Proteinases and oxidants as targets in the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society

Volumn 2, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 373-385

  Owen, Caroline A ^a  

^a BRIGHAM AND WOMEN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

Antiinflammatory drugs; Antioxidants; Oxidative stress; Proteinase inhibition; Proteinases

Indexed keywords

CYSTEINE PROTEINASE; METALLOPROTEINASE; OXIDIZING AGENT; PROTEINASE; SERINE PROTEINASE;

CHRONIC INFLAMMATION; CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE LUNG DISEASE; CONFERENCE PAPER; CYTOLOGY; LUNG ALVEOLUS; LUNG INTERSTITIUM; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PATHOGENESIS;

ANIMALS; ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AGENTS; ANTIOXIDANTS; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; HUMANS; OXIDANTS; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PEPTIDE HYDROLASES; PROTEASE INHIBITORS; PULMONARY DISEASE, CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE;

EID: 28244456240     PISSN: 15463222     EISSN: 15463222     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1513/pats.200504-029SR     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (158)

1. Laurell CB, Eriksson S. The electrophoretic α-1-globulin pattern of serum in α-1-antitrypsin deficiency. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1963;15:132-140.
2. Gross P, Pfitzer EA, Tolker E, Babyak MA, Kaschak M. Experimental emphysema: its production with papain in normal and silicotic rats. Arch Environ Health 1965;11:50-58.
3. Owen CA, Campbell EJ. The cell biology of leukocyte-mediated proteolysis. J Leukoc Biol 1999;65:137-150.
4. Barrett AJ. The many forms and functions of cellular proteinases. Fed Proc 1980;39:9-14.
5. Owen CA, Campbell MA, Boukedes SS, Stockley RA, Campbell EJ. A discrete subpopulation of human monocytes expresses a neutrophil-like pro-inflammatory (P) phenotype. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 1994;267:L775-L785.
6. Shapiro SD, Campbell EJ, Senior RM, Welgus HG. Proteinases secreted by human mononuclear phagocytes. J Rheumatol 1991;27:95-98.
7. Rajavashisth TB, Xu XP, Jovinge S, Meisel S, Xu XO, Chai NN, Fishbein MC, Kaul S, Cercek B, Sharifi B, et al. Membrane type 1 matrix metalloproteinase expression in human atherosclerotic plaques: evidence for activation by proinflammatory mediators. Circulation 1999;99:3103-3109.
8. Shapiro SD, Fliszar C, Broeckelman T, Mecham RP, Senior RM, Welgus HG. Activation of the 92 kD gelatinase by stromelysin and APMA: differential processing and stabilization of the C-terminal domain by TIMP. J Biol Chem 1995;270:6351-6356.
9. Capodici C, Berg RA. Oxidant activation of neutrophil collagenase by cathepsin G. Fed Proc 1987;46:1963.
10. Okamoto T, Akaike T, Nagano T, Miyajima S, Suga M, Ando M, Ichimori K, Maeda H. Activation of human neutrophil procollagenase by nitrogen dioxide and peroxynitrite: a novel mechanism for procollagenase activation involving nitric oxide. Arch Biochem Biophys 1997;342:261-274.
11. Bassi DE, Mahloogi H, Klein-Szanto AJ. The proprotein convertases furin and PACE4 play a significant role in tumor progression. Mol Carcinog 2000;28:63-69.
12. Knauper V, Murphy G. Membrane-type metalloproteinases and cell surface-associated activation cascades for matrix metalloproteinases. In: Parks W, Mecham R, editors. Matrix metalloproteinases. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 1998. pp. 199-217.
13. Primakoff P, Myles DG. The ADAM gene family: surface proteins with adhesion and protease activity. Trends Genet 2000;16:83-87.
14. Owen CA, Campbell MA, Sannes PL, Boukedes SS, Campbell EJ. Cell-surface-bound elastase and cathepsin G on human neutrophils: a novel, non-oxidative mechanism by which neutrophils focus and preserve catalytic activity of serine proteinases. J Cell Biol 1995;131:775-789.
15. Campbell EJ, Campbell MA, Owen CA. Bioactive proteinase 3 on the cell surface of human neutrophils: quantification, catalytic activity, and susceptibility to inhibition. J Immunol 2000;165:3366-3374.
16. Vassalli J-D, Sappino AP, Belin D. The plasminogen activator/plasmin system. J Clin Invest 1991;88:1067-1072.
17. Owen CA, Hu Z, Barrick B, Shapiro SD. Inducible expression of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-resistant matrix metalloproteinase-9 on the cell surface of neutrophils. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2003;29:283-294.
18. Owen CA, Hu Z, Lopez-Otin C, Shapiro SD. Membrane-bound matrix metalloproteinase-8 on activated polymorphonuclear cells is a potent, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-resistant collagenase and serpinase. J Immunol 2004;172:7791-7803.
19. Basbaum C, Li D, Gensch E, Gallup M, Lemjabbar H. Mechanisms by which gram-positive bacteria and tobacco smoke stimulate mucin induction through the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Novartis Found Symp 2002;248:171-176.
20. Lemjabbar H, Li D, Gallup M, Sidhu S, Drori E, Basbaum C. Tobacco smoke-induced lung cell proliferation mediated by tumor necrosis factor α-converting enzyme and amphiregulin. J Biol Chem 2003;278:26202-26207.
21. Takeyama K, Agusti C, Ueki I, Lausier J, Cardell LO, Nadel JA. Neutrophil-dependent goblet cell degranulation: role of membrane-bound elastase and adhesion molecules. Am J Physiol 1998;275:L294-L302.
22. Belaaouaj A, Kim KS, Shapiro SD. Degradation of outer membrane protein A in Escherichia coli killing by neutrophil elastase. Science 2000;289:1185-1188.
23. Hartzell W, Shapiro SD. Macrophage elastase prevents Gemella morbillorum infection and improves outcome following murine bone marrow transplantation. Chest 1999;116:31S-32S.
24. Wilson CL, Ouellette AJ, Satchell DP, Ayabe T, Lopez-Boado YS, Stratman JL, Hultgren SJ, Matrisian LM, Parks WC. Regulation of intestinal α-defensin activation by the metalloproteinase matrilysin in innate host defense. Science 1999;286:113-117.
25. Balbin M, Fueyo A, Tester AM, Pendas AM, Pitiot AS, Astudillo A, Overall CM, Shapiro SD, Lopez-Otin C. Loss of collagenase-2 confers increased skin tumor susceptibility to male mice. Nat Genet 2003;35:252-257.
26. McQuibban GA, Gong JH, Tam EM, McCulloch CA, Clark-Lewis I, Overall CM. Inflammation dampened by gelatinase A cleavage of monocyte chemoattractant protein-3. Science 2000;289:1202-1206.
27. Coeshott C, Ohnemus C, Pilyavskaya A, Ross S, Wieczorek M, Kroona H, Leimer AH, Cheronis J. Converting enzyme-independent release of tumor necrosis factor α and IL-1β from a stimulated human monocytic cell line in the presence of activated neutrophils or purified proteinase 3. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999;96:6261-6266.
28. Stamenkovic I. Matrix metalloproteinases in tumor invasion and metastasis. Semin Cancer Biol 2000;10:415-433.
29. Cornelius LA, Nehring LC, Harding E, Bolanowski M, Welgus HG, Kobayashi DK, Pierce RA, Shapiro SD. Matrix metalloproteinases generate angiostatin: effects on neovascularization. J Immunol 1998;161:6845-6852.
30. MacNee W. Oxidants/antioxidants and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: pathogenesis to therapy. Novartis Found Symp 2001;234:169-185.
31. Pechkovsky DV, Zissel G, Stamme C, Goldmann T, Ari JH, Einhaus M, Taube C, Magnussen H, Schlaak M, Muller-Quernheim J. Human alveolar epithelial cells induce nitric oxide synthase-2 expression in alveolar macrophages. Eur Respir J 2002;19:672-683.
32. Repine JE, Bast A, Lankhorst I; Oxidative Stress Study Group. Oxidative stress in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;156:341-357.
33. Babior BM. Oxygen-dependent microbial killing by phagocytes. N Engl J Med 1978;298:659-668.
34. Babior BM. NADPH oxidase: an update. Blood 1999;93:1464-1476.
35. + flux. Nature 2002;416:291-297.
36. Rahman I. Oxidative stress, transcription factors and chromatin remodelling in lung inflammation. Biochem Pharmacol 2002;64:935-942.
37. Thannickal VJ, Fanburg BL. Reactive oxygen species in cell signaling. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2000;279:L1005-L1028.
38. Fu X, Kassim SY, Parks WC, Heinecke JW. Hypochlorous acid generated by myeloperoxidase modifies adjacent tryptophan and glycine residues in the catalytic domain of matrix metalloproteinase-7 (matri-lysin): an oxidative mechanism for restraining proteolytic activity during inflammation. J Biol Chem 2003;278:28403-28409.
39. Van Den Steen PE, Proost P, Wuyts A, Van Damme J, Opdenakker G. Neutrophil gelatinase B potentiates interleukin-8 tenfold by aminoterminal processing, whereas it degrades CTAP-III, PF-4, and GRO-α and leaves RANTES and MCP-2 intact. Blood 2000;96:2673-2681.
40. Li Q, Park PW, Wilson CL, Parks WC. Matrilysin shedding of syndecan-1 regulates chemokine mobilization and transepithelial efflux of neutrophils in acute lung injury. Cell 2002;111:635-646.
41. Churg A, Wang RD, Tai H, Wang X, Xie C, Dai J, Shapiro SD, Wright JL. Macrophage metalloelastase mediates acute cigarette smoke-induced inflammation via tumor necrosis factor-α release. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003;167:1083-1089.
42. 4 by alveolar macrophages. J Clin Invest 1991;88:891-897.
43. Bedard M, McClure CD, Schiller NL, Francoeur C, Cantin A, Denis M. Release of interleukin-8, interleukin-6, and colony-stimulating factors by upper airway epithelial cells: implications for cystic fibrosis. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1993;9:455-462.
44. Senior RM, Griffin GL, Mecham RP. Chemotactic activity of elastin-derived peptides. J Clin Invest 1980;66:859-862.
45. Hunninghake GW, Davidson JM, Rennard S, Szapiel S, Gadek JE, Crystal RG. Elastin fragments attract macrophage precursors to diseased sites in pulmonary emphysema. Science 1981;212:925-927.
46. 1-Proteinase inhibitor is a neutrophil chemoattractant after proteolytic inactivation by macrophage elastase. J Biol Chem 1988;263:4481-4484.
47. Stockley RA, Shaw J, Afford SC, Morrison HM, Burnett D. Effect of α-1-proteinase inhibitor on neutrophil chemotaxis. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1990;2:163-170.
48. Retamales I, Elliott WM, Meshi B, Coxson HO, Pare PD, Sciurba FC, Rogers RM, Hayashi S, Hogg JC. Ampification of inflammation in emphysema and its association with latent adenoviral infection. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;164:469-473.
49. Shao MX, Nakanaga T, Nadel JA. Cigarette smoke induces MUC5AC mucin overproduction via tumor necrosis factor-α-converting enzyme in human airway epithelial (NCI-H292) cells. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2004;287:L420-L427.
50. Kohri K, Ueki IF, Nadel JA. Neutrophil elastase induces mucin production by ligand-dependent epidermal growth factor receptor activation. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2002;283:L531-L540.
51. Fischer BM, Voynow JA. Neutrophil elastase induces MUC5AC gene expression in airway epithelium via a pathway involving reactive oxygen species. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2002;26:447-452.
52. Casalino-Matsuda SM, Monzon ME, Conner GE, Salathe M, Forteza RM. Role of hyaluronan and reactive oxygen species in tissue kallikrein-mediated epidermal growth factor receptor activation in human airways. J Biol Chem 2004;279:21606-21616.
53. Lemjabbar H, Basbaum C. Platelet-activating factor receptor and ADAM10 mediate responses to Staphylococcus aureus in epithelial cells. Nat Med 2002;8:41-46.
54. Yu Q, Stamenkovic I. Cell surface-localized matrix metalloproteinase-9 proteolytically activates TGF-β and promotes tumor invasion and angiogenesis. Genes Dev 2000;14:163-176.
55. 1 from the pericellular matrix of cultured fibroblasts and fibrosarcoma cells by plasmin and thrombin. J Biol Chem 1992;267:25378- 25384.
56. Mohan S, Thompson GR, Amaar YG, Hathaway G, Tschesche H, Baylink DJ. ADAM-9 is an insulin-like growth factor binding protein-5 protease produced and secreted by human osteoblasts. Biochemistry 2002;41:15394-15403.
57. Fowlkes JL, Serra DM, Nagase H, Thrailkill KM. MMPs are IGFBP-degrading proteinases: implications for cell proliferation and tissue growth. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1999;878:696-699.
58. Reilly JJ, Chapman HA Jr. Association between alveolar macrophage plasminogen activator activity and indices of lung function in young cigarette smokers. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988;138:1422-1428.
59. Finlay GA, O'Driscoll L, Russell KJ, D'Arcy EM, Masterson JBL, Fitzgerald MX, O'Connor CM. Matrix metalloproteinase expression and production by alveolar macrophages in emphysema. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;156:240-247.
60. Russell RE, Culpitt SV, DeMatos C, Donnelly L, Smith M, Wiggins J, Barnes PJ. Release and activity of matrix metalloproteinase-9 and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 by alveolar macrophages from patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2002;26:602-609.
61. Lim S, Roche N, Oliver BG, Mattos W, Barnes PJ, Chung KF. Balance of matrix metalloprotease-9 and tissue inhibitor of metalloprotease-1 from alveolar macrophages in cigarette smokers: regulation by interleukin-10. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000;162:1355-1360.
62. Betsuyaku T, Nishimura M, Takeyabu K, Tanino M, Venge P, Xu S, Kawakami Y. Neutrophil granule proteins in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from subjects with subclinical emphysema. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;159:1985-1991.
63. 1 in community-based older volunteers with higher levels of neutrophil elastase in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Respiration (Herrlisheim) 2000;67:261-267.
64. Betsuyaku T, Nishimura M, Yoshioka A, Takeyabu K, Miyamoto K, Kawakami Y. [Neutrophil elastase and elastin-derived peptides in BAL fluid and emphysematous changes on CT scans]. Nihon Kyobu Shikkan Gakkai Zasshi 1996;34:69-74.
65. Cataldo D, Munaut C, Noel A, Frankenne F, Bartsch P, Foidart JM, Louis R. MMP-2- and MMP-9-linked gelatinolytic activity in the sputum from patients with asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2000;123:259-267.
66. Hill AT, Bayley D, Stockley RA. The interrelationship of sputum inflammatory markers in patients with chronic bronchitis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;160:893-898.
67. Beeh KM, Beier J, Kornmann O, Buhl R. Sputum matrix metalloproteinase-9, tissue inhibitor of metalloprotinease-1, and their molar ratio in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and healthy subjects. Respir Med 2003;97:634-639.
68. Culpitt SV, Rogers DF, Traves SL, Barnes PJ, Donnelly LE. Sputum matrix metalloproteases: comparison between chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma. Respir Med 2005;99:703-710.
69. Damiano W, Tsang A, Kucich U, Abrams WR, Rosenbloom J, Kimbel P, Weinbaum G. Immunolocalization of elastase in human emphysematous lungs. J Clin Invest 1986;78:482-493.
70. Imai K, Dalai SS, Chen ES, Downey R, Schulman LL, Ginsburg M, D'Armiento J. Human collagenase (matrix metalloproteinase-1) expression in the lungs of patients with emphysema. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;163:786-791.
71. Kang MJ, Oh YM, Lee JC, Kim DG, Park MJ, Lee MG, Hyun IG, Han SK, Shim YS, Jung KS. Lung matrix metalloproteinase-9 correlates with cigarette smoking and obstruction of airflow. J Korean Med Sci 2003;18:821-827.
72. Hautamaki RD, Kobayashi DK, Senior RM, Shapiro SD. Requirement for macrophage elastase for cigarette smoke-induced emphysema in mice. Science 1997;277:2002-2004.
73. Shapiro SD, Goldstein NM, Houghton AM, Kobayashi DK, Kelley D, Belaaouaj A. Neutrophil elastase contributes to cigarette smoke-induced emphysema in mice. Am J Pathol 2003;163:2329-2335.
74. Lanone S, Zheng T, Zhu Z, Liu W, Lee CG, Ma B, Chen Q, Homer RJ, Wang J, Rabach LA, et al. Overlapping and enzyme-specific contributions of matrix metalloproteinases-9 and -12 in IL-13-induced inflammation and remodeling. J Clin Invest 2002;110:463-474.
75. Okada Y, Watanabe S, Nakanishi I, Kishi J, Hayakawa T, Watorek W, Travis J, Nagase H. Inactivation of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases by neutrophil elastase and other serine proteinases. FEBS Lett 1988;229:157-160.
76. Gronski TJ Jr, Martin RL, Kobayashi DK, Walsh BC, Holman MC, Huber M, Van Wart HE, Shapiro SD. Hydrolysis of a broad spectrum of extracellular matrix proteins by human macrophage elastase. J Biol Chem 1997;272:12189-12194.
77. D'Armiento J, Dalal SS, Okada Y, Berg RA, Chada K. Collagenase expression in the lungs of transgenic mice causes pulmonary emphysema. Cell 1992;71:955-961.
78. Saetta M, Baraldo S, Corbino L, Turato G, Braccioni F, Rea F, Cavallesco G, Tropeano G, Mapp CE, Maestrelli P, et al. CD8+ve cells in the lungs of smokers with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;160:711-717.
79. Lacraz S, Isler P, Vey E, Welgus HG, Dayer JM. Direct contact between T lymphocytes and monocytes is a major pathway for induction of metalloproteinase expression. J Biol Chem 1994;269:22027-22033.
80. Wang Z, Zheng T, Zhu Z, Homer RJ, Riese RJ, Chapman HA Jr, Shapiro SD, Elias JA. Interferon γ induction of pulmonary emphysema in the adult murine lung. J Exp Med 2000;192:1587-1600.
81. Zheng T, Zhu Z, Wang Z, Homer RJ, Ma B, Riese RJ Jr, Chapman HA Jr, Shapiro SD, Elias JA. Inducible targeting of IL-13 to the adult lung causes matrix metalloproteinase- and cathepsin-dependent emphysema. J Clin Invest 2000;106:1081-1093.
82. 1 inhibits cytokine-mediated induction of human metalloelastase in macrophages. J Biol Chem 2000;275:25766-25773.
83. 1: a mechanism for regulating pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis. Cell 1999;96:319-328.
84. 6-mediated TGF-β activation causes MMP12-dependent emphysema. Nature 2003;422:169-173.
85. Wert SE, Yoshida M, LeVine AM, Ikegami M, Jones T, Ross GF, Fisher JH, Korfhagen TR, Whitsett JA. Increased metalloproteinase activity, oxidant production, and emphysema in surfactant protein D gene-inactivated mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000;97:5972-5977.
86. Kasahara Y, Tuder RM, Cool CD, Lynch DA, Flores SC, Voelkel NF. Endothelial cell death and decreased expression of vascular endothelial growth factor and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 in emphysema. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;163:737-744.
87. Aoshiba K, Yokohori N, Nagai A. Alveolar wall apoptosis causes lung destruction and emphysematous changes. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2003;28:555-562.
88. Yokohori N, Aoshiba K, Nagai A. Increased levels of cell death and proliferation in alveolar wall cells in patients with pulmonary emphysema. Chest 2004;125:626-632.
89. Segura-Valdez L, Pardo A, Gaxiola M, Uhal BD, Becerril C, Selman M. Upregulation of gelatinases A and B, collagenases 1 and 2, and increased parenchymal cell death in COPD. Chest 2000;117:684-694.
90. Hodge S, Hodge G, Holmes M, Reynolds PN. Increased airway epithelial and T-cell apoptosis in COPD remains despite smoking cessation. Eur Respir J 2005;25:447-454.
91. Aoshiba K, Tamaoki J, Nagai A. Acute cigarette smoke exposure induces apoptosis of alveolar macrophages. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2001;281:L1392-L1401.
92. Noguera A, Sala E, Pons AR, Iglesias J, MacNee W, Agusti AG. Expression of adhesion molecules during apoptosis of circulating neutrophils in COPD. Chest 2004;125:1837-1842.
93. Kasahara Y, Tuder RM, Taraseviciene-Stewart L, Le Cras TD, Abman S, Hirth PK, Waltenberger J, Voelkel NF. Inhibition of VEGF receptors causes lung cell apoptosis and emphysema. J Clin Invest 2000;106:1311-1319.
94. Vandivier RW, Fadok VA, Hoffmann PR, Bratton DL, Penvari C, Brown KK, Brain JD, Accurso FJ, Henson PM. Elastase-mediated phosphatidylserine receptor cleavage impairs apoptotic cell clearance in cystic fibrosis and bronchiectasis. J Clin Invest 2002;109:661-670.
95. Pryor WA, Stone K. Oxidants in cigarette smoke: radicals, hydrogen peroxide, peroxynitrate, and peroxynitrite. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1993;686:12-27.
96. MacNee W. Oxidants/antioxidants and COPD. Chest 2000;117:303S-317S.
97. Gutteridge JM. Lipid peroxidation and antioxidants as biomarkers of tissue damage. Clin Chem 1995;41:1819-1828.
98. 2α-III, an index of oxidant stress. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;158:1709-1714.
99. 2-isoprostanes) in smokers: smoking as a cause of oxidative damage. N Engl J Med 1995;332:119S-1203.
100. Rahman I, Skwarska E, MacNee W. Attenuation of oxidant/antioxidant imbalance during treatment of exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 1997;52:565-568.
101. Morrison D, Rahman I, Lannan S, MacNee W. Epithelial permeability, inflammation, and oxidant stress in the air spaces of smokers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;159:473-479.
102. Nowak D, Antczak A, Krol M, Pietras T, Shariati B, Bialasiewicz P, Jeczkowski K, Kula P. Increased content of hydrogen peroxide in the expired breath of cigarette smokers. Eur Respir J 1996;9:652-657.
103. Ludwig PW, Hoidal JR. Alterations in leukocyte oxidative metabolism in cigarette smokers. Am Rev Respir Dis 1982;126:977-980.
104. Hoidal JR, Fox RB, LeMarbe PA, Perri R, Repine JE. Altered oxidative metabolic responses in vitro of alveolar macrophages from asymptomatic cigarette smokers. Am Rev Respir Dis 1981;123:85-89.
105. Hoidal JR, Fox RB, LeMarbre PA, Takiff HE, Repine JE. Oxidative metabolism of alveolar macrophages from young asymptomatic cigarette smokers: increased superoxide anion release and its potential consequences. Chest 1980;77:270-271.
106. Schaberg T, Haller H, Rau M, Kaiser D, Fassbender M, Lode H. Superoxide anion release induced by platelet-activating factor is increased in human alveolar macrophages from smokers. Eur Respir J 1992;5:387-393.
107. Wesselius LJ, Nelson ME, Skikne BS. Increased release of ferritin and iron by iron-loaded alveolar macrophages in cigarette smokers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;150:690-695.
108. Duthie GG, Arthur JR, Beattie JA, Brown KM, Morrice PC, Robertson JD, Shortt CT, Walker KA, James WP. Cigarette smoking, antioxidants, lipid peroxidation, and coronary heart disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1993;686:120-129.
109. Chow CK, Thacker RR, Changchit C, Bridges RB, Rehm SR, Humble J, Turbek J. Lower levels of vitamin C and carotenes in plasma of cigarette smokers. J Am Coll Nutr 1986;5:305-312.
110. Rahman I, Morrison D, Donaldson K, MacNee W. Systemic oxidative stress in asthma, COPD, and smokers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;154:1055-1060.
111. Linden M, Hakansson L, Ohlsson K, Sjodin K, Tegner H, Tunek A, Venge P. Glutathione in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from smokers is related to humoral markers of inflammatory cell activity. Inflammation 1989;13:651-658.
112. Rahman I, Li XY, Donaldson K, Harrison DJ, MacNee W. Glutathione homeostasis in alveolar epithelial cells in vitro and lung in vivo under oxidative stress. Am J Physiol 1995;269:L285-L292.
113. Rahman I, Antonicelli F, MacNee W. Molecular mechanism of the regulation of glutathione synthesis by tumor necrosis factor-α and dexamethasone in human alveolar epithelial cells. J Biol Chem 1999;274:5088-5096.
114. Rahman I, Smith CA, Antonicelli F, MacNee W. Characterisation of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase-heavy subunit promoter: a critical role for AP-1. FEBS Lett 1998;427:129-133.
115. Li XY, Donaldson K, Rahman I, MacNee W, An investigation of the role of glutathione in increased epithelial permeability induced by cigarette smoke in vivo and in vitro. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;149:1518-1525.
116. Lannan S, Donaldson K, Brown D, MacNee W. Effect of cigarette smoke and its condensates on alveolar epithelial cell injury in vitro. Am J Physiol 1994;266:L92-100.
117. Jones JG, Minty BD, Lawler P, Hulands G, Crawley JC, Veall N. Increased alveolar epithelial permeability in cigarette smokers. Lancet 1980;1:66-68.
118. Tuder RM, Zhen L, Cho CY, Taraseviciene-Stewart L, Kasahara Y, Salvemini D, Voelkel NF, Flores SC. Oxidative stress and apoptosis interact and cause emphysema due to vascular endothelial growth factor receptor blockade. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2003;29:88-97.
119. MacNee W, Wiggs B, Belzberg AS, Hogg JC. The effect of cigarette smoking on neutrophil kinetics in human lungs. N Engl J Med 1989;321:924-928.
120. Drost EM, Selby C, Lannan S, Lowe GD, MacNee W. Changes in neutrophil deformability following in vitro smoke exposure: mechanism and protection. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1992;6:287-295.
121. Klut ME, Doerschuk CM, van Eeden SF, Burns AR, Hogg JC. Activation of neutrophils within pulmonary microvessels of rabbits exposed to cigarette smoke. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1993;9:82-89.
122. Keatings VM, Collins PD, Scott DM, Barnes PJ. Differences in interleukin-8 and tumor necrosis factor-α in induced sputum from patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;153:530-534.
123. Drost EM, Skwarski KM, Sauleda J, Soler N, Roca J, Agusti A, MacNee W. Oxidative stress and airway inflammation in severe exacerbations of COPD. Thorax 2005;60:293-300.
124. Rahman I, Gilmour PS, Jimenez LA, MacNee W. Oxidative stress and TNF-α induce histone acetylation and NF-κB/AP-1 activation in alveolar epithelial cells: potential mechanism in gene transcription in lung inflammation. Mol Cell Biochem 2002;234-235:239-248.
125. Rahman I, MacNee W. Role of transcription factors in inflammatory lung diseases. Thorax 1998;53:601-612.
126. Antonicelli F, Parmentier M, Drost EM, Hirani N, Rahman I, Don-aldson K, MacNee W. Nacystelyn inhibits oxidant-mediated interleukin-8 expression and NF-κB nuclear binding in alveolar epithelial cells. Free Radic Biol Med 2002;32:492-502.
127. Wright DT, Fischer BM, Li C, Rochelle LG, Akley NJ, Adler KB. Oxidant stress stimulates mucin secretion and PLC in airway epithelium via a nitric oxide-dependent mechanism. Am J Physiol 1996;271: L854-L861.
128. Takeyama K, Dabbagh K, Jeong SJ, Dao-Pick T, Ueki IF, Nadel JA. Oxidative stress causes mucin synthesis via transactivation of epidermal growth factor receptor: role of neutrophils. J Immunol 2000;164:1546-1552.
129. Adler KB, Holden-Stauffer WJ, Repine JE. Oxygen metabolites stimulate release of high-molecular-weight glycoconjugates by cell and organ cultures of rodent respiratory epithelium via an arachidonic acid-dependent mechanism. J Clin Invest 1990;85:75-85.
130. 1-antitrypsin, rendering it ineffective as an inhibitor of neutrophil elastase. J Clin Invest 1987;80:1287-1295.
131. Kramps JA, Van Twisk C, Klasen EC, Dijkman JH. Interactions among stimulated human polymorphonuclear leucocytes, released elastase and bronchial antileucoprotease. Clin Sci (Lond) 1988;75:53-62.
132. Owen CA, Campbell EJ. Extracellular proteolysis: new paradigms for an old paradox. J Lab Clin Med 1999;134:341-351.
133. Massaro GD, Massaro D. Retinoic acid treatment abrogates elastase-induced pulmonary emphysema in rats. Nat Med 1997;3:675-677.
134. Nakamura Y, Romberger DJ, Tate L, Ertl RF, Kawamoto M, Adachi Y, Mio T, Sisson JH, Spurzem JR, Rennard SI. Cigarette smoke inhibits lung fibroblast proliferation and chemotaxis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;151:1497-1503.
135. Cantral DE, Sisson JH, Veys T, Rennard SI, Spurzem JR. Effects of cigarette smoke extract on bovine bronchial epithelial cell attachment and migration. Am J Physiol 1995;268:L723-L728.
136. Wang H, Liu X, Umino T, Skold CM, Zhu Y, Kohyama T, Spurzem JR, Romberger DJ, Rennard SI. Cigarette smoke inhibits human bronchial epithelial cell repair processes. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2001;25:772-779.
137. Laurent P, Janoff A, Kagan HM. Cigarette smoke blocks cross-linking of elastin in vitro. Am Rev Respir Dis 1983;127:189-192.
138. Betsuyaku T, Fukuda Y, Parks WC, Shipley JM, Senior RM. Gelatinase B is required for alveolar bronchiolization after intratracheal bleomycin. Am J Pathol 2000;157:525-535.
139. Juvelekian GS, Stoller JK. Augmentation therapy for arantitrypsin deficiency. Drugs 2004;64:1743-1756.
140. Dhami R, Gilks B, Xie C, Zay K, Wright JL, Churg A. Acute cigarette smoke-induced connective tissue breakdown is mediated by neutrophils and prevented by arantitrypsin. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2000;22:244-252.
141. Wright JL, Farmer SG, Churg A. Synthetic serine elastase inhibitor reduces cigarette smoke-induced emphysema in guinea pigs. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;166:954-960.
142. Churg A, Zay K, Shay S, Xie C, Shapiro SD, Hendricks R, Wright JL. Acute cigarette smoke-induced connective tissue breakdown requires both neutrophils and macrophage metalloelastase in mice. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2002;27:368-374.
143. Martin RL, Shapiro SD, Tong SE, van Wart H. Macrophage metalloelastase inhibitors. In: Hansel TBP, editor. Progress in respiratory research., vol. 31: New drugs for asthma, allergy and COPD. Basel, Switzerland: Karger; 2001. pp. 177-180.
144. Rahman I, MacNee W. Role of oxidants/antioxidants in smoking-induced lung diseases. Free Radic Biol Med 1996;21:669-681.
145. Daga MK, Chhabra R, Sharma B, Mishra TK. Effects of exogenous vitamin E supplementation on the levels of oxidants and antioxidants in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Biosci 2003;28:7-11.
146. MacNee W, Bridgeman MM, Marsden M, Drost E, Lannan S, Selby C, Donaldson K. The effects of N-acetylcysteine and glutathione on smoke-induced changes in lung phagocytes and epithelial cells. Am J Med 1991;91:60S-66S.
147. Dekhuijzen PN. Antioxidant properties of N-acetylcysteine: their relevance in relation to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J 2004;23:629-636.
148. Bridgeman MM, Marsden M, Selby C, Morrison D, MacNee W. Effect of N-acetyl cysteine on the concentrations of thiols in plasma, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, and lung tissue. Thorax 1994;49:670-675.
149. Gillissen A, Jaworska M, Orth M, Coffiner M, Maes P, App EM, Cantin AM, Schultze-Werninghaus G. Nacystelyn, a novel lysine salt of N-acetylcysteine, to augment cellular antioxidant defence in vitro. Respir Med 1997;91:159-168.
150. Linden M, Wieslander E, Eklund A, Larsson K, Brattsand R. Effects of oral N-acetylcysteine on cell content and macrophage function in bronchoalveolar lavage from healthy smokers. Eur Respir J 1988;1:645-650.
151. Jankowska R, Passowicz-Muszynska E, Medrala W, Banas T, Marcinkowska A. [The influence of N-acetylcysteine on chemiluminescence of granulocytes in peripheral blood of patients with chronic bronchitis]. Pneumonol Alergol Pol 1993;61:586-591.
152. Gerrits CM, Herings RM, Leufkens HG, Lammers JW. N-Acetylcysteine reduces the risk of re-hospitalisation among patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J 2003;21:795-798.
153. Lundback B, Linstrom M, Andersson S, Nystrom L, Rosenhall L, Stjernberg N. Possible effect of acetylcysteine on lung function. Eur Respir J 1995;5:895-985.
154. British Thoracic Society Research Committee. Oral N-acetylcysteine and exacerbation rates in patients with chronic bronchitis and severe airways obstruction. Thorax 1985;40:823-835.
155. Boman G, Backer U, Larsson S, Melander B, Wahlander L. Oral acetylcysteine reduces exacerbation rate in chronic bronchitis: report of a trial organized by the Swedish Society for Pulmonary Diseases. Eur J Respir Dis 1983;64:405-415.
156. Aylward M, Maddock J, Dewland P. Clinical evaluation of acetylcysteine in the treatment of patients with chronic obstructive bronchitis: a balanced double-blind trial with placebo control. Eur J Respir Dis Suppl 1980;111:81-89.
157. Tsan MF, Phillips PG. L-2-Oxothiazolidine-4-carboxylate protects cultured endothelial cells against hyperoxia-induced injury. Inflammation 1988;12:113-121.
158. Giembycz MA. Phosphodiesterase 4: selective and dual specificity inhibitors for the therapy of COPD. Am J Respir Crit Care Med (In press)