-Lavigne M, Poo MM. 1997. cAMP-dependent growth cone guidance by netrin-1. Neuron 19:1225-35
107. Ming G, Song H, Berninger B, Inagaki N, Tessier-Lavigne M, Poo M. 1999. Phospholipase C-gamma and phosphoinositide 3-kinase mediate cytoplasmic signaling in nerve growth cone guidance. Neuron 23:139-148
108. Monnier PP, Sierra A, Schwab JM, Henke-Fahle S, Mueller BK. 2003. The Rho/ROCK pathway mediates neurite growth-inhibitory activity associated with the chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans of the CNS glial scar. Mol. Cell Neurosci. 22:319-30
109. Montag D, Giese KP, Bartsch U, Martini R, Lang Y, et al. 1994. Mice deficient for the myelin-associated glycoprotein show subtle abnormalities in myelin. Neuron 13:229-46
110. Moreau-Fauvarque C, Kumanogoh A, Camand E, Jaillard C, Barbin G, et al. 2003. The transmembrane semaphorin Sema4D/CD100, an inhibitor of axonal growth, is expressed on oligodendrocytes and upregulated after CNS lesion. J. Neurosci. 23:9229-39
111. Moon LD, Asher RA, Rhodes KE, Fawcett JW. 2001. Regeneration of CNS axons back to their target following treatment of adult rat brain with chondroitinase ABC. Nat. Neurosci. 4:465-66
112. Moorman SJ. 1996. The inhibition of motility that results from contact between two oligodendrocytes in vitro can be blocked by pertussis toxin. Glia 16:257-65
113. Morgenstern DA, Asher RA, Fawcett JW. 2002. Chondroitin sulphate proteoglycans in the CNS injury response. Prog. Brain Res. 137:313-32
114. Mukhopadhyay G, Doherty P, Walsh FS, Crocker PR, Filbin MT. 1994. A novel role for myelin-associated glycoprotein as an inhibitor of axonal regeneration. Neuron 13:757-67
115. Niederost BP, Zimmermann DR, Schwab ME, Bandtlow CE. 1999. Bovine CNS myelin contains neurite growth-inhibitory activity associated with chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans. J. Neurosci. 19:8979-89
116. Niederost B, Oertle T, Fritsche J, McKintiey RA, Bandtlow CE. 2002. Nogo-A and myelin-associated glycoprotein mediate neurite growth inhibition by antagonistic regulation of RhoA and Rac1. J. Neurosci. 22:10368-76
117. Neumann S, Bradke F, Tessier-Lavigne M, Basbaum AI. 2002. Regeneration of sensory axons within the injured spinal cord induced by intraganglionic cAMP elevation. Neuron 34:885-93
118. Oertle T, van der Haar ME, Bandtlow CE, Robeva A, Burfeind P, et al. 2003. Nogo-A inhibits neurite outgrowth and cell spreading with three discrete regions. J Neurosci. 23:5393-406
119. Perrot V, Vazquez-Prado J, Gutkind JS. 2002. Plexin B regulates Rho through the guanine nucleotide exchange factors leukemia-associated Rho GEF (LARG) and PDZ-Rho GEF. J. Biol. Chem. 277:43115-20
120. Pizzorusso T, Medini P, Berardi N, Chierzi S, Fawcett JW, Maffei L. 2002. Reactivation of ocular dominance plasticity in the adult visual cortex. Science 298:1248-51
121. Pot C, Simonen M, Weinmann O, Schnell L, Christ F, et al. 2002. Nogo-A expressed in Schwann cells impairs axonal regeneration after peripheral nerve injury. J. Cell Biol. 159:29-35
122. Prinjha R, Moore SE, Vinson M, Blake S, Morrow R, et al. 2000. Inhibitor of neurite outgrowth in humans. Nature 403:383-84
123. Probstmeier R, Stichel C, Muller HW, Asou H, Pesheva P. 2000. Chondroitin sulfates expressed on oligodendrocyte-derived tenascin-R are involved in neural cell recognition. Functional implications during CNS development and regeneration. J. Neurosci. Res. 60:21-36
124. Qiu J, Cai D, Dai H, McAtee M, Hoffman PN, et al. 2002. Spinal axon regeneration induced by elevation of cyclic AMP. Neuron 34:895-903
125. Ramon Y, Cajal S. 1991 [1928]. Degeneration and Regeneration of the Nervous System. Transi. RM May. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. 976 pp. From Spanish
126. Reier PJ, Stensaas LJ, Guth L. 1983. The astrocytic scar as an impediment to regeneration in the central nervous system. In Spinal Cord Reconstruction, ed. CC Kao, RP Bunge, PJ Reier, pp. 163-95. New York: Raven
127. Richardson PM, McGuinness UM, Aguayo AJ. 1980. Axons from CNS neurons regenerate into PNS grafts. Nature 284:264-65
128. Risau W, Wolburg H. 1990. Development of the blood-brain barrier. Trends Neurosci. 13:174-78
129. Robles E, Huttenlocher A, Gomez TM. 2003. Filopodial calcium transients regulate growth cone motility and guidance through local activation of calpain. Neuron 38:597-609
130. Roux PP, Colicos MA, Barker PA, Kennedy TE. 1999. p75 neurotrophin receptor expression is induced in apoptotic neurons after seizure. J. Neurosci. 19:6887-96
131. Rudge JS, Silver J. 1990. Inhibition of neurite outgrowth on astroglial scars in vitro. J. Neurosci. 10:3594-603
132. Sagot Y, Swerts JP, Cochard P. 1991. Changes in permissivity for neuronal attachment and neurite outgrowth of spinal cord grey and white matters during development: a study with the 'cryoculture' bioassay. Brain Res. 543:25-35
133. Salzer JL, Holmes WP, Colman DR. 1987. The amino acid sequences of the myelin-associated glycoproteins: homology to the immunoglobulin gene superfamily. J. Cell Biol. 104:957-65
134. Salzer JL, Pedraza L, Brown M, Struyk A, Afar D, Bell J. 1990. Structure and function of the myelin-associated glycoproteins. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 605:302-12
135. Sanders LC, Matsumura F, Bokoch GM, de Lanerolle P. 1999. Inhibition of myosin light chain kinase by p21-activated kinase. Science 283:2083-85
136. Saunders NR, Kitchener P, Knott GW, Nicholls JG, Potter A, Smith TJ. 1998. Development of walking, swimming and neuronal connections after complete spinal cord transection in the neonatal opossum, Monodelphis domestica. J. Neurosci. 18:339-55
137. Savio T, Schwab ME. 1989. Rat CNS white matter, but not gray matter, is nonpermissive for neuronal cell adhesion and fiber outgrowth. J. Neurosci. 9:1126-33
138. Savio T, Schwab ME. 1990. Lesioned corticospinal tract axons regenerate in myelin-free rat spinal cord. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 87:4130-33
139. Schachner M, Bartsch U. 2000. Multiple functions of the myelin-associated glycoprotein MAG (siglec-4a) in formation and maintenance of myelin. Glia 29:154-65
140. Schafer M, Fruttiger M, Montag D, Schachner M, Martini R. 1996. Disruption of the gene for the myelin-associated glycoprotein improves axonal regrowth along myelin in C57BL/Wlds mice. Neuron 16:1107-13
141. Schnell L, Schneider R, Kolbeck R, Barde YA, Schwab ME. 1994. Neurotrophin-3 enhances sprouting of corticospinal tract during development and after adult spinal cord lesion. Nature 367:170-73
142. Schnell L, Schwab ME. 1990. Axonal regeneration in the rat spinal cord produced by an antibody against myelin-associated neurite growth inhibitors. Nature 343:269-72
143. Schnell L, Schwab ME. 1993. Sprouting and regeneration of lesioned corticospinal tract fibers in the adult rat spinal cord. Eur. J. Neurosci 5:1156-72
144. Schousboe A, Westergaard N. 1995. Transport of neuroactive amino acids in astrocytes. In Neuroglia, ed. H Kettenmann, BR Ransom, pp. 246-58. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
145. Schwab ME, Thoenen H. 1985. Dissociated neurons regenerate into sciatic but not optic nerve explants in culture irrespective of neurotrophic factors. J. Neurosci. 5:2415-23
146. Schwab ME, Bartholdi D. 1996. Degeneration and regeneration of axons in the lesioned spinal cord. Physiol. Rev. 76:319-70
147. Shamah SM, Lin MZ, Goldberg JL, Estrach S, Sahin M, et al. 2001. EphA receptors regulate growth cone dynamics through the novel guanine nucleotide exchange factor ephexin. Cell 105:233-44
148. Shen YJ, DeBellard ME, Salzer JL, Roder J, Filbin MT. 1998. Myelin-associated glycoprotein in myelin and expressed by Schwann cells inhibits axonal regeneration and branching. Mol. Cell Neurosci. 12:79-91
149. Simonen M, Pedersen V, Weinmann O, Schnell L, Buss A, et al. 2003. Systemic deletion of the myelin-associated outgrowth inhibitor nogo-a improves regenerative and plastic responses after spinal cord injury. Neuron 38:201-11
150. Simons K, Ikonen E. 1997. Functional rafts in cell membranes. Nature 387:569-72
151. Song HJ, Ming GL, Poo MM. 1997. cAMP-induced switching in turning direction of nerve growth cones. Nature 388:275-79
152. Song HJ, Ming GL, He Z, Lehmann M, McKerracher L, et al. 1998. Conversion of neuronal growth cone responses from repulsion to attraction by cyclic nucleotides. Science 281:1515-18
153. Song H, Poo M. 2001. The cell biology of neuronal navigation. Nat. Cell Biol. 3:E81-88
154. Spillmann AA, Bandtlow CE, Lottspeich F, Keller F, Schwab ME. 1998. Identification and characterization of a bovine neurite growth inhibitor (bNI-220). J. Biol Chem. 273:19283-93
155. Spitzer NC, Kingston PA, Manning TJ, Conklin MW. 2002. Outside and in: development of neuronal excitability. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 12:315-23
156. Suzuki A, Nomura S, Morii E, Fukuda Y, Kosaka J. 1998. Localization of mRNAs for trkB isoforms and p75 in rat retinal ganglion cells. J. Neurosci. Res. 54:27-37
157. Swiercz JM, Kuner R, Behrens J, Offermanns S. 2002. Plexin-B1 directly interacts with PDZ-RhoGEF/LARG to regulate RhoA and growth cone morphology. Neuron 35:51-63
158. Tang S, Shen YJ, DeBellard ME, Mukhopadhyay G, Salzer JL, et al. 1997. Myelin-associated glycoprotein interacts with neurons via a sialic acid binding site at ARG118 and a distinct neurite inhibition site. J. Cell Biol. 138:1355-66
159. Tansey MG, Baloh RH, Milbrandt J, Johnson EM Jr, 2000. GFRalpha-mediated localization of RET to lipid rafts is required for effective downstream signaling, differentiation, and neuronal survival. Neuron 25:611-23
160. Tessier-Lavigne M, Goodman CS. 1996. The molecular biology of axon guidance. Science 274:1123-33
161. Thallmair M, Metz GAS, Z'Graggen WJ, Raineteau O, Kartje GL, Schwab ME. 1998. Neurite growth inhibitors restrict structural plasticity and functional recovery following corticospinal tract lesions. Nat. Neurosci. 1:124-31
162. Tolbert DL, Der T. 1987. Redirected growth of pyramidal tract axons following neonatal pyramidotomy in cats. J. Comp. Neurol. 260:299-311
163. Tolias KF, Cantley LC, Carpenter CL. 1995. Rho family GTPases bind to phosphoinositide kinases. J. Biol. Chem. 270:17656-59
164. Tolias KF, Couvillon AD, Cantley LC, Carpenter CL. 1998. Characterization of a Rac1-and RhoGDI-associated lipid kinase signaling complex. Mol. Cell Biol. 18:762-70
165. Treherne JM, Woodward SK, Varga ZM, Ritchie JM, Nicholls JG. 1992. Restoration of conduction and growth of axons through injured spinal cord of neonatal opossum in culture. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 89:431-34
166. Turnley AM, Bartlett PF. 1998. MAG and MOG enhance neurite outgrowth of embryonic mouse spinal cord neurons. Neuroreport. 9:1987-90
167. Yin X, Crawford TO, Griffin JW, Tu P, Lee VM, et al. 1998. Myelin-associated glycoprotein is a myelin signal that modulates the caliber of myelinated axons. J. Neurosci. 18:1953-62
168. Yu TW, Bargmann CI. 2001. Dynamic regulation of axon guidance. Nat. Neurosci. 4 (Suppl.):1169-76
169. Vikis HG, Li W, He Z, Guan KL. 2000. The semaphorin receptor plexin-B1 specifically interacts with active Rac in a ligand-dependent manner. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97:12457-62
170. Vinson M, Strijbos PJLM, Rowles A, Facci L, Moore SE, et al. 2001. Myelin-associated glycoprotein interacts with ganglioside GT1b. J. Biol. Chem. 276:20280-85
171. Vinson M, Rausch O, Maycox PR, Prinjha RK, Chapman D, et al. 2003. Lipid rafts mediate the interaction between myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG) on myelin and MAG-receptors on neurons. Mol. Cell Neurosci. 22:344-52
172. Vyas AA, Patel HV, Fromholt SE, Heffer-Lauc M, Vyas KA, et al. 2002. Gangliosides are functional nerve cell ligands for myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG), an inhibitor of nerve regeneration. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 99:8412-17
173. Wahl S, Barth H, Ciossek T, Aktories K, Mueller BK. 2000. Ephrin-A5 induces collapse of growth cones by activating Rho and Rho kinase. J. Cell Biol 149:2630-70
174. Walsh GS, Krol KM, Crutcher KA, Kawaja MD. 1999. Enhanced neurotrophin-induced axon growth in myelinated portions of the CNS in mice lacking the p75 neurotrophin receptor. J. Neurosci. 19:4155-68
175. Wang KC, Koprivica V, Kim JA, Srivasankaran R, Guo Y, et al. 2002a. Oligodendrocytemyelin glycoprotein is a Nogo receptor ligand that inhibits neurite outgrowth. Nature 417:941-44
176. Wang KC, Kim J, Srivasankaran R, Segal R, He Z. 2002b. p75 interacts with the Nogo receptor as a co-receptor for Nogo, MAG and OMgp. Nature 420:74-78
177. Wang X, Chun SJ, Treloar H, Vartanian T, Greer CA, Strittmatter SM. 2002c. Localization of Nogo-A and Nogo-66 receptor proteins at sites of axon-myelin and synaptic contact. J. Neurosci. 22:5505-15
178. Winton MJ, Dubreuil CI, Lasko D, Leclerc N, McKerracher L. 2002. Characterization of new cell permeable C3-like proteins that inactivate Rho and stimulate neurite outgrowth on inhibitory substrates. J. Biol. Chem. 277:32820-29
179. Wong K, Ren XR, Huang YZ, Xie Y, Liu G, et al. 2001. Signal transduction in neuronal migration: roles of GTPase activating proteins and the small GTPase Cdc42 in the Slit-Robo pathway. Cell 107:209-21
180. Wong ST, Henley JR, Kanning KC, Huang K, Bothwell M, Poo M. 2002. A p75NTR and Nogo receptor complex mediates repulsive signaling by myelin-associated glycoprotein. Nat. Neurosci. 5:1305-8
181. Yamashita T, Tucker KL, Barde Y. 1999. Neurotrophin binding to the p75 receptor modulates Rho activity and axonal outgrowth. Neuron 24:585-93
182. Yamashita T, Higuchi H, Tohyama M. 2002. The p75 receptor transduces the signal from myelin-associated glycoprotein to Rho. J. Cell Biol. 157:565-70
183. Yamashita T, Tohyama M. 2003. The p75 receptor acts as a displacement factor that releases Rho from Rho-GDI. Nat. Neurosci. 6:461-67
184. Yuan XB, Jin M, Xu X, Song YQ, Wu CP, et al. 2003. Signalling and crosstalk of Rho GTP-ases in mediating axon guidance. Nat Cell Biol. 5:38-45
185. Zheng B, Ho C, Li S, Keirstead H, Steward O, Tessier-Lavigne M. 2003. Lack of enhanced spinal regeneration in nogo-deficient mice. Neuron 38:213-24
186. Zheng JQ, Felder M, Connor JA, Poo MM. 1994. Turning of nerve growth cones induced by neurotransmitters. Nature 368:140-44
187. Zheng JQ. 2000. Turning of nerve growth cones induced by localized increases in intracellular calcium ions. Nature 403:89-93