Stereotype Threat and Women's Math Performance

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Volumn 35, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 4-28

  Spencer, Steven J ^a   Steele, Claude M ^b   Quinn, Diane M ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WATERLOO   (Canada)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0033477763     PISSN: 00221031     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1006/jesp.1998.1373     Document Type: Article

References (73)

1. Adorno, T. W., Frenkel-Brunswick, E., Levinson, D. J., & Sanford, R. N. (1950). The authoritarian personality. New York: Harper.
2. Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.
3. Armstrong, J. M. (1981). Achievement and participation of women in mathematics: Results from two national surveys. Journal of Research in Mathematics Education, 12, 356-372.
4. Ashmore, R. D., & Del Boca, F. K. (1981). Conceptual approaches to stereotypes and stereotyping. In D. L. Hamilton (Ed.), Cognitive process in stereotyping and intergroup behavior (pp. 1-35). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
5. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
6. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
7. Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
8. Baumeister, R. F., & Showers, C. J. (1986). A review of paradoxical performance effects: Choking under pressure in sports and mental tests. European Journal of Social Psychology, 16, 361-383.
9. Benbow, C. P., & Stanley, J. C. (1980). Sex differences in mathematical ability: Fact or artifact? Science, 210, 1262-1264.
10. Benbow, C. P., & Stanley, J. C. (1983). Sex differences in mathematical reasoning ability: More facts. Science, 222, 1029-1031.
11. Brewer, M. B. (1979). In-group bias in the minimal intergroup situation: A cognitive-motivational analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 307-324.
12. Constantinople, A., Cornelius, R., & Gray, J. (1988). The chilly climate: Fact or artifact? Journal of Higher Education, 59, 527-550.
13. Crandall, (1969). Sex differences in expectancy of intellectual and academic reinforcement. In C. P. Smith (Ed.), Achievement-related behaviors in children. New York: Russell Sage Found.
14. Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989). Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review, 96, 608-630.
15. Croizet, J. C., & Claire, T. (1998). Extending the concept of stereotype threat to social class: The intellectual underperformance of students from low socioeconomic backgrounds. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 588-594.
16. Devine, P. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5-18.
17. Douvan, E. (1976). The role of models in women's professional development. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 1, 5-20.
18. Duncan, B. L. (1976). Differential social perception and attribution of intergroup violence: Testing the lower limits of stereotyping of blacks. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 590-598.
19. Dweck, C. S., & Bush, E. (1976). Sex differences in learned helplessness: I. Differential debilitation with peer and adult evaluations. Developmental Psychology, 12, 147-156.
20. Dweck, C. S., & Gilliard, D. (1975). Expectancy statements as determinants of reactions to failure: Sex differences in persistence and expectancy change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 1077-1084.
21. Eccles, J. S. (1984). Sex differences in achievement patterns. In Sonderegger (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (Vol. 32). Lincoln, NE: Univ. of Nebraska Press.
22. Eccles, J. S. (1987). Gender roles and women's achievement-related decisions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 11, 135-172.
23. Eccles, J. S., & Jacobs, J. E. (1986). Social forces shape math attitudes and performance. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 11, 367-380.
24. Eccles, J. S., Jacobs, J. E., & Harold, R. E. (1990). Gender role stereotypes, expectancy effects, and parents' socialization of gender differences. Journal of Social Issues, 46, 183-201.
25. Eccles Parsons, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectations, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.). Achievement and achievement motivation (pp. 75-146). New York: Freeman.
26. Eccles Parsons, J. S., & Ruble, D. N. (1977). The development of achievement-related expectancies. Child Development, 48, 1075-1079.
27. Educational Testing Service (1987a). Practicing to take the GRE General Exam. Princeton, NJ Educational Testing Service.
28. Educational Testing Service (1987b). Practicing to take the GRE Mathematics Test. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
29. Ehrlich, H. J. (1973). The social psychology of prejudice: A systematic theoretical review and propositional inventory of the American social psychological study of prejudice. New York: Wiley.
30. Ethington, C. A., & Wolfe, L. M. (1984). Sex differences in a causal model of mathematics achievement. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 15, 361-377.
31. Fennema, E. H. (1981). Women and mathematics: Does research matter? Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 12, 380-385.
32. Fennema, E. H., & Sherman, J. A. (1977). Sex-related differences in mathematics achievement, spatial visualization, and sociocultural factors. American Educational Research Journal, 14, 51-71.
33. Fennema, E. H., & Sherman, J. A. (1978). Sex-related differences in mathematics achievement and related factors: A further study. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 9, 189-203.
34. Frable, D. E. (1989). Marginal and mindful: Deviants in social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 140-149.
35. Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (1986). The aversive form of racism. In J. F. Dovidio, & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.) Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (pp. 61-90). New York: Academic Press.
36. Geen, R. G. (1991). Social motivation. Annual Review of Psychology, 42, 377-399.
37. Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. New York: Touchstone.
38. Hamilton, D. L. (1979). A cognitive-attributional analysis of stereotyping. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.) Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 12, pp. 53-84). New York: Academic Press.
39. Hackett, G., Esposito, D., & O'Halloran, M. S. (1989). The relationship of role model influence to the career salience and educational and career plans of college women. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 35, 164-180.
40. Hewitt, N. M., & Seymour, E. (1991). Factors contributing to high attrition rates among science and engineering undergraduate majors. Report to the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation.
41. Hilton, T. L., & Lee, V. E. (1988). Student interest and persistence in science: Changes in the educational pipeline in the last decade. Journal of Higher Education, 59, 510-526.
42. Hyde, J. S., Fennema, E. H., & Lamon, S. J. (1990). Gender differences in mathematics performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 139-155.
43. Jacobs, J. E., & Eccles, J. S. (1985). Gender differences in math ability: The impact of media reports on parents. Educational Researcher, 14, 20-25.
44. Jones, E. E., Farina, A., Hastorf, A. H., Markus, H., Miller, D. T., & Scott, R. A. (1984). Social Stigma. New York: Freeman.
45. Jordan (1968). White over black: American attitudes toward the Negro. Chapel Hill, NC: Univ. of North Carolina Press.
46. Katz, D., & Braly, K. W. (1933). Racial stereotypes of 100 college students. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 28, 28-290.
47. Kimball, M. M. (1989). A new perspective on women's math achievement. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 198-214.
48. Leinhardt, G., Seewald, A., & Engel, M. (1979). Learning what's taught: Sex differences in instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 432-439.
49. Levine, D. U., & Ornstein, A. C. (1983). Sex differences in ability and achievement. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 16, 62-72.
50. Major, B., Spencer, S. J., Schmader, T., Wolfe, C., & Crocker, J. (1998). Coping with negative stereotypes about intellectual performance: The role of psychological disengagement. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 34-50.
51. Markus, H. (1977). Self-schemata and processing information about the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35.
52. Meece, J. L., Eccles, J. S., Kaczala, C. M., Goff, S. B., & Futterman, R. (1982). Sex differences in math achievement: Towards a model of academic choice. Psychological Bulletin, 91, 324-348.
53. Peterson, P. L., & Fennema, E. (1985). Effective teaching, student engagement in classroom activities, and sex-related differences in learning mathematics. American Educational Research Journal, 22, 309-335.
54. Rokeach, M., & Mezei, L. (1966). Race and shared beliefs as factors in social choice. Science, 151, 167-172.
55. Rothbart, M. (1981). Memory processes and social beliefs. In D. L. Hamilton (Ed.) Cognitive processes in stereotyping and intergroup behavior. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
56. Sagar, H. A., & Schofield, J. W. (1980). Racial and behavioral cues in black and white children's perceptions of ambiguously aggressive cues. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 590-598.
57. Sarason, I. G. (1972). Experimental approaches to test anxiety: Attention and the uses of information. In Spielberger, C. D. (Ed.), Anxiety: Current trends in theory and research (Vol. 2). New York: Academic Press.
58. Schlenker, B. R., & Leary, M. R. (1982). Social anxiety and self-presentation: A conceptualization and model. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 641-669.
59. Sherman, J. A., & Fennema, E. H. (1977). The study of mathematics by high school girls and boys: Related variables. American Educational Research Journal, 14, 159-168.
60. Smith, E. R., & Zarate, M. A. (1992). Exemplar-based model of social judgment. Psychological Review, 99, 3-21.
61. Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., & Lushene, R. E. (1970). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologist Press.
62. Steele, C. M. (1992). Race and the schooling of Black Americans. Atlantic Monthly, April, 68-78.
63. Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52, 613-629.
64. Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Contending with a stereotype: African-American intellectual test performance and stereotype threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 797-811.
65. Steele, S. (1990). The content of our character: A new vision of race in America. New York: St. Martin's Press.
66. Steinkamp, M. W., & Maehr, M. L. (1983). Affect, ability, and science achievement: A quantitative synthesis of correlation research. Review of Educational Research, 53, 369-396.
67. Swim, J. K. (1994). Perceived versus meta-analytic effect sizes: An assessment of the accuracy of gender stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 21-36.
68. Swim, J. K., & Stangor, C. (1998). Prejudice: The target's perspective. New York: Academic Press.
69. Tajfel, H. (Ed.). (1978). Differentiation between social groups. New York: Academic Press.
70. Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (1989). Test anxiety in elementary and secondary school students. Educational Psychologist, 24, 159-183.
71. Wigfield, A., & Meece, J. (1988). Math anxiety in elementary and secondary school students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 210-216.
72. Wine, J. (1971). Test anxiety and direction of attention. Psychological Bulletin, 76, 92-104.
73. Yee, D. K., & Eccles, J. S. (1988). Parent perceptions and attributions for children's math achievement. Sex Roles, 19, 317-333.