A Threat in the Air: How Stereotypes Shape Intellectual Identity and Performance

American Psychologist

Volumn 52, Issue 6, 1997, Pages 613-629

  Steele, Claude M ^a  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACHIEVEMENT; ADOLESCENT; AFRICAN AMERICAN; ARTICLE; CHILD; FEMALE; HUMAN; INTELLIGENCE; MALE; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; STUDENT;

ACHIEVEMENT; ADOLESCENT; AFRICAN AMERICANS; CHILD; FEMALE; HUMANS; INTELLIGENCE; MALE; PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY; SOCIAL IDENTIFICATION; STEREOTYPING; STUDENTS; WOMEN;

EID: 0031155092     PISSN: 0003066X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.52.6.613     Document Type: Article

References (90)

1. Adelman, C. (1991). Women at thirty-something: Paradoxes of attainment. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Research and Development.
2. Alexander, K. L., & Entwistle, D. R. (1988). Achievement in the first two years of school: Patterns and processes. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 53(2).
3. Allport, G. (1954). The nature of prejudice. New York: Doubleday.
4. American Council on Education. (1995-1996). Minorities in higher education. Washington, DC: Office of Minority Concerns.
5. Aronson, J. (1996). Advocating the malleability of intelligence as an intervention to increase college grade performance. Unpublished manuscript, University of Texas.
6. Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavior change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.
7. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of action: A social-cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
8. Baumeister, R. F., & Showers, C. J. (1984). A review of paradoxical performance effects: Choking under pressure in sports and mental tests. European Journal of Social Psychology, 16, 361-383.
9. Benbow, C. P., & Arjmand, O. (1990). Predictions of high academic achievement in mathematics and science by mathematically talented students: A longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 430-441.
10. Benbow, C. P., & Stanley, J. C. (1980). Sex differences in mathematical ability: Fact or artifact? Science, 210, 1262-1264.
11. Benbow, C. P., & Stanley, J. C. (1983). Sex differences in mathematical reasoning ability: More facts. Science, 222, 1029-1031.
12. Bettelheim, B. (1943). Individual and mass behavior in extreme situations. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 38, 417-452.
13. Brill, A. A. (Ed.). (1938). The basic writings of Sigmund Freud. New York: Random House.
14. Burton, N. W., & Jones, L. V. (1982). Recent trends in achievement levels of Black and White youth. Educational Researcher, 11, 10-17.
15. Carter, S. (1991). Reflections of an affirmative action baby. New York: Basic Books.
16. Clark, K. B. (1965). Dark ghetto: Dilemmas of social power. New York: Harper & Row.
17. Clark, K. B., & Clark, M. K. (1939). The development of consciousness of self and the emergence of racial identification of Negro school children. Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 591-599.
18. Cohen, G., Steele, C. M., & Ross, L. (1997). Giving feedback across the racial divide: Overcoming the effects of stereotypes. Unpublished manuscript, Stanford University.
19. Coleman, J. S., Campbell, E. Q., Hobson, C. J., McPartland, J., Mood, A. M., Weinfield, F. D., & York, R. L. (1966). Equality of educational opportunity. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
20. Comer, J. (1988, November). Educating poor minority children. Scientific American, 259, 42.
21. Cooley, C. H. (1956). Human nature and the social order. New York: Free Press.
22. Cose, E. (1993). The rage of a privileged class. New York: Harper Collins.
23. Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989). Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review, 96, 608-630.
24. Cross, W. E., Jr. (1991). Shades of black: Diversity in African-American identity. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
25. Culotta, E., & Gibbons, A. (Eds.). (1992, November 13). Minorities in science [Special section]. Science, 258, 1176-1232.
26. DeBoer, G. (1984). A study of gender effects in science and mathematics course-taking behavior among students who graduated from college in the late 1970's. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 21, 95-103.
27. Demo, D. H., & Parker, K. D. (1987). Academic achievement and self-esteem among Black and White college students. Journal of Social Psychology, 4, 345-355.
28. Dweck, C. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41, 1040-1048.
29. Eccles, J. S. (1987). Gender roles and women's achievement-related decisions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 11, 135-172.
30. Eccles-Parsons, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectations, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motivation (pp. 75-146). New York: Freeman.
31. Erikson, E. (1956). The problem of ego-identity. Journal of the American Analytical Association, 4, 56-121.
32. Fanon, F. (1967). Black skins, white masks. New York: Grove Press. (Original work published 1952)
33. Frable, D., Blackstone, T., & Sherbaum, C. (1990). Marginal and mindful: Deviants in social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Behavior, 59, 140-149.
34. Geen, R. G. (1991). Social motivation. Annual Review of Psychology, 42, 377-399.
35. Gerard, H. (1983). School desegregation: The social science role. American Psychologist, 38, 869-878.
36. Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. New York: Touchstone.
37. Grier, W. H., & Coobs, P. M. (1968). Black rage. New York: Basic Books.
38. Hare, B. R., & Costenell, L. A. (1985). No place to run, no place to hide: Comparative status and future prospects of Black boys. In M. B. Spencer, G. K. Brookins, & W. Allen (Eds.), Beginnings: The social and affective development of Black children (pp. 201-214). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
39. Herrnstein, R. A., & Murray, C. (1994). The bell curve. New York: Grove Press.
40. Hewitt, N. M., & Seymour, E. (1991). Factors contributing to high attrition rates among science and engineering undergraduate majors. Unpublished report to the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation.
41. Howard, J., & Hammond, R. (1985, September 9). Rumors of inferiority. New Republic, 72, 18-23.
42. Hyde, J. S., Fennema, E., & Lamon, S. J. (1990). Gender differences in mathematics performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 139-155.
43. James, W. (1950). The principles of psychology (Vol. 1). New York: Dover. (Original work published 1890)
44. Jensen, A. R. (1969). How much can we boost IQ and scholastic achievement? Harvard Educational Review, 39, 1-123.
45. Jensen, A. R. (1980). Bias in mental testing. New York: Free Press.
46. Johnides, J., von Hippel, W., Lerner, J. S., & Nagda, B. (1992, August). Evaluation of minority retention programs: The undergraduate research opportunities program at the University of Michigan. Paper presented at the 100th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC.
47. Jones, E. E., Farina, A., Hastorf, A. H., Markus, H., Miller, O. T., & Scott, R. A. (1984). Social stigma: The psychology of marked relationships. New York: Freeman.
48. Jones, E. E., & Nisbett, R. E. (1972). The actor and the observer: Divergent perceptions of the causes of behavior. In E. E. Jones, D. E. Kanouse, H. H. Kelley, R. E. Nisbett, S. Valins, & B. Weiner (Eds.), Attribution: Perceiving the causes of behavior (pp. 79-94). Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.
49. Jones, J. M. (1997). Prejudice and racism (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
50. Kamin, L. (1974). The science and politics of I.Q. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
51. Kardiner, A., & Ovesey, L. (1951). The mark of oppression: Explorations in the personality of the American Negro. New York: Norton.
52. Kleck, R. E., & Strenta, A. (1980). Perceptions of the impact of negatively valued physical characteristics on social interactions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 861-873.
53. Lepper, M. R., Woolverton, M., Mumme, D. L., & Gurtner, J.-L. (1993). Motivational techniques of expert human tutors: Lessons for the design of computer-based tutors. In S. P. Lajoie & S. J. Derry (Eds.), Computers as cognitive tools (pp. 75-104). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
54. Levin, J., & Wyckoff, J. (1988). Effective advising: Identifying students most likely to persist and succeed in engineering. Engineering Education, 78, 178-182.
55. Lewin, K. (1941). Resolving social conflict. New York: Harper & Row.
56. Linn, M.C. (1994). The tyranny of the mean: Gender and expectations. Notices of the American Mathematical Society, 41, 766-769.
57. Lord, C. G., & Saenz, D. S. (1985). Memory deficits and memory surfeits: Differential cognitive consequences of tokenism for tokens and observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 918-926.
58. Lovely, R. (1987, February). Selection of undergraduate majors by high ability students: Sex difference and attrition of science majors. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for the Study of Higher Education, San Diego, CA.
59. Major, B., Spencer, S., Schmader, T., Wolfe, C., & Crocker, J. (in press). Coping with negative stereotypes about intellectual performance: The role of psychological disengagement. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.
60. Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, self, and society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
61. Miller, L. S. (1995). An American imperative: Accelerating minority educational advancement. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
62. Miller, L. S. (1996, March). Promoting high academic achievement among non-Asian minorities. Paper presented at the Princeton University Conference on Higher Education, Princeton, NJ.
63. National Center for Educational Statistics. (1992). National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988: First follow-up. Student component data file user's manual. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement.
64. National Coalition of Advocates for Students Report. (1988, December 12). The Ann Arbor News, pp. A1, A4.
65. Nettles, M. T. (1988). Toward undergraduate student equality in American higher education. New York: Greenwood.
66. Ogbu, J. (1986). The consequences of the American caste system. In U. Neisser (Ed.), The school achievement of minority children: New perspectives (pp. 19-56). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
67. Osborne, J. (1994). Academics, self-esteem, and race: A look at the underlying assumption of the disidentification hypothesis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 449-455.
68. Porter, J. R., & Washington, R. E. (1979). Black identity and self-esteem: A review of the studies of Black self-concept, 1968-1978. Annual Review of Sociology, 5, 53-74.
69. Ramist, L., Lewis, C., & McCamley-Jenkins, L. (1994). Student group differences in predicting college grades: Sex, language, and ethnic groups (College Board Report No. 93-1, ETS No. 94.27). New York: College Entrance Examination Board.
70. Rosenberg, M. (1979). Conceiving self. New York: Basic Books.
71. Ross, L. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortions in the attribution process. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 10, pp. 337-384). New York: Academic Press.
72. Sarason, I. G. (1980). Introduction to the study of test anxiety. In I. G. Sarason (Ed.), Test anxiety: Theory, research, and applications (pp. 57-78). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
73. Sartre, J. P. (1965). Anti-Semite and Jew. New York: Schocken Books. (Original work published 1946)
74. Schlenker, B. R., & Weigold, M. F. (1989). Goals and the self-identification process: Constructing desired identities. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Goals concepts in personality and social psychology (pp. 243-290). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
75. Simmons, R. G., Brown, L., Bush, D. M., & Blyth, D. A. (1978). Self-esteem and achievement of Black and White adolescents. Social Problems, 26, 86-96.
76. Solomon, R. P. (1992). Forging a separatist culture. Albany: State University of New York Press.
77. Spencer, S., Steele, C. M., & Quinn, D. (1997). Under suspicion of inability: Stereotype threat and women's math performance. Manuscript submitted for publication.
78. Steele, C. M. (1975). Name-calling and compliance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 361-369.
79. Steele, C. M. (1988). The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 261-302). New York: Academic Press.
80. Steele, C. M. (1992, April). Race and the schooling of Black Americans. The Atlantic Monthly, pp. 68-78.
81. Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 797-811.
82. Steele, S. (1990). The content of our character. New York: St. Martin's Press.
83. Strenta, A. C., Elliott, R., Adair, R., Scott, J., & Matier, M. (1993). Choosing and leaving science in highly selective institutions. Unpublished report to the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation.
84. Tesser, A. (1988). Toward a self-evaluation maintenance model of social behavior. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 181-227). New York: Academic Press.
85. Treisman, U. (1985). A study of mathematics performance of Black students at the University of California, Berkeley. Unpublished report.
86. Vars, F. E., & Bowen, W. G. (1997). SAT scores, race, and academic performance: New evidence from academically successful colleges. Unpublished manuscript.
87. Ware, N. C., & Dill, D. (1986, March). Persistence in science among mathematically able male and female college students with pre-college plans for a scientific major. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco.
88. Ware, N. C., Steckler, N. A., & Leserman, J. (1985). Undergraduate women: Who chooses a science major? Journal of Higher Education, 56, 73-84.
89. Wine, J. (1971). Test anxiety and direction of attention. Psychological Bulletin, 76, 92-104.
90. Wylie, R. (1979). The self-concept (Vol. 2). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.