MicroRNAs - Micro in size but macro in function

FEBS Journal

Volumn 275, Issue 20, 2008, Pages 4929-4944

  Singh, Sunit K ^a,b   Pal Bhadra, Manika ^c   Girschick, Hermann J ^b   Bhadra, Utpal ^a  

^a CENTRE FOR CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY   (India)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WÜRZBURG   (Germany)

^c INDIAN INSTITUTE OF CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY   (India)

Author keywords

Dicer; MicroRNA; miRNA and cancer; miRNA and disease; miRNA and therapeutics; miRNA biogenesis; miRNA function; miRNA inhibitors; Small RNA

Indexed keywords

MICRORNA;

ADIPOGENESIS; APOPTOSIS; BIOGENESIS; DEVELOPMENTAL GENETICS; GENE CONTROL; HEMATOPOIESIS; HUMAN; INFECTION; MALIGNANT NEOPLASTIC DISEASE; METABOLISM; NONHUMAN; ONCOGENE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RNA ANALYSIS; RNA BINDING; TUMOR SUPPRESSOR GENE; UNTRANSLATED REGION;

ANIMALS; DISEASE; GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION; GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT; HUMANS; MICRORNAS;

EID: 52449115141     PISSN: 1742464X     EISSN: 17424658     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2008.06624.x     Document Type: Review

References (140)

1. Zamore PD Haley B (2005) Ribo-gnome: the big world of small RNAs. Science 309, 1519 1524.
2. Backofen R, Bernhart SH, Flamm C, Fried C, Fritzsch G, Hackermuller J, Hertel J, Hofacker IL, Missal K, Mosig A et al. (2007) RNAs everywhere: genome-wide annotation of structured RNAs. J Exp Zool B 308, 1 25.
3. Williams L, Carles CC, Osmont KS Fletcher JC (2005) A database analysis method identifies an endogenous trans-acting short-interfering RNA that targets the Arabidopsis ARF2, ARF3, and ARF4 genes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102, 9703 9708.
4. Bartel DP (2004) MicroRNAs: genomics, biogenesis, mechanism, and function. Cell 116, 281 297.
5. Lee RC, Feinbaum RL Ambros V (1993) The C. elegans heterochronic gene lin-4 encodes small RNAs with antisense complementarity to lin-14. Cell 75, 843 854.
6. Wightman B, Ha I Ruvkun G (1993) Posttranscriptional regulation of the heterochronic gene lin-14 by lin-4 mediates temporal pattern formation in C. elegans. Cell 75, 855 862.
7. Reinhart BJ, Slack FJ, Basson M, Pasquinelli AE, Bettinger JC, Rougvie AE, Horvitz HR Ruvkun G (2000) The 21-nucleotide let-7 RNA regulates developmental timing in Caenorhabditis elegans. Nature 403, 901 906.
8. Griffiths-Jones S, Grocock RJ, van Dongen S, Bateman A Enright AJ (2006) miRBase: microRNA sequences, targets and gene nomenclature. Nucleic Acids Res 34, D140 D144.
9. Robins H, Li Y Padgett RW (2005) Incorporating structure to predict microRNA targets. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102, 4006 4009.
10. Mourelatos Z, Dostie J, Paushkin S, Sharma A, Charroux B, Abel L, Rappsilber J, Mann M Dreyfuss G (2002) miRNPs: a novel class of ribonucleoproteins containing numerous microRNAs. Genes Dev 16, 720 728.
11. Rodriguez A, Griffiths-Jones S, Ashurst JL Bradley A (2004) Identification of mammalian microRNA host genes and transcription units. Genome Res 14, 1902 1910.
12. Kohler A Hurt E (2007) Exporting RNA from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. Nat Rev. Mol Cell Biol 10, 761 773.
13. Borchert GM, Lanier W Davidson BL (2006) RNA polymerase III transcribes human microRNAs. Nat Struct Mol Biol 13, 1097 1101.
14. Cummins JM, He Y, Leary RJ, Pagliarini R, Diaz LA Jr., Sjoblom T, Barad O, Bentwich Z, Szafranska AE, Labourier E et al. (2006) The colorectal microRNAome. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103, 3687 3692.
15. Ambros V Lee RC (2004) Identification of microRNAs and other tiny noncoding RNAs by cDNA cloning. Methods Mol Biol 265, 131 158.
16. Cai X, Hagedorn CH Cullen BR (2004) Human microRNAs are processed from capped, polyadenylated transcripts that can also function as mRNAs. RNA 10, 1957 1966.
17. Allen E, Xie Z, Gustafson AM Carrington JC (2005) MicroRNA-directed phasing during trans-acting siRNA biogenesis in plants. Cell 121, 207 221.
18. Denli AM, Tops BB, Plasterk RH, Ketting RF Hannon GJ (2004) Processing of primary microRNAs by the microprocessor complex. Nature 432, 231 235.
19. Allen E, Xie Z, Gustafson AM, Sung GH, Spatafora JW Carrington JC (2004) Evolution of microRNA genes by inverted duplication of target gene sequences in Arabidopsis thaliana. Nat Genet 36, 1282 1290.
20. Gregory RI, Yan KP, Amuthan G, Chendrimada T, Doratotaj B, Cooch N Shiekhattar R (2004) The microprocessor complex mediates the genesis of microRNAs. Nature 432, 235 240.
21. Han J, Lee Y, Yeom KH, Kim YK, Jin H Kim VN (2004) The Drosha-DGCR8 complex in primary microRNA processing. Genes Dev 18, 3016 3027.
22. Lund E, Guttinger S, Calado A, Dahlberg JE Kutay U (2004) Nuclear export of microRNA precursors. Science 303, 95 98.
23. Lee Y, Ahn C, Han J, Choi H, Kim J, Yim J, Lee J, Provost P, Radmark O, Kim S et al. (2003) The nuclear RNase III Drosha initiates microRNA processing. Nature 425, 415 419.
24. Bohnsack MT, Czaplinski K Gorlich D (2004) Exportin 5 is a RanGTP-dependent dsRNA-binding protein that mediates nuclear export of pre-miRNAs. RNA 10, 185 191.
25. Wienholds E, Kloosterman WP, Miska E, Alvarez-Saavedra E, Berezikov E, de Bruijn E, Horvitz HR, Kauppinen S Plasterk RH (2005) MicroRNA expression in zebrafish embryonic development. Science 309, 310 311.
26. Baskerville S Bartel DP (2005) Microarray profiling of microRNAs reveals frequent coexpression with neighboring miRNAs and host genes. RNA 11, 241 247.
27. Seitz H Zamore PD (2006) Rethinking the microprocessor. Cell 125, 827 829.
28. Han J, Lee Y, Yeom KH, Nam JW, Heo I, Rhee JK, Sohn SY, Cho Y, Zhang BT Kim VN (2006) Molecular basis for the recognition of primary microRNAs by the Drosha-DGCR8 complex. Cell 125, 887 901.
29. Davis BN, Hilyard AC, Lagna G Hata A (2008) SMAD proteins control DROSHA-mediated microRNA maturation. Nature 454, 56 61.
30. Gwizdek C, Ossareh-Nazari B, Brownawell AM, Doglio A, Bertrand E, Macara IG Dargemont C (2003) Exportin-5 mediates nuclear export of minihelix-containing RNAs. J Biol Chem 278, 5505 5508.
31. Cullen BR (2004) Derivation and function of small interfering RNAs and microRNAs. Virus Res 102, 3 9.
32. Brennecke J Cohen SM (2003) Towards a complete description of the microRNA complement of animal genomes. Genome Biol 4, 228.1 228.3.
33. Hwang HW, Wentzel EA Mendell JT (2007) A hexanucleotide element directs microRNA nuclear import. Science 315, 97 100.
34. Bernstein E, Caudy AA, Hammond SM Hannon GJ (2001) Role for a bidentate ribonuclease in the initiation step of RNA interference. Nature 409, 363 366.
35. Tang G (2005) siRNA and miRNA: an insight into RISCs. Trends Biochem Sci 30, 106 114.
36. Verdel A, Jia S, Gerber S, Sugiyama T, Gygi S, Grewal SI Moazed D (2004) RNAi-mediated targeting of heterochromatin by the RITS complex. Science 303, 672 676.
37. Volpe TA, Kidner C, Hall IM, Teng G, Grewal SI Martienssen RA (2002) Regulation of heterochromatic silencing and histone H3 lysine-9 methylation by RNAi. Science 297, 1833 1837.
38. Zhang H, Kolb FA, Brondani V, Billy E Filipowicz W (2002) Human Dicer preferentially cleaves dsRNAs at their termini without a requirement for ATP. EMBO J 21, 5875 5885.
39. Provost P, Silverstein RA, Dishart D, Walfridsson J, Djupedal I, Kniola B, Wright A, Samuelsson B, Radmark O Ekwall K (2002) Dicer is required for chromosome segregation and gene silencing in fission yeast cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99, 16648 16653.
40. Tang G, Reinhart BJ, Bartel DP Zamore PD (2003) A biochemical framework for RNA silencing in plants. Genes Dev 17, 49 63.
41. Schauer SE, Jacobsen SE, Meinke DW Ray A (2002) DICER-LIKE1: blind men and elephants in Arabidopsis development. Trends Plant Sci 7, 487 491.
42. Pham JW, Pellino JL, Lee YS, Carthew RW Sontheimer EJ (2004) A Dicer-2-dependent 80s complex cleaves targeted mRNAs during RNAi in Drosophila. Cell 117, 83 94.
43. Lee YS, Nakahara K, Pham JW, Kim K, He Z, Sontheimer EJ Carthew RW (2004) Distinct roles for Drosophila Dicer-1 and Dicer-2 in the siRNA/miRNA silencing pathways. Cell 117, 69 81.
44. Okamura K, Ishizuka A, Siomi H Siomi MC (2004) Distinct roles for Argonaute proteins in small RNA-directed RNA cleavage pathways. Genes Dev 18, 1655 1666.
45. Liu Q, Rand TA, Kalidas S, Du F, Kim HE, Smith DP Wang X (2003) R2D2, a bridge between the initiation and effector steps of the Drosophila RNAi pathway. Science 301, 1921 1925.
46. MacRae IJ, Ma E, Zhou M, Robinson CV Doudna JA (2008) In vitro reconstitution of the human RISC-loading complex. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105, 512 517.
47. Chendrimada TP, Gregory RI, Kumaraswamy E, Norman J, Cooch N, Nishikura K Shiekhattar R (2005) TRBP recruits the Dicer complex to Ago2 for microRNA processing and gene silencing. Nature 436, 740 744.
48. Forstemann K, Tomari Y, Du T, Vagin VV, Denli AM, Bratu DP, Klattenhoff C, Theurkauf WE Zamore PD (2005) Normal microRNA maturation and germ-line stem cell maintenance requires Loquacious, a double-stranded RNA-binding domain protein. PLoS Biol 3, doi :.
49. Jiang F, Ye X, Liu X, Fincher L, McKearin D Liu Q (2005) Dicer-1 and R3D1-L catalyze microRNA maturation in Drosophila. Genes Dev 19, 1674 1679.
50. Khvorova A, Reynolds A Jayasena SD (2003) Functional siRNAs and miRNAs exhibit strand bias. Cell 115, 209 216.
51. Schwarz DS, Hutvagner G, Du T, Xu Z, Aronin N Zamore PD (2003) Asymmetry in the assembly of the RNAi enzyme complex. Cell 115, 199 208.
52. Tomari Y, Matranga C, Haley B, Martinez N Zamore PD (2004) A protein sensor for siRNA asymmetry. Science 306, 1377 1380.
53. Ro S, Park C, Young D, Sanders KM Yan W (2007) Tissue-dependent paired expression of miRNAs. Nucleic Acids Res 35, 5944 5953.
54. Carmell MA, Xuan Z, Zhang MQ Hannon GJ (2002) The Argonaute family: tentacles that reach into RNAi, developmental control, stem cell maintenance, and tumorigenesis. Genes Dev 16, 2733 2742.
55. Sasaki T, Shiohama A, Minoshima S Shimizu N (2003) Identification of eight members of the Argonaute family in the human genome small star, filled. Genomics 82, 323 330.
56. Sigova A, Rhind N Zamore PD (2004) A single Argonaute protein mediates both transcriptional and posttranscriptional silencing in Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Genes Dev 18, 2359 2367.
57. Lingel A, Simon B, Izaurralde E Sattler M (2003) Structure and nucleic-acid binding of the Drosophila Argonaute 2 PAZ domain. Nature 426, 465 469.
58. Yan KS, Yan S, Farooq A, Han A, Zeng L Zhou MM (2003) Structure and conserved RNA binding of the PAZ domain. Nature 426, 468 474.
59. Ishizuka A, Siomi MC Siomi H (2002) A Drosophila fragile X protein interacts with components of RNAi and ribosomal proteins. Genes Dev 16, 2497 2508.
60. Forstemann K, Horwich MD, Wee L, Tomari Y Zamore PD (2007) Drosophila microRNAs are sorted into functionally distinct argonaute complexes after production by dicer-1. Cell 130, 287 297.
61. Liu J, Carmell MA, Rivas FV, Marsden CG, Thomson JM, Song JJ, Hammond SM, Joshua-Tor L Hannon GJ (2004) Argonaute2 is the catalytic engine of mammalian RNAi. Science 305, 1437 1441.
62. Meister G, Landthaler M, Patkaniowska A, Dorsett Y, Teng G Tuschl T (2004) Human Argonaute2 mediates RNA cleavage targeted by miRNAs and siRNAs. Mol Cell 15, 185 197.
63. Teixeira D, Sheth U, Valencia-Sanchez MA, Brengues M Parker R (2005) Processing bodies require RNA for assembly and contain nontranslating mRNAs. RNA 11, 371 382.
64. Ingelfinger D, Arndt-Jovin DJ, Luhrmann R Achsel T (2002) The human LSm1-7 proteins colocalize with the mRNA-degrading enzymes Dcp1/2 and Xrnl in distinct cytoplasmic foci. RNA 8, 1489 1501.
65. Kshirsagar M Parker R (2004) Identification of Edc3p as an enhancer of mRNA decapping in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Genetics 166, 729 739.
66. Cougot N, Babajko S Seraphin B (2004) Cytoplasmic foci are sites of mRNA decay in human cells. J Cell Biol 165, 31 40.
67. Decker CJ Parker R (1993) A turnover pathway for both stable and unstable mRNAs in yeast: evidence for a requirement for deadenylation. Genes Dev 7, 1632 1643.
68. Muhlrad D Parker R (1994) Premature translational termination triggers mRNA decapping. Nature 370, 578 581.
69. Schwartz DC Parker R (1999) Mutations in translation initiation factors lead to increased rates of deadenylation and decapping of mRNAs in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Cell Biol 19, 5247 5256.
70. Ramirez CV, Vilela C, Berthelot K McCarthy JE (2002) Modulation of eukaryotic mRNA stability via the cap-binding translation complex eIF4F. J Mol Biol 318, 951 962.
71. Liu J, Valencia-Sanchez MA, Hannon GJ Parker R (2005) MicroRNA-dependent localization of targeted mRNAs to mammalian P-bodies. Nat Cell Biol 7, 719 723.
72. Pillai RS, Bhattacharyya SN, Artus CG, Zoller T, Cougot N, Basyuk E, Bertrand E Filipowicz W (2005) Inhibition of translational initiation by Let-7 microRNA in human cells. Science 309, 1573 1576.
73. Pillai RS, Bhattacharyya SN Filipowicz W (2007) Repression of protein synthesis by miRNAs: how many mechanisms? Trends Cell Biol 17, 118 126.
74. Berkhout B Jeang KT (2007) RISCy business: microRNAs, pathogenesis, and viruses. J Biol Chem 282, 26641 26645.
75. Ohler U, Yekta S, Lim LP, Bartel DP Burge CB (2004) Patterns of flanking sequence conservation and a characteristic upstream motif for microRNA gene identification. RNA 10, 1309 1322.
76. Filipowicz W, Bhattacharyya SN Sonenberg N (2008) Mechanisms of post-transcriptional regulation by microRNAs: are the answers in sight? Nat Rev 9, 102 114.
77. Jackson RJ (2005) Alternative mechanisms of initiating translation of mammalian mRNAs. Biochem Soc Trans 33, 1231 1241.
78. Kiriakidou M, Tan GS, Lamprinaki S, De Planell-Saguer M, Nelson PT Mourelatos Z (2007) An mRNA m7G cap binding-like motif within human Ago2 represses translation. Cell 129, 1141 1151.
79. Lytle JR, Yario TA Steitz JA (2007) Target mRNAs are repressed as efficiently by microRNA-binding sites in the 5′-UTR as in the 3′-UTR. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104, 9667 9672.
80. Petersen CP, Bordeleau ME, Pelletier J Sharp PA (2006) Short RNAs repress translation after initiation in mammalian cells. Mol Cell 21, 533 542.
81. Humphreys DT, Westman BJ, Martin DI Preiss T (2005) MicroRNAs control translation initiation by inhibiting eukaryotic initiation factor 4E/cap and poly(A) tail function. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102, 16961 16966.
82. Wu L, Fan J Belasco JG (2006) MicroRNAs direct rapid deadenylation of mRNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103, 4034 4039.
83. Bhattacharyya SN, Habermacher R, Martine U, Closs EI Filipowicz W (2006) Relief of microRNA-mediated translational repression in human cells subjected to stress. Cell 125, 1111 1124.
84. Schratt GM, Tuebing F, Nigh EA, Kane CG, Sabatini ME, Kiebler M Greenberg ME (2006) A brain-specific microRNA regulates dendritic spine development. Nature 439, 283 289.
85. Ashraf SI, McLoon AL, Sclarsic SM Kunes S (2006) Synaptic protein synthesis associated with memory is regulated by the RISC pathway in Drosophila. Cell 124, 191 205.
86. Vasudevan S Steitz JA (2007) AU-rich-element-mediated upregulation of translation by FXR1 and Argonaute 2. Cell 128, 1105 1118.
87. Huang J, Liang Z, Yang B, Tian H, Ma J Zhang H (2007) Derepression of microRNA-mediated protein translation inhibition by apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing enzyme catalytic polypeptide-like 3G (APOBEC3G) and its family members. J Biol Chem 282, 33632 33640.
88. Nakahara K Carthew RW (2004) Expanding roles for miRNAs and siRNAs in cell regulation. Curr Opin Cell Biol 16, 127 133.
89. Kanellopoulou C, Muljo SA, Kung AL, Ganesan S, Drapkin R, Jenuwein T, Livingston DM Rajewsky K (2005) Dicer-deficient mouse embryonic stem cells are defective in differentiation and centromeric silencing. Genes Dev 19, 489 501.
90. Wienholds E Plasterk RH (2005) MicroRNA function in animal development. FEBS Lett 579, 5911 5922.
91. Houbaviy HB, Murray MF Sharp PA (2003) Embryonic stem cell-specific MicroRNAs. Dev Cell 5, 351 358.
92. Giraldez AJ, Cinalli RM, Glasner ME, Enright AJ, Thomson JM, Baskerville S, Hammond SM, Bartel DP Schier AF (2005) MicroRNAs regulate brain morphogenesis in zebrafish. Science 308, 833 838.
93. Chen PY, Manninga H, Slanchev K, Chien M, Russo JJ, Ju J, Sheridan R, John B, Marks DS, Gaidatzis D et al. (2005) The developmental miRNA profiles of zebrafish as determined by small RNA cloning. Genes Dev 19, 1288 1293.
94. Nicoloso MS Calin GA (2008) MicroRNA involvement in brain tumors: from bench to bedside. Brain Pathol 18, 122 129.
95. Hwang HW Mendell JT (2006) MicroRNAs in cell proliferation, cell death, and tumorigenesis. Br J Cancer 94, 776 780.
96. Calin GA, Liu CG, Sevignani C, Ferracin M, Felli N, Dumitru CD, Shimizu M, Cimmino A, Zupo S, Dono M et al. (2004) MicroRNA profiling reveals distinct signatures in B cell chronic lymphocytic leukemias. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101, 11755 11760.
97. Metzler M, Wilda M, Busch K, Viehmann S Borkhardt A (2004) High expression of precursor microRNA-155/BIC RNA in children with Burkitt lymphoma. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 39, 167 169.
98. Michael MZ, O'Connor SM, van Holst Pellekaan NG, Young GP James RJ (2003) Reduced accumulation of specific microRNAs in colorectal neoplasia. Mol Cancer Res 1, 882 891.
99. Takamizawa J, Konishi H, Yanagisawa K, Tomida S, Osada H, Endoh H, Harano T, Yatabe Y, Nagino M, Nimura Y et al. (2004) Reduced expression of the let-7 microRNAs in human lung cancers in association with shortened postoperative survival. Cancer Res 64, 3753 3756.
100. Calin GA, Ferracin M, Cimmino A, Di Leva G, Shimizu M, Wojcik SE, Iorio MV, Visone R, Sever NI, Fabbri M et al. (2005) A microRNA signature associated with prognosis and progression in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. N Engl J Med 353, 1793 1801.
101. Almeida R Allshire RC (2005) RNA silencing and genome regulation. Trends Cell Biol 15, 251 258.
102. Allawi HT, Dahlberg JE, Olson S, Lund E, Olson M, Ma WP, Takova T, Neri BP Lyamichev VI (2004) Quantitation of microRNAs using a modified Invader assay. RNA 10, 1153 1161.
103. Mendell JT (2008) miRiad roles for the miR-17-92 cluster in development and disease. Cell 133, 217 222.
104. He L, Thomson JM, Hemann MT, Hernando-Monge E, Mu D, Goodson S, Powers S, Cordon-Cardo C, Lowe SW, Hannon GJ Hammond SM (2005) A microRNA polycistron as a potential human oncogene. Nature 435, 828 833.
105. Adai A, Johnson C, Mlotshwa S, Archer-Evans S, Manocha V, Vance V Sundaresan V (2005) Computational prediction of miRNAs in Arabidopsis thaliana. Genome Res 15, 78 91.
106. Singh SK (2007) miRNAs: from neurogeneration to neurodegeneration. Pharmacogenomics 8, 971 978.
107. Ma L Weinberg RA (2008) MicroRNAs in malignant progression. Cell Cycle 7, 570 572.
108. Jin P, Alisch RS Warren ST (2004) RNA and microRNAs in fragile X mental retardation. Nat Cell Biol 6, 1048 1053.
109. Abelson JF, Kwan KY, O'Roak BJ, Baek DY, Stillman AA, Morgan TM, Mathews CA, Pauls DL, Rasin MR, Gunel M et al. (2005) Sequence variants in SLITRK1 are associated with Tourette's syndrome. Science 310, 317 320.
110. Bushati N Cohen SM (2007) microRNA functions. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 23, 175 205.
111. Hebert SS, Horre K, Nicolai L, Papadopoulou AS, Mandemakers W, Silahtaroglu AN, Kauppinen S, Delacourte A De Strooper B (2008) Loss of microRNA cluster miR-29a/b-1 in sporadic Alzheimer's disease correlates with increased BACE1/beta-secretase expression. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105, 6415 6420.
112. Abu-Elneel K, Liu T, Gazzaniga FS, Nishimura Y, Wall DP, Geschwind DH, Lao K Kosik KS (2008) Heterogeneous dysregulation of microRNAs across the autism spectrum. Neurogenetics 9, 153 161.
113. Singh SK (2008) RNA interference and its therapeutic potential against HIV infection. Expert Opin Biolog Ther 8, 449 461.
114. Nair V Zavolan M (2006) Virus-encoded microRNAs: novel regulators of gene expression. Trends Microbiol 14, 169 175.
115. Motsch N, Pfuhl T, Mrazek J, Barth S Grasser FA (2007) Epstein-Barr virus-encoded latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1) induces the expression of the cellular microRNA miR-146a. RNA Biol 4, 131 137.
116. Samols MA, Skalsky RL, Maldonado AM, Riva A, Lopez MC, Baker HV Renne R (2007) Identification of cellular genes targeted by KSHV-encoded microRNAs. PLoS Pathogens 3, doi :.
117. Huang J, Wang F, Argyris E, Chen K, Liang Z, Tian H, Huang W, Squires K, Verlinghieri G Zhang H (2007) Cellular microRNAs contribute to HIV-1 latency in resting primary CD4+ T lymphocytes. Nat Med 13, 1241 1247.
118. Jin WB, Wu FL, Kong D Guo AG (2007) HBV-encoded microRNA candidate and its target. Comput Biol Chem 31, 124 126.
119. Lecellier CH, Dunoyer P, Arar K, Lehmann-Che J, Eyquem S, Himber C, Saib A Voinnet O (2005) A cellular microRNA mediates antiviral defense in human cells. Science 308, 557 560.
120. Berkhout B (2008) A balancing act: viruses and miRNAs. J Formosan Med Assoc 107, 1 3.
121. Poy MN, Eliasson L, Krutzfeldt J, Kuwajima S, Ma X, Macdonald PE, Pfeffer S, Tuschl T, Rajewsky N, Rorsman P et al. (2004) A pancreatic islet-specific microRNA regulates insulin secretion. Nature 432, 226 230.
122. Li Q Gregory RI (2008) MicroRNA regulation of stem cell fate. Cell Stem Cell 2, 195 196.
123. Blakaj A Lin H (2008) Piecing together the mosaic of early mammalian development through microRNAs. J Biol Chem 283, 9505 9508.
124. Zhao Y, Samal E Srivastava D (2005) Serum response factor regulates a muscle-specific microRNA that targets Hand2 during cardiogenesis. Nature 436, 214 220.
125. Zhang C (2008) MicroRNomics: a newly emerging approach for disease biology. Physiol Genomics 33, 139 147.
126. Callis TE, Deng Z, Chen JF Wang DZ (2008) Muscling through the microRNA world. Exp Biol Med 233, 131 138.
127. Chim SS, Shing TK, Hung EC, Leung TY, Lau TK, Chiu RW Lo YM (2008) Detection and characterization of placental microRNAs in maternal plasma. Clin Chem 54, 482 490.
128. Hammond SM (2006) MicroRNA therapeutics: a new niche for antisense nucleic acids. Trends Mol Med 12, 99 101.
129. Weiler J, Hunziker J Hall J (2006) Anti-miRNA oligonucleotides (AMOs): ammunition to target miRNAs implicated in human disease? Gene Ther 13, 496 502.
130. Lee YS, Kim HK, Chung S, Kim KS Dutta A (2005) Depletion of human micro-RNA miR-125b reveals that it is critical for the proliferation of differentiated cells but not for the down-regulation of putative targets during differentiation. J Biol Chem 280, 16635 16641.
131. Boutla A, Delidakis C Tabler M (2003) Developmental defects by antisense-mediated inactivation of micro-RNAs 2 and 13 in Drosophila and the identification of putative target genes. Nucleic Acids Res 31, 4973 4980.
132. Devi GR, Beer TM, Corless CL, Arora V, Weller DL Iversen PL (2005) In vivo bioavailability and pharmacokinetics of a c-MYC antisense phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomer, AVI-4126, in solid tumors. Clin Cancer Res 11, 3930 3938.
133. Hutvagner G, Simard MJ, Mello CC Zamore PD (2004) Sequence-specific inhibition of small RNA function. PLoS Biol 2, doi :.
134. Meister G, Landthaler M, Dorsett Y Tuschl T (2004) Sequence-specific inhibition of microRNA- and siRNA-induced RNA silencing. RNA 10, 544 550.
135. Czech MP (2006) MicroRNAs as therapeutic targets. N Engl J Med 354, 1194 1195.
136. Girard M, Jacquemin E, Munnich A, Lyonnet S Henrion-Caude A (2008) miR-122, a paradigm for the role of microRNAs in the liver. J Hepatol 48, 648 656.
137. Krutzfeldt J, Rajewsky N, Braich R, Rajeev KG, Tuschl T, Manoharan M Stoffel M (2005) Silencing of microRNAs in vivo with 'antagomirs'. Nature 438, 685 689.
138. Elmen J, Lindow M, Schutz S, Lawrence M, Petri A, Obad S, Lindholm M, Hedtjarn M, Hansen HF, Berger U et al. (2008) LNA-mediated microRNA silencing in non-human primates. Nature 452, 896 899.
139. Bijsterbosch MK, Rump ET, De Vrueh RL, Dorland R, van Veghel R, Tivel KL, Biessen EA, van Berkel TJ Manoharan M (2000) Modulation of plasma protein binding and in vivo liver cell uptake of phosphorothioate oligodeoxynucleotides by cholesterol conjugation. Nucleic Acids Res 28, 2717 2725.
140. Kumar P, Wu H, McBride JL, Jung KE, Kim MH, Davidson BL, Lee SK, Shankar P Manjunath N (2007) Transvascular delivery of small interfering RNA to the central nervous system. Nature 448, 39 43.