Women's Underrepresentation in Science: Sociocultural and Biological Considerations

Psychological Bulletin

Volumn 135, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 218-261

  Ceci, Stephen J ^a   Williams, Wendy M ^a   Barnett, Susan M ^a  

^a Cornell University ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

family versus career trade offs; mathematics; sex differences; spatial ability; women in science

Indexed keywords

ADULT; APTITUDE; ARTICLE; BRAIN; CHILD; CHILD REARING; DECISION MAKING; EDUCATION; ENGINEERING; FEMALE; HUMAN; LIFESTYLE; MANPOWER; MATHEMATICS; PHYSIOLOGY; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; SCIENCE; SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; TECHNOLOGY;

ADULT; APTITUDE; BRAIN; CAREER CHOICE; CHILD; CHILD REARING; ENGINEERING; FEMALE; HUMANS; LIFE STYLE; MATHEMATICS; PREJUDICE; SCIENCE; SEX CHARACTERISTICS; SOCIAL VALUES; TECHNOLOGY; WOMEN;

EID: 60149107860     PISSN: 00332909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0014412     Document Type: Article

References (403)

1. Achter J.A., Lubinski D., Benbow C., and Eftekhari-Sanjani H. Assessing vocational preferences among gifted adolescents adds incremental validity to abilities. Journal of Educational Psychology 91 (1999) 777-786
2. Ackerman P.L. Cognitive sex differences and mathematics and science achievement. American Psychologist 61 (2006) 722-723
3. Adkins-Regan E. Hormones and animal social behavior (2005), Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ
4. American Association of University Women. Gender gaps: Where schools still fail our children (1998), American Association of University Women Educational Foundation, Washington DC
5. Ankney C.D. Sex differences in relative brain size: The mismeasure of woman, too?. Intelligence 16 (1992) 329-336
6. Arden R., and Plomin R. Sex differences in variance of intelligence across childhood. Personality and Individual Differences 41 (2006) 39-48
7. Astur R.S., Ortiz C.L., and Sutherland R.J. A characterization of performance of men and women in a virtual Morris water task. Behavioural Brain Research 93 (1998) 185-190
8. Azurmendi A., Braza F., Sorozabal S., García A., Braza P., Carreras M.R., et al. Cognitive abilities, androgen levels, and body mass index in 5-year-old children. Hormones and Behavior 48 (2005) 187-195
9. Bachevalier J., Brickson M., Hagger C., and Mishkin M. Age and sex differences in the effect of temporal lobe lesions on the formation of visual discrimination in monkeys. Behavioral Neuroscience 104 (1990) 885-889
10. Bachevalier J., Hagger C., and Bercu B. Gender differences in visual habit formation in 3-month-old rhesus monkeys. Developmental Psychology 22 (1989) 585-599
11. Baenninger M.A., and Newcombe N. The role of experience in spatial test performance: A meta-analysis. Sex Roles 20 (1989) 327-344
12. Baenninger M.A., and Newcombe N. Environmental input to the development of sex-related differences in spatial and mathematical ability. Learning and Individual Differences 7 (1995) 363-379
13. Barnett S.M., and Ceci S.J. When and where do we apply what we learn? A taxonomy for far transfer. Psychological Bulletin 128 (2002) 612-637
14. Baron-Cohen S. Sex differences in mind: Keeping science distinct from social policy. In: Ceci S.J., and Williams W.M. (Eds). Why aren't more women in science? Top researchers debate the evidence (2007), American Psychological Association, Washington, DC 159-172
15. Baron-Cohen S., Knickmeyer R.C., and Belmonte. Sex differences in the brain: Implications for explaining autism. Science 310 (2005) 819-823
16. Baron-Cohen S., Lutchmaya S., and Knickmeyer R.C. Prenatal testosterone in mind: Amniotic fluid studies (2004), MIT Press
17. Battista M.T. Spatial visualization and gender differences in high school geometry. Journal of Research in Mathematics Education 21 (1990) 47-60
18. Beaman R., Wheldall K., and Kemp C. Differential teacher attention to boys and girls in the classroom. Educational Review 58 (2006) 339-366
19. Becker B.J., and Hedges L.V. Meta-analysis of cognitive gender differences: A comment on an analysis by Rosenthal and Rubin. Journal of Educational Psychology 76 (1984) 583-587
20. Becker J.R. Differential treatment of females and males in mathematics classes. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 12 (1981) 40-53
21. Beilock S., Rydell R.J., and McConnell A.R. Stereotype threat and working memory: Mechanisms, alleviation, and spillover. Journal of Experimental Psychology 136 (2007) 256-276
22. Belkin L. Diversity isn't rocket science, is it?. The New York Times (2008, May 15) A-2
23. Beller M., and Gafni N. The 1991 international assessment of educational progress in mathematics and sciences: The gender differences perspective. Journal of Educational Psychology 88 (1996) 365-377
24. Ben-Zeev T., Duncan S., and Forbes C. Stereotypes and mathematics performance. In: Campbell J. (Ed). Handbook of mathematical cognition (2005), Psychology Press, New York 235-249
25. Benbow C.P. Sex differences in mathematical reasoning ability in intellectually talented preadolescents: Their nature, effects, and possible causes. Behavioral & Brain Sciences 11 (1988) 169-182
26. Benbow C.P. Academic achievement in math and science of students between 13 and 23: Are there differences among students in the top 1% of math ability?. Journal of Educational Psychology 84 (1992) 51-61
27. Benbow C.P., Lubinski D., Shea D.L., and Eftekhari-Sanjani H. Sex differences in mathematical reasoning ability: Their status 20 years later. Psychological Science 11 (2000) 474-480
28. Benbow C.P., and Stanley J.C. Sex differences in mathematical ability: Fact or artifact?. Science 210 (1980) 1262-1264
29. Benbow C.P., and Stanley J.C. Sex differences in mathematical reasoning ability. Science 222 (1983) 1029-1030
30. Berenbaum S.A., and Hines M. Early androgens are related to childhood sex-typed toy preferences. Psychological Science 3 (1992) 203-206
31. Berenbaum S., and Resnick S. The seeds of career choices: Prenatal sex hormone effects on psychological sex differences. In: Ceci S.J., and Williams W.M. (Eds). Why aren't more women in science? Top researchers debate the evidence (2007), American Psychological Association, Washington, DC 147-158
32. Bhasin S., Woodhouse L., Casaburi R., Singh A.B., Bhasin D., Berman N., et al. Testosterone dose-response relationships in healthy young men. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism 281 (2001) 1172-1181
33. Bhasin S., Woodhouse L., Casaburi R., Singh A.B., Mac R.P., Lee M., et al. Older men are as responsive as young men to the anabolic effect of graded doses of testosterone. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 90 (2005) 678-688
34. Biek, D. M. (2006). Stereotype threat and domain identification. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Cornell University.
35. Bornstein M.H., Haynes O., Pascual L., Painter K., and Galperin C. Play in two societies: Pervasiveness of process, specificity of structure. Child Development 70 (1999) 317-331
36. Brandon P.R., Newton B.J., and Hammond O.W. Children's mathematics achievement in Hawaii: Sex differences favoring girls. American Educational Research Journal 24 (1987) 437-461
37. Bridgeman B., and Lewis C. Gender differences in college mathematics grades and SAT-M scores. Journal of Educational Measurement 33 (1996) 257-270
38. Bronfenbrenner U., and Ceci S.J. Nature-nurture in developmental perspective: A bioecological theory. Psychological Review 101 (1994) 568-586
39. Brosnan M. Spatial ability in children's play with Lego blocks. Perceptual and Motor Skills 87 (1998) 19-28
40. Brosnan M. Digit ratio and academia: Implications for the relationship between prenatal testosterone and academia. British Journal of Psychology 97 (2006) 455-466
41. Brouwers, S. A., Van de Vijver, F. J. R., & Van Hemert, D. A. (in press). Variation in Raven's Progressive Matrices scores across time and place. Learning and Individual Differences. (Sex difference analysis available from S. A. Brouwers: s.a.brouwers@uvt.nl)
42. Budden A., Lortie C., Tregenza T., Aarssen L., Koricheva J., and Leimu R. Response to Webb et al: Double-blind review: Accept with minor revisions. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 23 (2008) 353-354
43. Budden A., Tregenza T., Aarssen L., Koricheva J., Leimu R., and Lortie C. Double-blind review favours increased representation of female authors. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 23 (2008) 4-6
44. Burnett S.A., Lane D.L., and Dratt L.M. Spatial visualization and sex differences in quantitative ability. Intelligence 3 (1979) 345-354
45. Burt S.A. Genes and popularity: Evidence of an evocative gene-environment correlation. Psychological Science 19 (2008) 112-113
46. Byrnes J.P., and Takahira S. Explaining gender differences on SAT-Mathematics Items. Developmental Psychology 29 (1993) 805-810
47. Caldera Y.M., Culp A.M., O'Brien M., Truglio R.T., Alvarez M., and Huston A.C. Children's play preferences, construction play with blocks, and visual-spatial skills: Are they related?. International Journal of Behavioral Development 23 (1999) 855-872
48. Cambridge University. Student numbers. Cambridge University Reporter 135 Special Issue No. 19 (2005, August 26)
49. Caplan P.J., McPherson G.M., and Tobin P. Do sex-related differences in spatial ability exist?. American Psychologist 40 (1985) 786-799
50. Carter C.S., LaRussa M.A., and Bodner G.M. A study of two measures of spatial ability as predictors of success in different levels of general chemistry. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 24 (1987) 645-657
51. Casey M.B., Andrews N., Schindler H., Kersh J.E., and Samper A. The development of spatial skills through interventions involving block building activities. Cognition and Instruction 26 (2008) 269-309
52. Casey M.B., and Brabeck M.M. Exceptions to the male advantage on a spatial task: Family handedness and college major as a factor identifying women who excel. Neuropsychologia 27 (1989) 689-696
53. Casey M.B., and Brabeck M.M. Women who excel on a spatial task: Proposed genetic and environmental factors. Brain and Cognition 12 (1990) 73-84
54. Casey M.B., Nuttall R., Benbow C.P., and Pezaris E. Influence of spatial ability on gender differences in mathematics college entrance scores across diverse samples. Developmental Psychology 31 (1995) 697-705
55. Casey M.B., Nuttall R.L., and Pezaris E. Mediators of gender differences in mathematics college entrance test scores: A comparison of spatial skills with internalized beliefs and anxieties. Developmental Psychology 33 (1997) 669-680
56. Casey M.B., Nuttall R.L., and Pezaris E. Evidence in support of a model that predicts how biological and environmental factors interact to influence spatial skills. Developmental Psychology 35 (1999) 1237-1247
57. Casey M.B., Nuttall R.L., and Pezaris E. Spatial-mechanical reasoning skills versus mathematics self-confidence as mediators of gender differences on mathematics subtests using cross-national gender-based items. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 32 (2001) 28-57
58. Catsambis S. The path to mathematics: Gender and racial-ethnic differences in mathematics participation from middle school to high school. Sociology of Education 67 (1994) 199-215
59. Catsambis S. The gender gap in mathematics: Merely a step function?. In: Gallagher A.M., and Kaufman J.C. (Eds). Gender differences in mathematics: An integrative psychological approach (2005), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom 222-245
60. Cavallaro M., Hansen S., and Wenner M. Bridging the gender gap. Barnard Magazine (2007, Fall)
61. Ceci S.J. On intelligence: A bioecological treatise on intellectual development (1996), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA
62. Ceci S.J., and Papierno P.B. The rhetoric and reality of gap-closing: When the "have-nots" gain, but the "haves" gain even more. American Psychologist 60 (2005) 149-160
63. Ceci S.J., and Williams W.M. Why aren't more women in science? Top researchers debate the evidence (2007), American Psychological Association, Washington, DC
64. Charles M., and Bradley K. A matter of degrees: Female underrepresentation in computer science programs cross-nationally. In: McGrath Cohoon J., and Aspray B. (Eds). Women and information technology: Research on the reasons for underrepresentation (2006), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA 183-203
65. Cherrier M., Asthana S., Plymate S., Baker L., Matsumoto A.M., Peskind E., et al. Testosterone supplementation improves spatial and verbal memory in healthy older men. Neurology 57 (2001) 80-88
66. Christiansen K. Sex hormone-related variations of cognitive performance in pKung San hunter-gatherers of Namibia. Neuropsychobiology 27 (1993) 97-107
67. Christiansen K., and Knussman R. Sex hormones and cognitive functioning in men. Neuropsychobiology 18 (1987) 27-36
68. Collaer M.L., Geffner M.E., Kaufman F.R., Buckingham B., and Hines M. Cognitive and behavioral characteristics of Turner syndrome: Exploring a role for ovarian hormones in female sexual differentiation. Hormones and Behavior 41 (2002) 139-155
69. College Entrance Examination Board. CEEB Special Aptitude Test in Spatial Relations (1939), Author, New York
70. Connellan J., Baron-Cohen S., Wheelwright S., Ba'tki A., and Ahluwalia J. Sex differences in human neonatal social perception. Infant Behavior and Development 23 (2001) 113-118
71. Connor J.M., Serbin L.A., and Schackman M. Sex differences in children's response to training on a visual-spatial test. Developmental Psychology 13 (1977) 293-294
72. Correll S.J. Constraints into preferences: Gender, status, and emerging career aspirations. American Sociological Review 69 (2004) 93-114
73. Cronin V. Mirror-image reversal discrimination in kindergarten and first-grade children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 5 (1967) 577-585
74. Cullen M., Hardison C., and Sackett P. Using SAT-grade and ability-job performance relationships to test predictions derived from stereotype threat theory. Journal of Applied Psychology 89 (2004) 220-230
75. Danaher K., and Crandall C.S. Stereotype threat in applied settings re-examined. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 38 (2008) 1639-1655
76. Dar-Nimrod I., and Heine S.J. Exposure to scientific theories affects women's mathematics performance. Science 314 (2006) 435
77. Davies P.G., Spencer S.J., Quinn D.M., and Gerhardstein R. Consuming images: How television commercials that elicit stereotype threat can restrain women academically and professionally. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28 (2002) 1615-1628
78. Davis, G. (in press). Improving the postdoctoral experience: An empirical approach. In R. Freeman & D. Goroff (Eds.), The science and engineering workforce in the United States. Chicago: NBER/University of Chicago Press.
79. Davis-Kean P., Jacobs J., Bleeker M., Eccles J.S., and Melanchuk O. How dads influence their daughters' interest in mathematics [University of Michigan]. ScienceDaily (2007, June 25). http://www.sciencedaily.com-/releases/2007/06/070624143002.htm Retrieved February 9, 2008, from http://www.sciencedaily.com-/releases/2007/06/070624143002.htm
80. Davison K., and Susman E. Are hormone levels and cognitive ability related during early adolescence?. International Journal of Behavioral Development 25 (2001) 416-428
81. De Vries G., and Simerley R.B. Anatomy, development, and function of sexually dimorphic neural circuits in the mammalian brain. In: Pfaff D.W., Arnold A., Etgen A., Fahrbach E., Moss R., and Rubin R. (Eds). Hormones, brain and behaviour: Vol. IV. Development of hormone-dependent neuronal systems (2002), Academic Press, San Diego, CA 137-191
82. Dearman N.B., and Plisko V.W. The condition of education (1979), National Center for Educational Statistics, Washington, DC
83. Deary I.J., Thorpe G., Wilson V., Starr J.M., and Whalley L.J. Population sex differences in IQ at age 11: The Scottish mental survey 1932. Intelligence 31 (2003) 533-542
84. Deary I.J., Whalley L., Lemmon H., Crawford J.R., and Starr J.M. The stability of individual differences in mental ability from childhood to old age. Intelligence 28 (1999) 49-55
85. Delgado A., and Prieto G. Cognitive mediators and sex differences in math. Intelligence 32 (2004) 25-32
86. Department for Education and Skills. Autumn Package 2002 [data file] (2002). http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/performance/2002KS4_whole_revised.pdf?v ersion=1 Retrieved November 5, 2008, from (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/performance/2002KS4_whole_revised.pdf? version=1)
87. Draganski B., Gaser C., Busch V., Schuierer G., Bogdahn U., and May A. Changes in grey matter induced by training. Nature 427 (2004) 311-312
88. Dweck C.S. Is mathematics a gift? Beliefs that put females at risk. In: Ceci S.J., and Williams W.M. (Eds). Why aren't more women in science? Top researchers debate the evidence (2007), American Psychological Association, Washington, DC 47-56
89. Dweck C.S., and Repucci N.D. Learned helplessness and reinforcement responsibility in children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 25 (1973) 109-116
90. Eals M., and Silverman I. The hunter-gatherer theory of spatial sex differences: Proximate factors mediating the female advantage in recall of object arrays. Ethology & Sociobiology 15 (1994) 95-105
91. Eccles J.S. Families, schools, and developing achievement-related motivations and engagement. In: Grusec J.E., and Hastings P.D. (Eds). Handbook of socialization (2007), Guilford Press, New York 665-691
92. Eccles J.S. Where are all of the women?. In: Ceci S.J., and Williams W.M. (Eds). Why aren't more women in science? Top researchers debate the evidence (2007), American Psychological Association, Washington, DC 199-210
93. Eccles J.S., Barber B., and Jozefowicz D. Linking gender to educational, occupational, and recreational choices: Applying the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In: Swann W.B., Langlois J., and Gilbert L. (Eds). Sexism and stereotypes in modern society (1999), American Psychological Association, Washington DC 153-192
94. Ekstrom R.B., French J.W., and Harman H.H. Kit of factor-referenced cognitive tests (1976), Educational Testing Service, Princeton, NJ
95. Entwisle D.R., Alexander K., and Olson L.S. The gender gap in mathematics: Its possible origins in neighborhood effects. American Sociological Review 59 (1994) 822-838
96. Feingold A. Cognitive gender differences are disappearing. American Psychologist 43 (1988) 95-103
97. Feingold A. Sex differences in variability in intellectual abilities: A new look at an old controversy. Review of Educational Research 62 (1992) 61-84
98. Feingold A. Gender differences in variability in intellectual abilities: A cross-cultural perspective. Sex Roles 30 (1994) 81-92
99. Feng J., Spence I., and Pratt J. Playing an action video game reduces gender differences in spatial cognition. Psychological Science 18 (2007) 850-855
100. Fennema E., Carpenter T., Jacobs V., Franke M., and Levi L. Longitudinal Study of Gender Differences in Young Children's Mathematical Thinking. Educational Researcher 27 (1998) 6-11
101. Ferguson R.C. Teacher's guide: Research and benefits of chess (2006), United States Chess Federation, New Windsor, NY. http://www.quadcitychess.com/benefits_of_chess.html Retrieved January 3, 2007, from http://www.quadcitychess.com/benefits_of_chess.html
102. Fias W., and Fischer M.H. Spatial representation of numbers. In: Campbell J. (Ed). Handbook of mathematical cognition (2005), Routledge, London 43-54
103. Finegan J.K., Niccols G.A., and Sitarenios G. Relations between prenatal testosterone levels and cognitive abilities at 4 years. Developmental Psychology 28 (1992) 1075-1089
104. Fink B., Brookes H., Neave N., Manning J.T., and Geary D.C. Second to fourth digit ratio and numerical competence in children. Brain and Cognition 61 (2006) 211-218
105. Fischer W. The educational value of chess. New Horizons for Learning (2006). http://www.newhorizons.org/strategies/thinking/fischer.htm Retrieved December 9, 2006, from http://www.newhorizons.org/strategies/thinking/fischer.htm
106. Flynn, J. R., & Rossi-Case, L. (2008). Raven's Progressive Matrices: Female genes good-Massive IQ gains in Argentina. Unpublished manuscript. Available from jim.flynn@stonebow.otago.ac.nz
107. Fox L.H., and Cohn S.J. Sex differences in the development of precocious mathematical talent. In: Fox L.H., Brody L., and Tobin D. (Eds). Women and the mathematical mystique (1980), Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, MD 94-112
108. Freeman C.E. Trends in educational equity of girls and women: 2004 (2004), U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Educational Statistics, Washington, DC
109. Friedman L. Mathematics and the gender gap: A meta-analysis of recent studies on sex differences in quantitative tasks. Review of Educational Research 59 (1989) 185-213
110. Friedman L. The space factor in mathematics: Gender differences. Review of Educational Research 65 (1995) 22-50
111. Frome P., and Eccles J.S. Parental effects on adolescents' academic self-perceptions and interests. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (1998) 435-452
112. Gallagher A.M. Sex differences in problem-solving strategies used by high-scoring examinees on the SAT-M (ETS Research Report No. 92-33/College Board Report No. 92-2) (1992), College Board, New York
113. Gallagher A. Gender and antecedents of performance in mathematics testing. Teachers College Record 100 (1998) 297-314
114. Gallagher A., and DeLisi R. Gender differences in Scholastic Aptitude Test- Mathematics problem solving among high-ability students. Journal of Educational Psychology 86 (1994) 204-211
115. Gallagher A.M., De Lisi R., Holst P.C., McGillicuddy-DeLisi A.V., Morely M., and Cahalan C. Gender differences in advanced mathematical problem solving. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 75 (2000) 165-190
116. Gallagher A.M., and Kaufman J.C. Gender differences in mathematics: An integrative psychological approach (2005), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom
117. Gallagher A., Levin J., and Cahalan C. Cognitive patterns of gender differences on mathematics admissions tests (ETS Research Report 02-19/GRE Board Professional Report No. 96-17P) (2002), Educational Testing Service, Princeton, NJ
118. Gates E. A scientific point of view. Physics Today (2006, April) 64-65
119. Gates E. Women in physics: Why and why not. Physics Today (2006, December) 14-15
120. Gazzaniga M., Ivry R., and Magnum G. Cognitive neuroscience: The biology of the mind (1998), Norton, New York
121. Geary D.C. Sexual selection and sex differences in mathematics abilities. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19 (1996) 229-284
122. Geary D.C. Male, female: The evolution of human sex differences (1998), American Psychological Association, Washington, DC
123. Geary D.C. Sexual selection and sex differences in social cognition. In: McGillicuddy-DeLisi A.V., and DeLisi R. (Eds). Biology, society, and behavior: The development of sex differences in cognition (2002), Ablex, Greenwich, CT 23-54
124. Geary D.C., and DeSoto M.C. Sex differences in spatial abilities among adults in the United States and China. Evolution & Cognition 7 (2001) 172-177
125. Gender Equity Committee of the University of Pennsylvania. The gender equity report. Almanac Supplement 48 14 (2001, December 4)
126. Giedd J.N., Vaituzis A.C., Hamburger S.D., Lange N., Rajapakse J.C., Kaysen D., et al. Quantitative MRI of the temporal lobe, amygdala, and hippocampus in normal human development: Ages 4-18 years. Journal of Comparative Neurology 366 (1996) 222-232
127. Gierl, M., Khaliq, S., & Boughton, K. (1999, June). Differential item functioning on Alberta Education mathematics achievement tests: Prevalence and policy implications. In X. Ma (chair), Improving large-scale assessment in education research. Symposium conducted at the annual meeting of the Canadian Society for the Study of Education Sherbrooke, Québec, Canada.
128. Ginther D.K. Does science discriminate against women? Evidence from academia, 1973-97 (Working Paper No. 2001-02) (2001, February), Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta, Research Department, Atlanta, GA
129. Ginther D.K. Why women earn less than men: Economic explanations for the gender salary gap in science. AWIS: Association for Women in Science 33 (2004) 1-5
130. Ginther, D. K., & Kahn, S. (2006). Does science promote women? Evidence from academia 1973-2001. Unpublished manuscript. Retrieved January 2, 2006, from http://www.nber.org/~sewp/Ginther_Kahn_revised8-06.pdf
131. Goldberg C. MIT acknowledges bias against female professors. The New York Times (1999, March 23) 1
132. Goldin C., and Rouse C. Orchestrating impartiality: The impact of "blind" auditions on female musicians. American Economic Review 90 (2000) 715-741
133. Goldstein J.H. Sex differences in toy play and use of video games. In: Goldstein J.H. (Ed). Toys, play, and child development (1994), Cambridge University Press, New York 110-129
134. Good C., Aronson J., and Harder J. Problems in the pipeline: Stereotype threat and women's achievement in high-level mathematics courses. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 29 (2008) 17-28
135. Good, C., Dweck, C. S., & Rattan, A. (2005a). An incremental theory decreases vulnerability to stereotypes about mathematics ability in college females. Unpublished raw data, Columbia University.
136. Good, C., Dweck, C. S., & Rattan, A. (2005b). Portraying genius: How fixed vs. malleable portrayal of mathematics ability affects females' motivation and performance. Unpublished raw data, Columbia University.
137. Gordon H.W., Corbin E.D., and Lee P.A. Changes in specialized cognitive function following changes in hormone levels. Cortex 22 (1986) 399-415
138. Gouchie C., and Kimura D. The relationship between testosterone levels and cognitive ability patterns. Psychoneuroendocrinology 16 (1991) 323-334
139. Grabner R.H., Neubauer A.C., and Stern E. Superior performance and neural efficiency: The impact of intelligence and expertise. Brain Research Bulletin 69 (2006) 422-439
140. Grabner R.H., Stern E., and Neubauer A.C. When intelligence loses its impact: Neural efficiency during reasoning in a familiar area. International Journal of Psychophysiology 49 (2003) 89-98
141. Grimshaw G., Sitarenios G., and Finegan J. Mental rotation at 7 years: Relations with prenatal testosterone levels and spatial play experiences. Brain and Cognition 29 (1995) 85-100
142. Grossi D., Orsini A., Monetti C., and De Michele G. Sex differences in children's spatial and verbal memory span. Cortex 15 (1979) 667-670
143. Guay R. Purdue Spatial Visualization Test: Rotations (1977), Purdue Research Foundation, West Lafayette, IN
144. Guiso L., Ferdinando M., Sapienza P., and Zingales L. Culture, gender, and math. Science 320 (2008) 1164-1165
145. Guo G., and Stearns E. The social influences on the realization of genetic potential for intellectual development. Social Forces (2002) 881-910
146. Gur R.C., Alsop D., Glahn D., Petty R., Swanson C.L., Maldjian J.A., et al. An fMRI study of sex differences in regional activation to a verbal and a spatial task. Brain and Language 74 (2000) 157-170
147. Gur R.C., and Gur R.E. Neural substrates for sex differences in cognition. In: Ceci S.J., and Williams W.M. (Eds). Why aren't more women in science? Top researchers debate the evidence (2007), American Psychological Association, Washington, DC 189-198
148. Haier R. Brains, bias, and biology: Follow the data. In: Ceci S.J., and Williams W.M. (Eds). Why aren't more women in science? Top researchers debate the evidence (2007), American Psychological Association, Washington, DC 113-120
149. Haier R.J., Jung R.E., Yeo R.A., Head K., and Alkire M.T. Structural brain variation and general intelligence. NeuroImage 23 (2004) 425-433
150. Haier R.J., Jung R.E., Yeo R.A., Head K., and Alkire M.T. The neuroanatomy of general intelligence: Sex matters. NeuroImage 25 (2005) 320-327
151. Hakim C. Work-lifestyle choices in the 21st century (2000), Oxford University Press, Oxford, England
152. Hakim C. Models of the family in modern societies: Ideals and realities (2003), Ashgate, Aldershot
153. Hakim C. Key issues in women's work: Female diversity and the polarization of women's employment. 2nd ed. (2004), GlassHouse Press, London
154. Hakim C. Sex differences in work-life balance goals. In: Houston D. (Ed). Work-life balance in the twenty-first century (2005), Palgrave Macmillan, London 55-79
155. Hakim C. Women, careers, and work-life preferences. British Journal of Guidance and Counseling 34 (2006) 279-294
156. Hakim C. Dancing with the devil? Essentialism and other feminist heresies. British Journal of Sociology 58 (2007) 123-132
157. Halari R., Sharma T., Hines M., Andrew C., Simmons A., and Kumari V. Comparable fMRI activity with differential behavioural performance on mental rotation and overt verbal fluency tasks in healthy men and women. Experimental Brain Research 169 (2006) 1-14
158. Halpern D.F. Science, sex, and good sense: Why women are underrepresented in some areas of science and mathematics. In: Ceci S.J., and Williams W.M. (Eds). Why aren't more women in science? Top researchers debate the evidence (2007), American Psychological Association, Washington, DC 121-130
159. Halpern D.F., Benbow C.P., Geary D., Gur R., Hyde J.S., and Gernsbacher M.A. The science of sex differences in science and mathematics. Psychological Science in the Public Interest 8 (2007) 1-51
160. Hamel M., Ingelfinger J., Phimister E., and Solomon C. Women in academic medicine-Progress and challenges. The New England Journal of Medicine 355 (2006) 310
161. Hampson E. Estrogen-related variations in human spatial and articulatory-motor skills. Psychoneuroendocrinology 15 (1990) 97-111
162. Hampson E., and Kimura D. Reciprocal effects of hormonal fluctuations on human motor and perceptual-spatial skills. Behavioral Neuroscience 102 (1988) 456-459
163. Hampson E., and Moffat S.D. The psychobiology of gender: The cognitive effects of reproductive hormones in the adult nervous system. In: Sternberg R.J., Eagley A., and Beal A. (Eds). The psychology of gender. 2nd ed. (2005), Guilford Press, New York 38-64
164. Hampson E., Rovet J.F., and Altmann D. Spatial reasoning in children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. Developmental Neuropsychology 14 (1998) 299-320
165. Harris A.M., and Carlton S. Patterns of gender differences on mathematics items on the Scholastic Aptitude Test. Applied Measurement in Education 6 (1993) 137-151
166. Harvard University. Women at Harvard University (2005), Author, Cambridge, MA. http://www.hno.harvard.edu/guide/underst/under4.html Retrieved January 4, 2007, from http://www.hno.harvard.edu/guide/underst/under4.html
167. Haslanger S. Philosophy and sexism. Inside Higher Education (2007, September 10). http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2007/09/10/philos Retrieved October 11, 2007, from www.insidehighered.com/news/2007/09/10/philos
168. Hausman P., and Steiger J.H. Confession without guilt? MIT jumped the gun to avoid a sex-discrimination controversy, but shot itself in the foot. Independent Women's Forum (2001, February) 1-12
169. Hedges L.V., and Nowell A. Sex differences in mental test scores, variability, and numbers of high-scoring individuals. Science 269 (1995) 41-45
170. Hegarty M., and Kozhevnikov M. Types of visual-spatial representations and mathematical problem solving. Journal of Educational Psychology 91 (1999) 684-689
171. Heilman M.E., and Haynes M.C. No credit where credit is due: Attributional rationalization of women's success in male-female teams. Journal of Applied Psychology 90 (2005) 905-916
172. Hill S.T., and Johnson J.M. Science and engineering degrees: 1966-2001 (2004), National Science Foundation, Arlington, VA. http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/NSF04311/ Retrieved July, 1, 2007, from www.nsf.gov/statistics/NSF04311/
173. Hines M. Do sex differences in cognition cause the shortage of women in science?. In: Ceci S., and Williams W.M. (Eds). Why aren't more women in science? Top researchers debate the evidence (2007), American Psychological Association, Washington, DC 101-112
174. Hines M., Fane B.A., Pasterski V.L., Mathews G.A., Conway G.S., and Brook C. Spatial abilities following prenatal androgen abnormality. Psychoneuroendocrinology 28 (2003) 1010-1026
175. Hines M., and Kaufman F.R. Androgen and the development of human sex-typical behavior-Rough-and-tumble play and sex of preferred playmates in children with CAH. Child Development 65 (1994) 1042-1053
176. Hoffer T.B., and Grigorian K. All in a week's work: Average work weeks of doctoral scientists and engineers (Science Resources Statistics Publication. No. 06-302) (2005, December), National Science Foundation, Arlington, VA
177. Hogervorst E., Bandelow S., and Moffat S.D. Increasing testosterone levels and effects on cognitive functions in elderly men and women. Drug Targets- CNS & Neurological Disorders 4 (2005) 531-540
178. Hong E., O'Neil H.F., and Feldon D. Gender effects on mathematics achievement. In: Gallagher A.M., and Kaufman J.C. (Eds). Gender differences in mathematics (2005), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom 163-189
179. Hrdy S.B. Mother nature: A history of mothers, infants and natural selection (1999), Pantheon, New York
180. Hugdahl K., Thomsen T., and Ersland L. Sex differences in visuo-spatial processing: An fMRI study of mental rotation. Neuropsychologia 44 (2006) 1575-1583
181. Humphreys L., Lubinski D., and Yao G. Utility of predicting group membership and the role of spatial visualization in becoming an engineer, scientist, or artist. Journal of Applied Psychology 78 (1993) 250-261
182. Hyde J.S. How large are cognitive gender differences?. American Psychologist 36 (1981) 892-901
183. Hyde J.S. Meta-analysis and the psychology of gender differences. Signs:
184. Hyde J.S. The gender similarity hypothesis. American Psychologist 60 (2005) 581-592
185. Hyde J.S. Women in science: Gender similarities in abilities and sociocultural forces. In: Ceci S.J., and Williams W.M. (Eds). Why aren't more women in science? Top researchers debate the evidence (2007), American Psychological Association, Washington, DC 131-145
186. Hyde J.S., Fennema E., and Lamon S.J. Gender differences in mathematics performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 107 (1990) 139-155
187. Hyde J.S., Fennema E., Ryan M., Frost L.A., and Hopp C. Gender comparisons of mathematics studies and effects: A meta-analysis. Psychology of Women Quarterly 14 (1990) 299-324
188. Hyde J.S., Lindberg S.M., Linn M.C., Ellis A.B., and Williams C.C. Gender similarities characterize math performance. Science 321 (2008) 494-495
189. Hyde J.S., and Linn M.C. Gender similarities in mathematics and science. Science 314 (2006) 599-600
190. Inzlicht M., and Ben-Zeev T. A threatening intellectual environment: Why females are susceptible to experiencing problem-solving deficits in the presence of males. Psychological Science 11 (2000) 365-371
191. Irwing P., and Lynn R. Sex differences in means and variability on the Progressive Matrices in university students: A meta-analysis. British Journal of Psychology 96 (2005) 505-524
192. Isgor C., and Sengelaub D.R. Effects of neonatal gonadal steroids on adult CA3 pyramidal neuron dendritic morphology and spatial memory. Journal of Neurobiology 55 (2003) 179-190
193. Ivie R., and Ray K. Women in physics and astronomy (2005), American Institute of Physics, College Park, MD
194. Jacobs J.A., and Winslow S.E. Overworked faculty: Job and stresses and family demands. Annals of American Political and Social Scientist 596 (2004) 104-129
195. Jacobs J.E., Davis-Kean P., Bleeker M., Eccles J.S., and Malanchuk O. "I can, but I don't want to": The impact of parents, interests, and activities on gender differences in mathematics. In: Gallagher A., and Kaufman J. (Eds). Gender differences in mathematics (2005), Cambridge University, Cambridge, United Kingdom 246-263
196. Jacobs J.E., and Eccles J.S. Gender differences in mathematics ability: The impact of media reports on parents. Educational Researcher 14 (1985) 20-25
197. Jacobs J.E., and Eccles J.S. The impact of mothers' gender-role stereotypic beliefs on mothers' and children's ability perceptions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63 (1992) 932-944
198. Jahoda G. On the nature of difficulties in spatial-perceptual tasks: Ethnic and gender differences. British Journal of Psychology 70 (1979) 351-363
199. Jardine J., and Martin N.G. Spatial ability and throwing accuracy. Behavior Genetics 13 (1983) 331-340
200. Jayasinghe U.W., Marsh H.W., and Bond N. A multilevel cross-classified modeling approach to peer-review of grant proposals. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 166A (2003) 279-300
201. Jayasinghe U.W., Marsh H.W., and Bond N.A. New reader trial approach to peer review in funding research grants: An Australian experiment. Scientometrics 69 (2006) 591-606
202. Johnson E.S., and Meade A.C. Developmental patterns of spatial ability: An early sex difference. Child Development 58 (1987) 725-740
203. Jordan T., Wurstenberg K., Heinze H., Peters M., and Jancke L. Women and men exhibit different cortical activation patterns during mental rotation tasks. Neuropsychologia 40 (2002) 2397-2408
204. Keach R. Benefits of chess for youth. In: Seirawan Y. (Ed). Winning chess strategies (1994), Microsoft Press. http://home1.gte.net/kaech/benefits.html Retrieved January 3, 2007, from http://home1.gte.net/kaech/benefits.html
205. Kelly A. Gender differences in pupil-teacher interactions: A meta-analytic review. Research in Education 39 (1988) 1-24
206. Kenney-Benson G.A., Pomerantz E.M., Ryan A.M., and Patrick H. Sex differences in mathematics performance: The role of children's approach to schoolwork. Developmental Psychology 42 (2006) 11-26
207. Kersh J., Casey B.M., and Mercer Young J.M. Research on spatial skills and block building in girls and boys: The relationship to later mathematics learning. In: Spodak B., and Saracho O. (Eds). Mathematics, science and technology in early childhood education: Contemporary perspectives on mathematics in early childhood education (2008), Information Age, Charlotte, NC 233-253
208. Kimball M.M. A new perspective on women's mathematics achievement. Psychological Bulletin 105 (1989) 198-214
209. Kimura D. Sex, sexual orientation and sex hormones influence human cognitive function. Current opinion in neurobiology 6 (1996) 259-263
210. Kimura D. Sex and cognition (2000), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA
211. Kimura D. Sex hormones influence human cognitive pattern. Neuroendocrinology Letters 23 Suppl. 4 (2002) 67-77
212. Kimura D. "Under-representation" or misrepresentation?. In: Ceci S., and Williams W. (Eds). Why aren't more women in science? Top researchers debate the evidence (2007), American Psychological Association, Washington, DC 39-46
213. Knickmeyer R.C., and Baron-Cohen S. Fetal testosterone and sex differences in typical social development and in autism. Journal of Child Neurology 21 (2006) 825-845
214. Kolen M.J., and Brennan R.L. Test equating (1995), Springer-Verlag, New York
215. Krendl A.C., Richeson J.A., Kelley W.M., and Heatherton T.F. The negative consequences of threat: An fMRI investigation of the neural mechanisms underlying women's underperformance in math. Psychological Science 19 (2008) 168-175
216. Kucian K., Loenneker T., Dietrich T., Martin E., and von Aster M. Gender differences in brain activation patterns during mental rotation and number related cognitive tasks. Psychological Science 47 (2005) 112-131
217. Kulp M.T. Relationship between visual motor integration skill and academic performance in kindergarten through third grade. Optometry and Vision Science 76 (1999) 159-163
218. Kuncel N., and Hezlett S. Standardized tests predict graduate student success. Science 315 (2007) 1080-1081
219. Kurdek L.A., and Sinclair R. Predicting reading and mathematics achievement in 4th-grade children from kindergarten readiness scores. Journal of Educational Psychology 93 (2001) 451-455
220. Lachance J.A., and Mazzocco M.M. A longitudinal analysis of sex differences in math and spatial skills in primary school age children. Learning and Individual Differences 16 (2006) 195-216
221. Lacreuse A., Kim C.B., Moss M.B., Rosene D.L., Killiany R.J., Moore T.L., et al. Behavioral Neuroscience 119 (2005) 118-126
222. Lamb. Completing school in Australia: Trends in the 1990s (Research Report No. 1) (1996), Australian Council for Educational Research, Melbourne, Australia
223. Leahey E., and Guo G. Gender differences in math trajectories. Social Forces 80 (2001) 713-732
224. Leboy P. Why women leave academic medicine. Inside Higher Education (2007, September 21). http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2007/09/21/women Retrieved June 2, 2008, from www.insidehighered.com/news/2007/09/21/women
225. Leinhardt G., Seewald A., and Engel M. Learning what's taught: Sex differences in instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology 71 (1979) 432-439
226. Leslie D.W. The reshaping of America's academic workforce. Research Dialogue 87 (2007, March 1), TIAA-CREF, New York. http://www.tiaa-crefinstitute.org/research/dialogue/The_Reshaping_of_Ame rica's_Academic_Workforce.html Retrieved May 20, 2008, from http://www.tiaa-crefinstitute.org/research/dialogue/The_Reshaping_of_Ame rica's_Academic_Workforce.html
227. Levine S.C., Huttenlocher J., Taylor A., and Langrock A. Early spatial differences. Developmental Psychology 35 (1999) 940-949
228. Levine S.C., Vasilyeva M., Lourenco S.F., Newcombe N.S., and Huttenlocher J. Socioeconomic status modifies the sex difference in spatial skill. Psychological Science 16 (2005) 841-845
229. Lewis D. Mathematics: Probing performance gaps. Science 308 (2005, June 24) 1871-1872
230. Linn M.C., and Hyde J.S. Gender, mathematics, and science. Educational Researcher 18 (1989) 17-27
231. Linn M.C., and Petersen A.C. Emergence and characterization of sex differences in spatial ability: A meta-analysis. Child Development 56 (1985) 1479-1498
232. Lippa R.A. Gender-related individual differences and the structure of vocational interests on the people-things dimension. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (1998) 996-1009
233. Lippa R.A. Subdomains of gender-related occupational interests: Do they form a cohesive bipolar M-F dimension?. Journal of Personality 73 (2005) 693-730
234. Lippa R.A. The gender reality hypothesis. American Psychologist 61 (2006) 639-640
235. LoBello S.G., and Gulgoz S. Factor analysis of the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Revised. Psychological Assessment 3 (1991) 130-132
236. Lohman, D., & Lakin, J. (in press). Consistencies in sex differences on the cognitive abilities test across countries, grades, test forms, and cohorts. British Journal of Educational Psychology
237. Long J. Measures of sex differences in scientific productivity. Social Forces 71 (1992) 159-178
238. Lubinski D. Introduction to the special section on cognitive abilities: 100 years after Spearman's (1904) "general intelligence, objectively determined and measured.". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 86 (2004) 96-111
239. Lubinski D., and Benbow C.P. Study of mathematically precocious youth after 35 years: Uncovering antecedents for math-science expertise. Perspectives in Psychological Science 1 (2006) 316-345
240. Lubinski D.S., and Benbow C.P. Sex differences in personal attributes for the development of scientific expertise. In: Ceci S.J., and Williams W.M. (Eds). Why aren't more women in science? Top researchers debate the evidence (2007), American Psychological Association, Washington, DC 79-100
241. Lubinski D., Benbow C.P., Shea D.L., Eftekhari-Sanjani H., and Halvorson B.J. Men and women at promise for scientific excellence: Similarity not dissimilarity. Psychological Science 12 (2001) 309-317
242. Lubinski D., Benbow C.P., Webb R.M., and Bleske-Rechek A. Tracking exceptional human talent over two decades. Psychological Science 17 (2006) 194-199
243. Lummis M., and Stevenson H.W. Gender differences in beliefs and achievement: A cross-cultural study. Developmental Psychology 26 (1990) 254-263
244. Lynn R. Racial differences in intelligence: A global perspective. The Mankind Quarterly 31 (1991) 255-296
245. Lynn R., and Irwing P. Sex differences on the Progressive Matrices: A meta-analysis. Intelligence 32 (2004) 481-498
246. Maccoby E., and Jacklin C. The psychology of sex differences (1974), Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA
247. Macintosh N.J. Sex differences and IQ. Journal of Biosocial Science 28 (1996) 559-571
248. Maguire E.A., Gadian D.G., Johnsrude I.S., Good C.D., Ashburner J., Frackowiak R.S.J., et al. Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 97 (2000) 4395-4403
249. Malas M.A., Dogan S., Hilal Evcil E., and Desdicioglu K. Fetal development of the hand, digits and digit ratio (2D:4D). Early Human Development 82 (2006) 469-475
250. Malouf M.A., Migeon C.J., Carson K.A., Petrucci L., and Wisniewski A.B. Cognitive outcome in adult women affected by CAH due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. Hormone Research 65 (2006) 142-150
251. Manning J.T. Digit ratio: A pointer to fertility, behaviour and health (2002), Rutgers University Press, London
252. Marsh H.W., Jayasinghe U.W., and Bond N.W. Improving the peer-review process for grant applications: Reliability, validity, bias, and generalizability. American Psychologist 63 (2008) 160-168
253. Martens A., Johns M., Greenberg J., and Schimel J. Combating stereotype threat: The effect of self-affirmation on women's intellectual performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 42 (2006) 236-243
254. Marulis, L., Warren, C., Uttal, D., & Newcombe, N. (2005, October). A meta-analysis: The effects of training on spatial cognition in children. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Cognitive Development Society, San Diego, CA.
255. Mason M.A., and Goulden M. Marriage and baby blues: Redefining gender equity and the academy. Annals of American Political and Social Scientist 596 (2004) 86-103
256. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. A study on the status of women faculty in science at MIT. MIT Faculty Newsletter 11 4 (1999, March). http://web.mit.edu/fnl/women/women.html Retrieved June 10, 2008, from http://web.mit.edu/fnl/women/women.html
257. Masters M.S., and Sanders B. Is the gender difference in mental rotation disappearing?. Behavior Genetics 23 (1993) 337-341
258. Mau W.-C., and Lynn R. Gender differences in homework and test scores in mathematics, reading and science at tenth and twelfth grade. Psychology, Evolution, & Gender 2 (2000) 119-125
259. Mauleón E., and Bordons M. Productivity, impact, and publication habits by gender in the area of materials science. Scientometrics 66 (2006) 199-218
260. McDowell J.M. Obsolescence of knowledge and career publication profiles: Some evidence of differences among fields in costs of interrupted careers. American Economics Review 72 (1982) 752-768
261. McFadden D., Loehlin J.C., Breedlove S.M., Lippa R.A., Manning J.T., and Rahman Q. A reanalysis of five studies on sexual orientation and the relative length of the 2nd and 4th fingers (the 2D:4D ratio). Archives of Sexual Behavior 34 (2005) 341-356
262. McGee M.G. Human spatial abilities: Psychometric studies and environmental, genetic, hormonal, and neurological influences. Psychological Bulletin 86 (1979) 889-917
263. McGuinness D., and Morley C. Sex differences in the development of visuo-spatial ability in pre-school children. Journal of Mental Imagery 15 (1991) 143-150
264. McIntyre R.B., Lord C.G., Gresky D.M., Ten Eyck L.L., Frye G.D.J., and Bond Jr. C.F. A social impact trend in the effects of role models on alleviating women's mathematics stereotype threat. Current Research in Social Psychology 10 9 (2005) 116-137
265. McKeever W.F., Rich D., Deyo R., and Conner R. Androgens and spatial ability: Failure to find a relationship between testosterone and ability measures. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 25 (1987) 438-440
266. McLaughlin T. Top Wall Street jobs still elude women, minorities (2006, December 27), Boston Globe, Boston. http://www.boston.com/news/education/higher/articles/2006/12/27/top_ wall_street_jobs_still_elude_women_minorities/ Retrieved September 19, 2008, from http://www.boston.com/news/education/higher/articles/2006/12/27/top_ wall_street_jobs_still_elude_women_minorities/
267. Mervis J. Education research: U.S. math tests don't line up. Science 315 (2007, March 16) 1485
268. Moffat S.D., and Hampson E. A curvilinear relationship between testosterone and spatial cognition in humans. Psychoneuroendocrinology 21 (1996) 323-337
269. Moffat S.D., Zonderman A., Metter E., Blackman M., Harman S., and Resnick S.M. Longitudinal assessment of serum free testosterone concentration predicts memory and cognitive status in men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 87 (2002) 5001-5007
270. Monastersky R. Editorial. The Chronicle of Higher Education 51 (2005, March 4) A1
271. Moore D.S., and Johnson S.P. Mental rotation in human infants: A sex difference. Psychological Science 19 (2008) 1063-1066
272. Morgan S.L., and Mehta J.D. Beyond the laboratory: Evaluating the survey evidence for disidentification explanation of Black-White differences in achievement. Sociology of Education 77 (2004) 82-101
273. Muller C. Gender differences in parental involvement and adolescents' mathematics achievement. Sociology of Education 71 (1998) 336-356
274. Mullis I.V.S., Martin M.O., Fierros E.G., and Goldberg A.L. Gender differences in achievement: IEA's Third International Mathematics and Science Study (2000), Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA International Study Center. Retrieved May 1, 2008, from timss.bc.edu/timss1995i/TIMSSPDF/T95_GChapter%201.pdf
275. Mullis I.V.S., Martin M.O., and Foy P. TIMSS 2003 international report on achievement in the mathematics cognitive domains: Findings from a developmental project (2005), TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Boston. http://timss.bc.edu/PDF/t03_download/T03MCOGDRPT.pdf Retrieved November 11, 2005, from http://timss.bc.edu/PDF/t03_download/T03MCOGDRPT.pdf
276. Murphy M.C., Steele C., and Gross J.J. Signaling threat: How situational cues affect women in mathematics, science, and engineering settings. Psychological Science 18 (2007) 879-885
277. National Science Foundation. Science and engineering indicators 2004: Elementary and secondary education, mathematics and science coursework and student achievement (2005), National Science Foundation, Arlington, VA
278. National Science Foundation. Science and engineering indicators 2006 (Vol. 1 NSB 06-01, Vol. 2, NSB 06-01A) (2006), National Science Foundation, Arlington, VA
279. National Science Foundation. Women, minorities, and persons with disabilities in science and engineering: 2007 (NSF 07-315) (2007)
280. Nations Report Card. Twelfth-grade NAEP mathematics achievement-level results (2007), National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, DC. http://nationsreportcard.gov/reading_math_grade12_2005/s0307 Retrieved February 22, 2007, from http://nationsreportcard.gov/reading_math_grade12_2005/s0307
281. Neave N., Menaged M., and Weightman D. Sex differences in cognition: The role of testosterone and sexual orientation. Brain and Cognition 41 (1999) 245-262
282. Nelson D., and Brammer C.N. Women in science: A top-down approach. Science 320 (2008) 1159-1160
283. Nettle D. Empathizing and systemizing: What are they, and what do they contribute to our understanding of psychological sex differences?. British Journal of Psychology 98 (2007) 237-255
284. Newcombe N.S. Taking science seriously: Straight thinking about spatial sex differences. In: Ceci S.J., and Williams W.M. (Eds). Why aren't more women in science? Eminent researchers debate the evidence on a key controversy of our time (2007), American Psychological Association, Washington, DC 69-78
285. Nie N.H., and Golde S.D. Does education really make you smarter?. Miller-McCune: Turning Research Into Solutions 1 2 (2008, June/July) 56-65
286. Nordvik H., and Amponsah B. Gender differences in spatial abilities and spatial activity among university students in an egalitarian educational system. Sex Roles 38 (1998) 1009-1023
287. Nuttall R.L., Casey M.B., and Pezaris E. Spatial ability as a mediator of gender differences on mathematics tests. In: Gallagher A.M., and Kaufman J.C. (Eds). Gender differences in mathematics: An integrative psychological approach (2005), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom 121-142
288. O'Boyle M.W., Cunnington R., Silk T.J., Vaughan D., Jackson G., Syngeniotis A., and Egan G.F. Mathematically gifted male adolescents activate a unique brain network during mental rotation. Cognitive Brain Research 25 (2005) 583-587
289. O'Brien T. Why do so few women reach the top of big law firms?. The New York Times (2006, March 19) B-1. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/19/business/yourmoney/19law.html?ex=13004 24400&en=f9b2756ce77b02bc&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss Retrieved January 4, 2007, from http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/19/business/yourmoney/19law.html?ex=13004 24400&en=f9b2756ce77b02bc&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss
290. Orsini A., Schiappa O., and Grossi D. Sex and cultural differences in children's spatial and verbal memory span. Perceptual and Motor Skills 53 (1981) 39-42
291. Papierno P.B., and Ceci S.J. Promoting equity or inducing disparity: The costs and benefits of widening achievement gaps through universal interventions. The Georgetown Public Policy Review 10 (2006) 1-15
292. Park G., Lubinski D., and Benbow C.P. Contrasting intellectual patterns for creativity in the arts and sciences: Tracking intellectually precocious youth over 25 years. Psychological Science 18 (2007) 948-952
293. Park G., Lubinski D., and Benbow C.P. Ability differences among people who have commensurate degrees matter for scientific creativity. Psychological Science 19 (2008) 957-961
294. Parsons J.E., Adler T.F., and Kaczala C.M. Socialization of achievement attitudes and beliefs: Parental influences. Child Development 53 (1982) 310-321
295. Penner A.M. International gender-item difficulty interactions in mathematics and science achievement tests. Journal of Educational Psychology 95 (2003) 650-655
296. Penner, A. M. (2005, August). A quantile regression approach to gender differences in international mathematics. Paper presented at the summer meeting of the International Sociological Association Research Committee on Social Stratification and Mobility, Los Angeles.
297. Penner, A. M. (in press). Gender differences in extreme mathematics achievement: An international perspective on biological and social factors. American Journal of Sociology
298. Penner A.M., and Paret M. Gender differences in mathematics achievement: Exploring the early grades and the extremes. Social Science Research 37 (2008) 239-253
299. Peters T., Laeng B., Latham K., Jackson M., Zaiyouna R., and Richardson C. A redrawn Vandenberg and Kuse Mental Rotation Test: Different versions and factors that affect performance. Brain and Cognition 28 (1995) 39-58
300. Pinker S. The blank slate (2002), Viking, New York
301. Pomerantz E.M., Altermatt E.R., and Saxon J.L. Making the grade but feeling distressed: Gender differences in academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology 94 (2002) 396-404
302. Preston A. Plugging leaks in the scientific workforce. Issues in Science & Technology (2004, Summer) 69-74
303. Pribyl J.R., and Bodner G.M. Spatial ability and its role in organic chemistry: A study of four organic courses. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 24 (1987) 229-240
304. Puts D.A., McDaniel M.A., Jordan C.L., and Breedlove S.M. Spatial ability and prenatal androgens: Meta-analyses of congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Archives of Sexual Behavior 37 (2008) 100-111
305. Quaiser-Pohl C., Geiser C., and Lehmann W. The relationship between computer-game preference, gender, and mental-rotation ability. Personality and Individual Differences 40 (2006) 609-619
306. Quinn D.M., and Spencer S.J. The interference of stereotype threat with women's generation of mathematical problem-solving strategies. Journal of Social Issues 57 (2001) 55-72
307. Quinn P.C., and Liben L.S. A sex difference in mental rotation in young infants. Psychological Science 19 (2008) 1067-1070
308. RAND. Is there gender bias in federal grant programs? (RAND Infrastructure, Safety, and Environment Research Brief RB-9147-NSF) (2005). http://rand.org/pubs/research_briefs/RB9147/RAND_RB9147.pdf Retrieved March 1, 2008, from http://rand.org/pubs/research_briefs/RB9147/RAND_RB9147.pdf
309. Rathbun A., West J., and Germino-Hausken E. From kindergarten through third grade: Children's beginning school experiences (2004), National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, DC
310. Ravitch D. Girls are beneficiaries of gender gap. The Wall Street Journal. Education (1998, December 17) A22
311. Raymond C.L., and Benbow C.P. Gender differences in mathematics: A function of parental support and student sex typing?. Developmental Psychology 22 (1986) 808-819
312. Reis S.M., and Park S. Gender differences in high-achieving students in math and science. Journal for the Education of the Gifted 25 (2001) 52-73
313. Resnick S.M., Berenbaum S.A., Gottesman I.I., and Bouchard T.J. Early hormonal influences on cognitive functioning in congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Developmental Psychology 22 (1986) 191-198
314. Rhoads S.E. Taking sex differences seriously (2004), Encounter Books, San Francisco
315. Rhode D.L. Speaking of sex: The denial of gender inequality (1997), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA
316. Ripa C.P.L., Johannsen T.H., Mortensen E.L., and Muller J. General cognitive functions, mental rotations ability, and handedness in adult females with CAH [Abstract]. Hormones and Behavior 44 (2003) 72
317. Robert M., and Chevrier E. Does men's advantage in mental rotation persist when real three-dimensional objects are either felt or seen?. Memory & Cognition 31 (2003) 1136-1145
318. Robinson N.M., Abbott R.D., Berninger V.W., and Busse J. The structure of abilities in math-precocious young children. Journal of Educational Psychology 88 (1996) 341-352
319. Robinson N.M., Abbott R.D., Berninger V.W., Busse J., and Mukhopadhyah S. Developmental changes in mathematics precocious young children. Gifted Child Quarterly 41 (1997) 145-158
320. Roof R.L., Zhang Q., Glasier M.M., and Stein D.G. Gender-specific impairment on Morris water maze task after entorhinal cortex lesion. Behavioural Brain Research 57 (1993) 47-51
321. Royer J.M., and Garofoli L.M. Cognitive contributions to sex differences in mathematics performance. In: Gallagher A.M., and Kaufman J.C. (Eds). Gender differences in mathematics (2005), Cambridge University Press, New York 99-120
322. Rudd E., Morrison E., Picciano J., and Nerad M. Finally equal footing for women in social science careers?. CIRGE Spotlight on Doctoral Education #1 (2008), University of Washington, Center for Innovation and Research in Graduate Education, Seattle, WA. http://www.cirge.washington.edu Retrieved July 23, 2008 from www.cirge.washington.edu
323. Rushton J.P. Cranial capacity related to sex, rank, and race in a stratified random sample of 6,325 U.S. military personnel. Intelligence 16 (1992) 401-413
324. Rushton J.P. The brain size IQ debate. Nature 360 6402 (1992) 292
325. Rushton J.P., and Ankney C.D. The evolution of brain size and intelligence. In: Platek S.M., and Shackelford T.K. (Eds). Evolutionary cognitive neuroscience (2007), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA 121-161
326. Rutter M., and Silberg J. Gene-environment interplay in relation to emotional and behavioral disturbance. Annual Review of Psychology 53 (2002) 463-490
327. Sackett P., Hardison C., and Cullen M. On interpreting stereotype threat as accounting for African American-White differences on cognitive tests. American Psychologist 59 (2004) 7-13
328. Sanders G. Testing predictions from the hunter-gatherer hypothesis2: Sex differences in the visual processing of near and far space. Evolutionary Psychology 5 (2007) 666-679
329. Sanders G., Bereczkei T., Csatho A., and Manning J. The ratio of the 2nd to 4th finger length predicts spatial ability in men but not women. Cortex 41 (2005) 789-795
330. Sanders G., Sjodin M., and deChastelaine M. On the elusive nature of sex differences in cognition: Hormonal influences contributing to within-sex variation. Hormones and Behavior 31 (2002) 145-152
331. Schattman L., and Sherwin B.B. Effects of the pharmacologic manipulation of testosterone on cognitive functioning in women with polycystic ovary syndrome: A randomized, placebo-controlled treatment study. Hormones and Behavior 51 (2007) 579-686
332. Scheibinger L. The history and philosophy of women in science: A review essay. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 12 (1987) 305-332
333. Schmader T., and Johns M. Converging evidence that stereotype threat reduces working memory capacity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85 (2003) 440-452
334. Schratz M.M. A developmental investigation of sex differences in spatial (visual-analytic) and mathematical skills in three ethnic groups. Developmental Psychology 14 (1978) 263-267
335. Seid J. 10 best-paid executives: They're all men (2006), CNN, New York. http://money.cnn.com/2006/10/03/news/newsmakers/mpwpay/index.htm Retrieved January 4, 2007, from. http://money.cnn.com/2006/10/03/news/newsmakers/mpwpay/index.htm
336. Serbin L.A., Zelkowitz P., Doyle A.B., Gold D., and Wheaton B. The socialization of sex-differentiated skills and academic performance: A mediational model. Sex Roles 23 (1990) 613-628
337. Shalala D.E., Agogino A.M., Bailyn L., Birgeneau R., Cauce A.M., Deangeles C., et al. Beyond bias and barriers: Fulfilling the potential of women in academic science and engineering (2007), National Academies Press, Washington, DC
338. Shayer M., Ginsberg D., and Coe R. 30 years on-A large anti-Flynn effect? The Piagetian test Volume & Heaviness norms 1975-2003. British Journal of Educational Psychology 77 (2007) 25-41
339. Shea D.L., Lubinski D., and Benbow C.P. Importance of assessing spatial ability in talented young adolescents: A 20-year longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology 93 (2001) 604-614
340. Shepard R.N., and Metzler J. Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects. Science 171 (1971) 701-703
341. Sherman J.A. The problem of sex differences in space perception and aspects of intellectual functioning. Psychological Review 74 (1967) 290-299
342. Shih M., Pittinsky T.L., and Ambady N. Stereotype susceptibility: Identity salience and shifts in quantitative performance. Psychological Science 10 (1999) 80-83
343. Siegel A.W., and Schadler M. The development of young children's spatial representations of their classroom. Child Development 48 (1977) 388-394
344. Slabbekoorn D., van Goozen S.H., Megens J., Gooren L.J.G., and Cohen-Kettenis P.T. Activating effects of cross-sex hormones on cognitive functioning. Psychoneuroendocrinology 24 (1999) 432-447
345. Sleet D.A. Differences in the social complexity of children's play choices. Perceptual and Motor Skills 60 (1985) 283-287
346. Sommers C.H. Why can't a woman be more like a man?. The American 2 2 (2008, March/April). http://www.american.com/archive/2008/march-april-magazine-contents/why-c an2019t-a-woman-be-more-like-a-man Retrieved September 19, 2008, from www.american.com/archive/2008/march-april-magazine-contents/why-can2019t -a-woman-be-more-like-a-man
347. Sorby S.A. A course in spatial visualization and its impact on the retention of female engineering students. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering 7 (2001) 153-172
348. Sorby S.A. Impact of changes in course methodologies on improving spatial skills. Journal of Geometry and Graphics 9 (2005) 99-105
349. Spelke E.S. Sex differences in intrinsic aptitude for mathematics and science? A critical review. American Psychologist 60 (2005) 950-958
350. Spelke E.S., and Grace A.D. Sex, mathematics, and science. In: Ceci S.J., and Williams W.M. (Eds). Why aren't more women in science? Eminent researchers debate the evidence on a key controversy of our time (2007), American Psychological Association, Washington, DC 57-68
351. Spencer S.J., Steele C.M., and Quinn D.M. Stereotype threat and women's mathematics performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 35 (1999) 4-28
352. Spinath F., Spinath B., and Plomin R. The nature and nurture of intelligence and motivation in the origins of sex differences in elementary school achievement. European Journal of Personality 22 (2008) 211-229
353. Sprafkin C., Serbin L.A., Denier C., and Connor J.M. Sex-differentiated play: Cognitive consequences and early interventions. In: Liss M.B. (Ed). Social and cognitive skills: Sex roles and children's play (1983), Academic Press, New York 167-192
354. Stafford R.E. Hereditary and environmental components of quantitative reasoning. Review of Educational Research 42 (1972) 183-201
355. Stanford University. No evidence of innate gender differences in mathematics and science, scholars assert. Stanford Report (2005, February 9), Author, Palo Alto, CA
356. Stanley J., Keating D.P., and Fox L.H. Mathematical talent: Discovery, description, and development (1974), The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD
357. Steele C.M. A threat is in the air: How stereotypes shape "intellectual identity and performance.". American Psychologist 52 (1997) 613-629
358. Steele C.M., and Aronson J. Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69 (1995) 797-811
359. Steinpreis R.E., Anders K.A., and Ritzke D. The impact of gender on the review of the CVs of job applicants and tenure candidates: A national empirical study. Sex Roles 41 (1999) 509-528
360. Strand S., Deary I.J., and Smith P. Sex differences in cognitive abilities test scores: A UK National Picture. British Journal of Educational Psychology 76 (2006) 463-480
361. Strenta A.C., Elliott R., Adair R., Matier M., and Scott J. Choosing and leaving science in highly selective institutions. Research in Higher Education 35 (1994) 513-547
362. Stricker L.J. Stereotype threat: A clarification. Science 312 (2006) 1310-1312
363. Stricker L.J., and Ward W.C. Stereotype threat, inquiring about test takers' ethnicity and gender, and standardized test performance. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 34 (2004) 665-693
364. Stricker L.J., and Ward W.C. Stereotype threat in applied settings re-examined: A reply. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 38 (2008) 1656-1663
365. Stumpf H., and Stanley J.C. Gender-related differences on the College Board's advanced placement and achievement tests, 1982-1992. Journal of Educational Psychology 88 (1996) 353-364
366. Stumpf H., and Stanley J.C. Stability and change in gender-related differences on the College Board advanced placement and achievement tests. Current Directions in Psychological Science 7 (1998) 192-196
367. Summers L.H. Remarks on diversifying the science and engineering workforce (2005, January 14), National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. http://www.president.harvard.edu/speeches/2005/nber.html Retrieved July 29, 2006, from http://www.president.harvard.edu/speeches/2005/nber.html
368. Swiatek M.A., Lupkowski-Shoplik A., and O'Donoghue C.C. Gender differences in above-level EXPLORE scores of gifted third through sixth graders. Journal of Educational Psychology 92 (2000) 718-723
369. Tartre L.A. Spatial skills, gender, and mathematics. In: Fennema E.H., and Leder G.C. (Eds). Mathematics and gender (1990), Teachers College Press, New York 27-59
370. Tendick F., Downes M., Goktekin T., Cavusoglu M., Feygin D., Wu X., et al. A virtual environment testbed for training laparoscopic surgical skills. Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments 9 (2000) 236-255
371. Terlecki M.S., and Newcombe N.S. How important is the digital divide? The role of computer and videogame usage to gender differences in mental rotation. Sex Roles 53 (2005) 433-441
372. Terlecki M.S., Newcombe N.S., and Little M. Durable and generalized effects of spatial experience on mental rotation: Gender differences in growth patterns. Applied Cognitive Psychology 22 (2007) 996-1013
373. Thilers P., MacDonald S.W.S., and Herlitz A. The association between endogenous free testosterone and cognitive performance: A population-based study. Psychoneuroendocrinology 31 (2006) 565-576
374. Thurstone L., and Thurstone T. The primary mental abilities test (1962), Science Research Associates, Chicago
375. Trix F., and Psenka C. Exploring the color of glass: Letters of recommendation for female and male medical faculty. Discourse & Society 14 (2003) 191-220
376. Uttal D.H., Gregg V.H., Tan L.S., Chamberlain M., and Sines A. Connecting the dots: Children's use of a systematic figure to facilitate mapping and search. Developmental Psychology 37 (2001) 338-350
377. Valian V. Why so slow? The advancement of women (1998), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA
378. Valian V. Women at the top in science-and elsewhere. In: Ceci S.J., and Williams W.M. (Eds). Why aren't more women in science? Top researchers debate the evidence (2007), American Psychological Association, Washington, DC 27-37
379. van Anders S., and Hampson E. Testing the prenatal androgen hypothesis: Measuring digit ratios, sexual orientation, and spatial abilities in adults. Hormones and Behavior 47 (2005) 92-98
380. Van Goozen S.H.M., Cohen-Kettenis P.T., Gooren L.J.G., Frijda N.H., and Van de Poll N.E. Activating effects of androgens on cognitive performance. Neuropsychologia 32 (1994) 1153-1157
381. Van Goozen S.H.M., Cohen-Kettenis P.T., Gooren L.J.G., Frijda N.H., and Van de Poll N.E. Gender differences in behaviour: Activating effects of cross-sex hormones. Psychoneuroendocrinology 20 (1995) 343-363
382. Vandenberg S.G. Sources of variation in performance of spatial tasks. In: Eliot J., and Salkind N.J. (Eds). Children's spatial development (1975), Charles C Thomas, Springfield, IL 141-163
383. Vandenberg S.G., and Kuse A.R. Mental rotations, a group test of three-dimensional spatial visualization. Perceptual and Motor Skills 47 (1978) 599-604
384. Vasta R., Knott J.A., and Gaze C.E. Can spatial training erase the gender differences on the water-level task?. Psychology of Women Quarterly 20 (1996) 549-567
385. Voyer D., Boyer S., and Bryden M.P. Magnitude of sex differences in spatial abilities: A meta-analysis and consideration of critical variables. Psychological Bulletin 117 (1995) 250-270
386. Waber D.P. Sex differences in mental abilities, hemispheric lateralization, and rate of physical growth at adolescence. Developmental Psychology 13 (1977) 29-38
387. Waber D.P., DeMoor C., Forbs P., Almi C., Botteron G., Leonard D., et al. The NIH MRI study of normal brain development: Performance of a population based sample of healthy children aged 6 to 18 years on a neuropsychological battery. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 13 (2007) 729-746
388. Wai J., Lubinski D., and Benbow C.P. Creativity and occupational accomplishments among intellectually precocious youths: An age 13 to age 33 longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology 97 (2005) 484-492
389. Wai, J., Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P. (in press). Spatial ability for STEM domains: Aligning over 50 years of cumulative psychological knowledge solidifies its importance. Journal of Educational Psychology
390. Wainer H., and Steinberg L.S. Sex differences in performance on the Mathematics section of the Scholastic Aptitude Test: A bidirectional validity study. Harvard Educational Review 62 (1992) 323-336
391. Watson N.V., and Kimura D. Nontrivial sex differences in throwing and intercepting: Relation to psychometrically-defined spatial functions. Personality and Individual Differences 12 (1991) 375-385
392. Webb R.M., Lubinski D., and Benbow C.P. Mathematically facile adolescents with math-science aspirations: New perspectives on their educational and vocational development. Journal of Educational Psychology 94 (2002) 785-794
393. Webb R.M., Lubinski D., and Benbow C.P. Spatial ability: A neglected dimension in talent searches for intellectually precocious youth. Journal of Educational Psychology 99 (2007) 397-420
394. Webb T.J., O'Hara B., and Freckleton R. Does double-blind review benefit female authors?. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 23 (2008) 351-353
395. Weinberger, C. J. (2005, January). Is the science and engineering workforce drawn from the far upper tail of the math ability distribution? Paper presented at the National Bureau of Economic Research conference on diversifying the science & engineering workforce, Cambridge, MA.
396. Wenneras C., and Wold A. Nepotism and sexism in peer review. Nature 387 (1997) 341-343
397. Williams C.L., and Meck W.H. The organizational effects of gonadal steroids on sexually dimorphic spatial ability. Psychoneuroendocrinology 16 (1991) 155-176
398. Williams T.J., Pepitone M.E., Christensen S.E., Cooke B.M., Huberman A.D., Breedlove N.J., et al. Finger-length ratios and sexual orientation. Nature 404 (2000) 455-456
399. Wise L.L., Steel L., and MacDonald C. Origins and career consequences of sex differences in high school mathematics achievement (Report to the National Institute of Education on its Grant NIE-G-78-001) (1979), American Institutes for Research, Palo Alto, CA
400. Wolfgang C.H., Stannard L.L., and Jones I. Block play performance among preschoolers as a predictor of later school achievement in mathematics. Journal of Research in Childhood Education 15 (2001) 173-180
401. Xie Y., and Shauman K.A. Women in science: Career processes and outcomes (2003), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA
402. Young J.W. Gender bias in predicting college academic performance: A new approach using item response theory. Journal of Educational Measurement 28 (1991) 37-47
403. Young J.W. Differential prediction of college grades by gender and by ethnicity: A replication study. Educational and Psychological Measurement 54 (1994) 1022-1029