Current status of experimental cell replacement approaches to spinal cord injury

Neurosurgical Focus

Volumn 24, Issue 3-4, 2008, Pages

  Eftekharpour, Eftekhar ^a   Karimi Abdolrezaee, Soheila ^a,b   Fehlings, Michael G ^a,b  

^a TORONTO WESTERN HOSPITAL   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

Author keywords

Axonal regeneration; Spinal cord injury; Stem cell therapy

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL; CELL TRANSPLANTATION; DISEASE MODEL; HUMAN; METHODOLOGY; NERVE CELL; NERVE REGENERATION; PATHOLOGY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW; SPINAL CORD INJURY; STEM CELL;

ANIMALS; CELL TRANSPLANTATION; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; HUMANS; NERVE REGENERATION; NEURONS; SPINAL CORD INJURIES; STEM CELLS;

EID: 42149092238     PISSN: None     EISSN: 10920684     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3171/FOC/2008/24/3-4/E17     Document Type: Review

References (112)

1. Acheson A, Barker PA, Alderson RF, Miller FD, Murphy RA: Detection of brain-derived neurotrophic factor-like activity in fibroblasts and Schwann cells: inhibition by antibodies to NGF. Neuron 7:265-275, 1991
2. Agrawal SK, Nashmi R, Feblings MG: Role of L, and N-type calcium channels in the pathophysiology of traumatic spinal cord white matter injury. Neuroscience 99:179-188, 2000
3. Arvarez-Buylla A, Temple S: Stem cells in the developing and adult nervous system. J Neurobiol 36:105-110, 1998
4. Arroyo EJ, Xu T, Grinspan J, Lambert S, Levinson SR, Brophy PJ, et al: Genetic dysmyelination alters the molecular architecture of the nodal region. J Neurosci 22:1726-1737, 2002
5. Baptiste DC, Fehlings MG: Update on the treatment of spinal cord-injury. Prog Brain Res 161:217-233, 2007
6. Barakat DJ, Gaglani SM, Neravetla SR, Sanchez AR, Andrade CM, Pimsman Y, et al: Survival, integration, and axon growth support of gha transplanted into the chronically contused spinal cord. Cell Transplant 14: 225-240, 2005
7. Biernaskie J, Sparling JS, Liu J, Shannon CP, Plemel JR, Xie Y, et al: Skin-derived precursors generate myelinating Schwann cells that promote remyelination and functional recovery after contusion spinal cord injury. J Neurosci 27:9545-9559, 2007
8. Blits B, Kitay BM, Farahvar A, Caperton CV, Dietrich WD, Bunge MB: Lentiviral vector-mediated transduction of neural progenitor cells before implantation into injured spinal cord and brain to detect their migration, deliver neurotrophic factors and repair tissue. Restor Neurol Neurosci 23:313-324, 2005
9. Boyd JG, Doucette R, Kawaja MD: Defining the role of olfactory ensheathing cells in facilitating axon remyelination following damage to the spinal cord. FASEB J 19:694-703, 2005
10. Boyd JG, Jahed A, McDonald TG, Krol KM, Van Eyk JE, Doucette R, et al: Proteomic evaluation reveals that olfactory ensheathing cells but not Schwann cells express calponin. Gila 53: 434-440, 2006
11. Boyd JG, Lee J, Skihar V, Doucette R, Kawaja MD: LacZ-expressing olfactory ensheathing cells do not associate with myelinated axons after unplantation into the compressed spinal cord. Proc Natl Acad Scl U S A 101:2162-2166, 2004
12. Bradbury EJ, Moon LD, Popat RJ, King VR, Bennett BS, Patel PN, et al: Chondroitinase ABC promotes functional recovery after spinal cord injury. Nature 416:636-640, 2002
13. Brösamle C, Huber AB, Fiedler M, Skerra A, Schwab ME: Regeneration of lesioned corticospinal tract fibers in the adult rat induced by a recombinant, humanized IN-1 antibody fragment. J Neurosci 20:8061-8068, 2000
14. Bruce JH, Norenberg MD, Kraydieh S, Puckett W, Marcillo A, Dietrich D: Schwannosis: role of gliosis and proteoglycan in human spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 17:781-788, 2000
15. Brüstle O, Jones KN, Learish RD, Karram K, Choudhary E, Wiestler OD, et al: Embryonic stem cell-derived glial precursors: a source of myelinating transplants. Science 285:754-756, 1999
16. Büki A, Koizumi H, Povlishock JT: Moderate posttraumatic hypothermia decreases early calpain-mediated proteolysis and concomitant cytoskeletal compromise in traumatic axonal injury. Exp Neurol 159:319-328, 1999
17. Busch SA, Silver J: The role of extracellular matrix in CNS regeneration. Curr Opin Neurobiol 17:120-127, 2007
18. Cabrera CM, Nieto A, Cortes JL, Monies RM, Catalina P, Cobo F, et al: The low rate of HLA class I molecules on the human embryonic stem cell line HS293 is associated with the APM components' expression level. Cell Biol Int 31:1072-1078, 2007
19. Cao QL, Zhang YP, Howard RM, Walters WM, Tsoulfas P, Whittemore SR: Plunpotent stem cells engrafted into the normal or lesioned adult rat spinal cord are restricted to a glial lineage. Exp Neurol 167:48-58, 2001
20. Chen MS, Huber AB, van der Haar ME, Frank M, Schnell L, Spillmann AA, et al: Nogo-A is a myelin-associated neurite outgrowth inhibitor and an antigen for monoclonal antibody IN-1. Nature 403:434-439, 2000
21. Chen ZJ, Negra M, Levine A, Ughrin Y, Levine JM: Oligodendrocyte precursor cells: reactive cells that inhibit axon growth and regeneration. J Neurocytol 31:481-495, 2002
22. Chiu SY: Functions and distribution of voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels in mammalian Schwann cells. Gila 4:541-558, 1991
23. Choi DW: Glutamate neurotoxicity and diseases of the nervous system. Neuron 1:623-634, 1988
24. Crowe MJ, Bresnahan JC, Shuman SL, Masters JN, Beattie MS, et al: Apoptosis and delayed degenerabon after spinal cord injury in rats and monkeys. Nat Med 3:73-76, 1997
25. Dasari VR, Spomar DG, Gondi CS, Sloffer CA, Saving KL, Gujrati M, et al: Axonal remyelination by cord blood stem cells after spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 24:391-410, 2007
26. Dasari VR, Spomar DG, Li L, Gujrati M, Rao JS, Dihn DH: Umbilical cord blood stem cell mediated downregulation of fas unproves functional recovery of rats after spinal cord injury. Neurochem Res 33:134-149, 2007
27. Dean SK, Yulyana Y, Williams G, Sidhu KS, Tuch BE: Differentiation of encapsulated embryonic stem cells after transplantation. Transplantation 82:1175-1184, 2006
28. Dobkin BH, Curt A, Guest J: Cellular transplants in China: observational study firom. the largest human experiment in chronic spinal cord injury. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 20: 5-13, 2006
29. Doucette R: Olfactory ensheathing cells: potential for glial cell transplantation into areas of CNS injury. Histol Histopathol 10: 503-507, 1995
30. Drucker-Colín R, Verdugo-Díaz L: Cell transplantation for Parkinson's disease: present status. Cell Mol Neurobiol 24:301-316, 2004
31. Dubreuil CI, Winton MJ, McKerracher L: Rho activation patterns after spinal cord injury and the role of activated Rho in apoptosis in the central nervous system. J Cell Biol 162:233-243, 2003
32. Dusart I, Schwab ME: Secondary cell death and the inflammatory reaction after dorsal hemisection of the rat spinal cord. Eur J Neurosci 6:712-724, 1994
33. Eftekharpour E, Holmgren A, Juurlink BH: Thioredoxin reductase and glutathione synthesis is upregulated by t-butylhydroquinone in cortical astrocytes but not in cortical neurons. Glia 31:241-248, 2000
34. Eftekharpour E, Karimi-Abdolrezaee S, Sinha K, Velumian AA, Kwiecien JM, Fehlings MG: Structural and functional alterations of spinal cord axons in adult Long Evans Shaker (LES) dysmyelinated rats. Exp Neurol 193:334-349, 2005
35. Eftekharpour E, Karimi-Abdolrezaee S, Wang J, El Beheiry H, Morshead C, Fehlings MG: Myelination of congenitally dysmyelinated spinal cord axons by adult neural precursor cells results in formation of nodes of Ranvier and improved axonal conduction. J Neurosci 27:3416-3428, 2007
36. Fehlings MG, Tator CH: The relationships among the severity of spinal cord ijjury, residual neurological function, axon counts, and counts of retrogradely labeled neurons after experimental spinal cord injury. Exp Neurol 132:220-228, 1995
37. Garbuzova-Davis S, Willing AE, Saporta S, Bickford PC, Gemma C, Chen N, et al: Novel cell therapy approaches for brain repair. Prog Brain Res 157:207-222, 2006
38. Goldman S: Stem and progenitor cell-based therapy of the human central nervous system. Nat Biotechnol 23:862-871, 2005
39. Goldman SA: Directed mobilization of endogenous neural progenitor cells: the intersection of stem cell biology and gene therapy. Curr Opin Mol Ther 6:466-472, 2004
40. Goldman SA, Sim F: Neural progenitor cells of the adult brain. Novartis Found Symp 265:66-97, 2005
41. Greitz D: Unraveling the riddle of syringomyelia. Neurosurg Rev 29:251-264, 2006
42. Grimpe B, Silver J: A novel DNA enzyme reduces glycosaminoglycan chains in the glial scar and allows microtransplanted dorsal root ganglia axons to regenerate beyond lesions in the spinal cord. J Neurosci 24:1393-1397, 2004
43. Herszfeld D, Wolvetang E, Langton-Bunker E, Cbung TL, Filipczyk AA, Houssami S, et al: CD30 is a survival factor and a biomarker for transformed human pluripotent stem cells. Nat Biotechnol 24:351-357, 2006
44. Himes BT, Neububer B, Coleman C, Kushner R, Swanger SA, Kopen GC, et al: Recovery of function following grafting of human bone marrow-derived stromal cells into the injured spinal cord. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 20:278-296, 2006
45. Hofstetter CP, Holmström, NA, Lilja JA, Schweinhardt P, Hao J, Spenger C, et al: Allodynia limits the usefulness of instraspinal neural stem cell grafts; directcd differentiation improves outcome. Nat Neurosci 8:346-353, 2005
46. Horner PJ, Power AE, Kempermann G, Kuhn HG, Palmer TD, Winkler J, et al: Proliferation and differentiation of progenitor cells throughout the intact adult rat spinal cord. J Neurosci 20: 2218-2228, 2000
47. Izrael M, Zhang P, Kaufman R, Shinder V, Ella R, Amit M, et al: Human oligodendrocytes derived from embryonic stem cells: effect of noggin on phenotypic differentiation in vitro and on myelination in vivo. Mol Cell Neurosci 34:310-323, 2007
48. Jahed A, Rowland JW, McDonald T, Boyd JG, Doucette R, Kawaja MD: Olfactory ensheathing cells express smooth muscle alpha-actin in vitro and in vivo. J Comp Neurol 503:209-223, 2007
49. Johansson CB, Momma S, Clarke DL, Risling M, Lendahl U, Frisén J: Identification of a neural stem cell in the adult mammalian central nervous system. Cell 96:25-34, 1999
50. Juurlink BH, Paterson PG: Review of oxidative stress in brain and spinal cord injury: suggestions for pharmacological and nutritional management strategies. J Spinal Cord Med 21:309-334, 1998
51. Kang SK, Shin MJ, Jung JS, Kim YG, Kim CH: Autologous adipose tissue-derived stromal cells for treatment of spinal cord injury. Stem Cells Dev 15:583-594, 2006
52. Karimi-Abdolrezaee S, Eftekharpour E, Fehlings MG: Temporal and spatial patterns of Kv1.1 and Kv1.2 protein and gene expression in spinal cord white matter after acute and chronic spinal cord injury in rats: implications for axonal pathophysiology after neurotrauma. Eur J Neurosci 19:577-589, 2004
53. Karimi-Abdolrezaee S, Eftekharpour E, Wang J, Morshead CM, Fehlings MG: Delayed transplantation of adult neural precursor cells promotes remyelination and functional neurological recovery after spinal cord injury. J Neurosci 26:3377-3389, 2006
54. Keirstead HS, Nistor G, Bernal G, Totoiu M, Cloutier F, Sharp K, et al: Human embryonic stem cell-derived oligodendrocyte progenitor cell transplants remyelinate and restore locomotion after spinal cord injury. J Neurosci 25:4694-4705, 2005
55. Klimanskaya I, Chung Y, Becker S, Lu SJ, Lanza R: Human embryonic stem cell lines derived from single blastomeres. Nature 444:481-485, 2006
56. Koprivica, V, Cho KS, Park JB, Yiu G, Atwal J, Gore B, et al: EGFR activation mediates inhibition of axon regeneration by myelin and chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans. Science 310:106-110, 2005
57. Lee MW, Moon YJ, Yang MS, Kim SY, Jang IK, Eom YW, et al: Neural differentiation of novel multipotent progenitor cells from cryopreserved human umbilical cord blood. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 358:637-643, 2007
58. Li L, Bareja ML, Majumdar A, Chadwick K, Rouleau A, Gallacher L, et al: Human embryonic stem cells possess immune-privileged properties. Stem Cells 22:448-456, 2004
59. Liu BP, Fournier A, GrandPré T, Strittmatter SM: Myelin-associated glycoprotein as a functional ligand for the Nogo-66 receptor. Science 297:1190-1193, 2002
60. Lu P, Jones LL, Tuszynski MH: Axon regeneration through scars and into sites of chronic spinal cord injury. Exp Neurol 203:8-21, 2007
61. Martens DJ, Seaberg RM, van der Kooy D: In vivo infusions of exogenous growth factors into the fourth ventricle of the adult mouse brain increase the proliferation of neural progenitors around the fourth ventricle and the central cand of the spinal cord. Eur J Neurosci 16:1045-1057, 2002
62. Maxwell WL, Graham DI: Loss of axonal microtubules and neurofilaments after stretch-injury to guinea pig optic nerve fibers. J Neurotrauma 14:603-614, 1997
63. Monnier PP, Sierra A, Schwab JM, Henke-Fahle S, Mueller BK: The Rho/ROCK pathway mediates neurite growth-inhibitory activity associated with the chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans of the CNS glial scar. Mol Cell Neurosci 22:319-330, 2003
64. Morshead CM, Benveniste P, Iscove NN, van der Kooy D: Hematopoietic competence is a rare property of neural stem cells that may depend on genetic and epigenetic alterations. Nat Med 8: 268-273, 2002
65. Morshead CM, Reynolds BA, Craig CG, McBurney MW, Staines WA, Morassutti D, et al: Neural stem cells in the adult mammalian forebrain: a relatively quiescent subpopulation of subependymal cells. Neuron 13:1071-1082, 1994
66. Nashmi R, Fehlings MG: Changes in axonal physiology and morphology after chronic compressive injury of the rat thoracic spinal cord. Neuroscience 104:235-251, 2001
67. Nashmi R, Fehlings MG: Mechanisms of axonal dysfunction after spinal cord injury: with an emphasis on the role of voltage-gated potassium channels. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 38:165-191, 2001
68. Nashmi R, Jones OT, Fehlings MG: Abnormal axonal physiology is associated with altered expression and distribution of kv1.1 and kv1.2 K+ channels after chronic spinal cord injury. Eur J Neurosci 12:491-506, 2000
69. Nayak MS, Kim YS, Goldman M, Keirstead HS, Kerr DA: Cellular therapies in motor neuron diseases. Biochim Biophys Acta 1762:1128-1138, 2006
70. Nishio, Y, Koda M, Kamada T, Someya Y, Yoshinaga K, Okada S, et al: The use of hemopoietic stem cells derived from human umbilical cord blood to promote restoration of spinal cord tissue and recovery of hindlimb function in adult rats. J Neurosurg Spine 5:424-433, 2006
71. Nistor GI, Totoiu MO, Haque N, Carpenter MK, Keirstead HS: Human embryonic stem cells differentiate into oligodendrocytes in high purity and myelinate after spinal cord transplantation. Glia 49:385-396, 2005
72. Ogawa Y, Sawamoto K, Miyata T, Miyao S, Watanabe M, Nakamura M, et al: Transplantation of in vitro-expanded fetal neural progenitor cells results in neurogenesis and functional recovery after spinal cord contusion injury in adult rats. J Neurosci Res 69:925-933, 2002
73. Ondarza AB, Ye Z, Hulsebosch CE: Direct evidence of primary afferent sprouting in distant segments following spinal cord injury in the rat: colocalization of GAP-43 and CGRP. Exp Neurol 184:373-380, 2003
74. Oudega M: Schwann cell and olfactory ensheathing cell implantation for repair of the contused spinal cord. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 189:181-189, 2007
75. Park E, Liu Y, Fehlings MG: Changes in glial white matter AMPA receptor expression after spinal cord injury and relationship to apoptotic cell death. Exp Neurol 182:35-48, 2003
76. Park E, Velumian AA, Fehlings MG: The role of excitotoxicity in secondary mechanisms of spinal cord injury: a review with an emphasis on the implications for white matter degeneration. J Neurotrauma 21:754-774, 2004
77. Pearse DD, Sanchez AR, Pereira FC, Andrade CM, Puzis R, Pressman Y, et al: Transplantation of Schwann cells and/or olfactory ensheathing glia into the contused spinal cord: survival, migration, axon association, and functional recovery. Glia 55:976-1000, 2007
78. Petit A, Sellers DL, Liebl DJ, Tessier-Lavipe M, Kennedy TE, Horner PJ: Adult spinal cord progenitor cells are repelled by netrin-1 indie embryonic and injured adult spinal cord. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104:17837-17842, 2007
79. Pfeifer K, Vroemen M, Blesch A, Weidner N: Adult neural progenitor cells provide a permissive guiding substrate for corticospinal axon growth following spinal cord injury. Eur J Neurosci 20:1695-1704, 2004
80. Phinney DG, Prockop DJ: Concise review: mesenchymal stem/multipotent stromal cells: the state of transdifferentiation and modes of tissue repair - current views. Stem Cells 25:2896-2902, 2007
81. Pincus DW, Goodman RR, Fraser RA, Nedergaard M, Goldman A: Neural stem and progenitor cells: a strategy for gene theraphy and brain repair. Neurosurgery 42:858-868, 1998
82. Pincus DW, Harrison-Restelli C, Baffy J, Goodman RR, Fraser RA, Nedergaard M, et al: In vitro neurogenesis by adult human epileptic temporal neocortex. Clin Neurosurg 44:17-25, 1997
83. Pucéat M, Ballis A: Embryonic stem cells: from bench to bedside. Clin Pharmacol Ther 82:337-339, 2007
84. Rasband MN, Trimmer JS: Subunit composition and novel localization of K+ channels in spinal cord. J Comp Neurol 429: 166-176, 2001
85. Reynolds BA, Weiss S: Generation of neurons and astrocytes from isolated cells of the adult mammalian central nervous system. Science 255:1707-1710, 1992
86. Rudge JS, Silver J: Inhibition of neurite outgrowth on astroglial scars in vitro. J Neurosel 10:3594-3603, 1990
87. Sasaki M, Black JA, Lankford KL, Tokuno HA, Waxman SG, Kocsis JD: Molecular reconstruction of nodes of Ranvier after remyelination by transplanted olfactory ensheathing cells in the demyelinated spinal cord. J Neurosci 26:1803-1812, 2006
88. Sasaki M, Li B, Lankford KL, Radtke C, Kocsis JD: Remyelination of the injured spinal cord. Prog Brain Res 161: 419-433, 2007
89. Schwab ME: Nogo and axon regeneration. Curr Opin Neurobiol 14:118-124, 2004
90. Schwab ME: Repairing the injured spinal cord. Science 295:1029-1031, 2002
91. Shihabuddin LS, Ray J, Gage FH: FGF-2 is sufficient to isolate progenitors found in the adult mammalian spinal cord. Exp Neurol 148:577-586, 1997
92. Sinha K, Karimi-Abdolrezaee S, Velumian AA, Fehlings MG: Functional changes in genetically dysmyelinated spinal cord axons of shiverer mice: role of juxtaparanodal Kv1 family K+ channels. J Neurophysiol 95:1683-1695, 2006
93. Syková E, Jendelová P, Urdzíková L, Lesný P Hejcl A: Bone marrow stem cells and polymer hydrogels - two strategies for spinal cord injury repair. Cell Mol Neurobiol 26:1113-1129, 2006
94. Takami T, Oudega M, Bates ML, Wood PM, Kleitman N, Bunge MB: Schwann cell but not olfactory ensheathing glia transplants improve hindlimb locomotor performance in the moderately contused adult rat thoracic spinal cord. J Neurosci 22:6670-6681, 2002
95. Tarasenko YI, Gao J, Nie L, Jobnson KM, Grady J, Hulsebosch CE, et al: Human fetal neural stem cells grafted into contusion- injured rat spinal cords improve behavior. J Neurosci Res 85:47-57, 2007
96. Tator CH, Fehlings MG: Review of the secondary injury theory of acute spinal cord trauma with emphasis on vascular mechanisms. J Neurosurg 75:15-26, 1991
97. Temple S, Alvarez-Buylla A: Stem cells in the adult mammalian central nervous system. Curr Opin Neurobiol 9:135-141, 1999
98. Thomson JA, Itskovitz-Eldor J, Shapiro SS, Waknitz MA, Swiergiel JJ, Marshall VS, et al: Embryonic stem cell lines derived from human blastocysts. Science 282:1145-1147, 1998
99. Thuret S, Moon LD, Gage FH: Therapeutic interventions after spinal cord injury. Nat Rev Neurosci 7:628-643, 2006
100. Totoiu MO, Keirstead HS: Spinal cord injury is accompanied by chronic progressive demyelination. J Comp Neurol 486:373-383, 2005
101. Ulzheimer JC, Peles E, Levinson SR, Martini R: Altered expression of ion channel isoforms at the node of Ranvier in PO-deficient myelin mutants. Mol Cell Neurosci 25:83-94, 2004
102. Utzschneider DA, Archer DR, Kocsis JD, Waxman SG, Duncan ID: Transplantation of glial cells enhances action potential conduction of amyelinated spinal cord axons in the myelin-deficient rat. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 91:53-57, 1994
103. Vadivelu S, Platik MM, Choi L, Lacy ML, Shah AR, Qu Y, et al: Multi-germ layer lineage central nervous system repair: nerve and vascular cell generation by embryonic stem cells transplanted in the injured brain. J Neurosurg 103:124-135, 2005
104. Velardo MJ, Burger C, Williams PR, Baker HV, López MC, Mareci TH, et al: Patterns of gene expression reveal a temporally orchestrated wound healing response in the injured spinal cord. J Neurosci 24:8562-8576, 2004
105. Vroemen M, Aigner L, Winkler J, Weidner N: Adult neural progenitor cell grafts survive after acute spinal cord injury and integrate along axonal pathways. Eur J Neurosci 18:743-751, 2003
106. Weidner N, Ner A, Salimi N, Tuszynski MH: Spontaneous corticospinal axonal plasticity and functional recovery after adult central nervous system injury. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 98:3513-3518, 2001
107. Weiss S, Dunne C, Hewson J, Wohl C, Wheatley M, Peterson AC, et al: Multipotent CNS stem cells are present in the adult mammalian spinal cord and ventricular neuroaxis. J Neurosci 16:7599-7609, 1996
108. Yamamoto S, Yamamoto N, Kitamura T, Nakamura K, Nakafuku M: Proliferation of parenchymal neural progenitors in response to injury in the adult rat spinal cord. Exp Neurol 172:115-127, 2001
109. Yiu G, He Z: Glial inhibition of CNS axon regeneration. Nat Rev Neurosci 7:617-627, 2006
110. Yu J, Vodyanik MA, Smuga-Otto K, Autosiewicz-Bourget J, Frane JL, Tian S, et al: Induced pluripotent stem cell lines derived from human somatic cells. Science 318:1917-1920, 2007
111. Zeng X: Human embryonic stem cells: mechanisms to escape replicative senescence? Stem Cell Rev 3:270-279, 2007
112. Zhang PL, Izrael M, Ainbinder E, Ben-Simchon L, Chebath J, Revel M. Increased myelinating capacity of embryonic stem cell derived oligodendrocyte precursors after treatment by interleukin-6/soluble interleukin-6 receptor fusion protein. Mol Cell Neurosci 31:387-398, 2006