Transdifferentiation and nuclear reprogramming in hematopoietic development and neoplasia

Immunological Reviews

Volumn 187, Issue , 2002, Pages 22-39

  French, Samuel W ^a   Hoyer, Katrina K ^a   Shen, Rhine R ^a   Teitell, Michael A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DNA; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR;

CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL FUSION; CELLULAR PARAMETERS; DNA METHYLATION; DNA MODIFICATION; GENE TARGETING; GERM LAYER; HEMATOPOIESIS; HEMATOPOIETIC SYSTEM; NEOPLASM; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; PHENOTYPE; PRECURSOR; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL FUSION; CELL NUCLEUS; GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION, NEOPLASTIC; GERM LAYERS; HEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION; HEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELLS; HUMANS; NEOPLASMS; NEURONS;

EID: 0036750562     PISSN: 01052896     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-065X.2002.18703.x     Document Type: Review

References (187)

1. Muller C, Leutz A. Chromatin remodeling in development and differentiation. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2001;11:167-174.
2. Spangrude GJ, Heimfeld S, Weissman IL. Purification and characterization of mouse hematopoietic stem cells. Science 1988;241:58-62.
3. Baum CM, Weissman IL, Tsukamoto AS, Buckle AM, Peault B. Isolation of a candidate human hematopoietic stem-cell population. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1992;89:2804-2808.
4. Busslinger M, Nutt SL, Rolink AG. Lineage commitment in lymphopoiesis. Curr Opin Immunol 2000;12:151-158.
5. Rothenberg EV. Stepwise specification of lymphocyte developmental lineages. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2000;10:370-379.
6. Anderson MK, Rothenberg EV. Transcription factor expression in lymphocyte development: clues to the evolutionary origins of lymphoid cell lineages? Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2000;248:137-155.
7. Engel I, Murre C. Transcription factors in hematopoiesis. Curr Opin Genet Dev 1999;9:575-579.
8. Kee BL, Murre C. Transcription factor regulation of B lineage commitment. Curr Opin Immunol 2001;13:180-185.
9. Orkin SH. Diversification of haematopoietic stem cells to specific lineages. Nat Rev Genet 2000; 1:57-64.
10. Akashi K, Traver D, Miyamoto T, Weissman IL. A donogenic common myeloid progenitor that gives rise to all myeloid lineages. Nature 2000;404:193-197.
11. Weissman IL, Anderson DJ, Gage F. Stem and progenitor cells: origins, phenotypes, lineage commitments, and transdifferentiations. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 2001;17:387-403.
12. Graf T. Differentiation plasticity of hematopoietic cells. Blood 2002;99:3089-3101.
13. Boyd AW, Schrader JW. Derivation of macrophage-like lines from the pre-B lymphoma ABLS 8.1 using 5-azacytidine. Nature 1982;297:691-693.
14. Klinken SP, Alexander WS, Adams JM. Hemopoietic lineage switch: v-raf oncogene converts Emu-myc transgenic B cells into macrophages. Cell 1988;53:857-867.
15. Borzillo GV, Ashmun RA, Sherr CJ. Macrophage lineage switching of murine early pre-B lymphoid cells expressing transduced fms genes. Mol Cell Biol 1990;10:2703-2714.
16. Lindeman GJ, Adams JM, Cory S, Harris AW. B-lymphoid to granulocytic switch during hematopoiesis in a transgenic mouse strain. Immunity 1994;1:517-527.
17. Rolink AG, Nutt SL, Melchers F, Busslinger M. Long-term in vivo reconstitution of T-cell development by Pax5-deficient B-cell progenitors. Nature 1999;401:603-606.
18. Nutt SL, Heavey B, Rolink AG, Busslinger M. Commitment to the B-lymphoid lineage depends on the transcription factor Pax5. Nature 1999;401:556-562.
19. Kee BL, Murre C. Induction of early B cell factor (EBF) and multiple B lineage genes by the basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor E12. J Exp Med 1998;188:699-713.
20. King AG, Kondo M, Scherer DC, Weissman IL. Lineage infidelity in myeloid cells with TCR gene rearrangement: a latent developmental potential of proT cells revealed by ectopic cytokine receptor signaling. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002;99:4508-4513.
21. Kondo M et al. Cell-fate conversion of lymphoid-committed progenitors by instructive actions of cytokines. Nature 2000;407:383-386.
22. Montecino-Rodriguez E, Leathers H, Dorshkind K. Bipotential B-macrophage progenitors are present in adult bone marrow. Nat Immunol 2001;2:83-88.
23. Nerlov C, Graf T. PU. 1 induces myeloid lineage commitment in multipotent hematopoietic progenitors. Genes Dev 1998;12:2403-2412.
24. Nerlov C, McNagny KM, Doderlein G, Kowenz-Leutz E, Graf T. Distinct C/EBP functions are required for eosinophil lineage commitment and maturation. Genes Dev 1998;12:2413-2423.
25. Kulessa H, Frampton J, Graf T. GATA-1 reprograms avian myelomonocytic cell lines into eosinophils, thromboblasts, and erythroblasts. Genes Dev 1995;9:1250-1262.
26. Querfurth E, et al. Antagonism between C/EBPbeta and FOG in eosinophil lineage commitment of multipotent hematopoietic progenitors. Genes Dev 2000;14:2515-2525.
27. Yamada T, Kihara-Negishi F, Yamamoto H, Yamamoto M, Hashimoto Y, Oikawa T. Reduction of DNA binchng activity of the GATA-1 transcription factor in the apoptotic process induced by overexpression of PU. 1 in murine erythroleukemia cells. Exp Cell Res 1998;245:186-194.
28. Yamada T, et al. Lineage switch induced by overexpression of Ets family transcription factor PU. 1 in murine erythroleukemia cells. Blood 2001;97:2300-2307.
29. Visvader JE, Elefanty AG, Strasser A, Adams JM. GATA-1 but not SCL induces megakaryocytic differentiation in an early myeloid line. EMBO J 1992;11:4557-4564.
30. Seshasayee D, Gaines P, Wojchowski DM. GATA-1 dominantly activates a program of erythroid gene expression in factor-dependent myeloid FDCW2 cells. Mol Cell Biol 1998;18:3278-3288.
31. Muller C, Kowenz-Leutz E, Grieser-Ade S, Graf T, Leutz A. NF-M (chicken C/EBP beta) induces eosinophilic differentiation and apoptosis in a hematopoietic progenitor cell line. EMBO J 1995;14:6127-6135.
32. Yamaguchi Y, Zon LI, Ackerman SJ, Yamamoto M, Suda T. Forced GATA-1 expression in the murine myeloid cell line M1: induction of c-Mpl expression and megakaryocytic/erythroid differentiation. Blood 1998;91:450-457.
33. Ferrari G et al. Muscle regeneration by bone marrow-derived myogenic progenitors. Science 1998;279:1528-1530.
34. Gussoni E, et al. Dystrophin expression in the mdx mouse restored by stem cell transplantation. Nature 1999;401:390-394.
35. Kopen GC, Prockop DJ, Phinney DG. Marrow stromal cells migrate throughout forebrain and cerebellum, and they differentiate into astrocytes after injection into neonatal mouse brains. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999;96:10711-10716.
36. Mezey E, Chandross KJ, Harta G, Maki RA, McKercher SR. Turning blood into brain: cells bearing neuronal antigens generated in vivo from bone marrow. Science 2000;290:1779-1782.
37. Brazelton TR, Rossi FM, Keshet GI, Blau HM. From marrow to brain: expression of neuronal phenotypes in adult mice. Science 2000;290:1775-1779.
38. Alison MR, et al. Hepatocytes from non-hepatic adult stem cells. Nature 2000;406:257.
39. Theise ND, et al. Liver from bone marrow in humans. Hepatology 2000;32:11-16.
40. Theise ND, et al. Derivation of hepatocytes from bone marrow cells in mice after radiation-induced myeloablation. Hepatology 2000;31:235-240.
41. Lagasse E, et al. Purified hematopoietic stem cells can differentiate into hepatocytes in vivo. Nat Med 2000;6:1229-1234.
42. Petersen BE, et al. Bone marrow as a potential source of hepatic oval cells. Science 1999;284:1168-1170.
43. Jackson KA, et al. Regeneration of ischemic cardiac muscle and vascular endothelium by adult stem cells. J Clin Invest 2001;107:1395-1402.
44. Krause DS, et al. Multi-organ, multi-lineage engraftment by a single bone marrow-derived stem cell. Cell 2001;105:369-377.
45. Orlic D, et al. Bone marrow cells regenerate infarcted myocardium. Nature 2001;410:701-705.
46. Orlic D, et al. Mobilized bone marrow cells repair the infarcted heart, improving function and survival. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001;98:10344-10349.
47. Orlic D, Kajstura J, Chimenti S, Bodine DM, Leri A, Anversa P. Transplanted adult bone marrow cells repair myocardial infarcts in mice. Ann New York Acad Sci 2001;938:221-229; discussion 229-230.
48. Bjornson CR, Rietze RL, Reynolds BA, Magli MC, Vescovi AL. Turning brain into blood: a hematopoietic fate adopted by adult neural stem cells in vivo. Science 1999;283:534-537.
49. Wakitani S, Saito T, Caplan AI. Myogenic cells derived from rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells exposed to 5-azacytidine. Muscle Nerve 1995;18:1417-1426.
50. Pereira RF, et al. Cultured adherent cells from marrow can serve as long-lasting precursor cells for bone, cartilage, and lung in irradiated mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995;92:4857-4861.
51. Prockop DJ. Marrow stromal cells as stem cells for nonhematopoietic tissues. Science 1997;276:71-74.
52. Bittner RE, et al. Recruitment of bone-marrow-derived cells by skeletal and cardiac musde in adult dystrophic mdx mice. Anat Embryol (Berlin) 1999;199:391-396.
53. Pittenger MF, et al. Multilineage potential of adult human mesenchymal stem cells. Science 1999;284:143-147.
54. Morrison SJ. Stem cell potential: can anything make anything? Curr Biol 2001;11:R7-R9.
55. Dorshkind K. Multilineage development from adult bone marrow cells. Nat Immunol 2002;3:311-313.
56. Orkin SH, Zon LI. Hematopoiesis and stem cells: plasticity versus developmental heterogeneity. Nat Immunol 2002;3:323-328.
57. Tsonis PA. Regeneration in vertebrates. Dev Biol 2000;221:273-284.
58. Bouwens L. Transdifferentiation versus stem cell hypothesis for the regeneration of islet beta-cells in the pancreas. Microsc Res Tech 1998;43:332-336.
59. Blau HM, Chiu CP, Webster C. Cytoplasmic activation of human nuclear genes in stable heterocaryons. Cell 1983;32:1171-1180.
60. Blau HM, et al. Plasticity of the differentiated state. Science 1985;230:758-766.
61. Blau HM, Baltimore D. Differentiation requires continuous regulation. J Cell Biol 1991;112:781-783.
62. Blau HM. Differentiation requires continuous active control. Annu Rev Biochem 1992;61:1213-1230.
63. Chiu CP, Blau HM. Reprogramming cell differentiation in the absence of DNA synthesis. Cell 1984;37:879-887.
64. Hakelien AM, Landsverk HB, Robl JM, Skalhegg BS, Collas P. Reprogramming fibroblasts to express T-cell functions using cell extracts. Nat Biotechnol 2002;20:460-466.
65. Jackson KA, Mi T, Goodell MA. Hematopoietic potential of stem cells isolated from murine skeletal muscle. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999;96:14482-14486.
66. McKinney-Freeman SL, Jackson KA, Camargo FD, Ferrari G, Mavilio F, Goodell MA. Muscle-derived hematopoietic stem cells are hematopoietic in origin. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002;99:1341-1346.
67. Terada N, et al. Bone marrow cells adopt the phenotype of other cells by spontaneous cell fusion. Nature 2002;416:542-545.
68. Ying QL, Nichols J, Evans EP, Smith AG. Changing potency by spontaneous fusion. Nature 2002;416:545-548.
69. Blau HM, Brazelton TR, Weimann JM. The evolving concept of a stem cell: entity or function? Cell 2001; 105:829-841.
70. Selman K, Kafatos FC. Transdifferentiation in the labial gland of silk moths: is DNA required for cellular metamorphosis? Cell Differ 1974;3:81-94.
71. Eguchi G, Kodama R. Transdifferentiation. Curr Opin Cell Biol 1993;5:1023-1028.
72. Eguchi G. Transdifferentiation of vertebrate cells in in vitro cell culture. In: Embryogenesis in mammals. (Ciba Foundation Symposium 40.) Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1976:241-258.
73. Okada TS. 'Transdifferentiation' of cells of specialized eye tissues in cell culture. In: Ebert JD, Marois L, eds. Tese of teratogenicity in vitro. Amsterdam: North Holland, 1976:91-105.
74. Beresford WA. Direct transdifferentiation: can cells change their phenotype without dividing? Cell Differ Dev 1990;29:81-93.
75. Slack JM, Tosh D. Transdifferentiation and metaplasia - switching cell types. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2001;11:581-586.
76. Weissman IL. Translating stem and progenitor cell biology to the clinic: barriers and opportunities. Science 2000;287:1442-1446.
77. Cleary ML, Galili N, Trela M, Levy R, Sklar J. Single cell origin of bigenotypic and biphenotypic B cell proliferations in human follicular lymphomas. J Exp Med 1988;167:582-597.
78. Sun GX, Wormsley S, Sparkes RS, Naeim F, Gale RP. Where does transformation occur in acute leukemia? Leuk Res 1991;15:1183-1189.
79. Buccheri V, Matutes E, Dyer MJ, Catovsky D. Lineage commitment in biphenotypic acute leukemia. Leukemia 1993:7:919-927.
80. Carbonell F, et al. Cytogenetic findings in acute biphenotypic leukaemia. Leukemia 1996;10:1283-1287.
81. Matutes E, et al. Definition of acute biphenotypic leukemia. Haematologica 1997;82:64-66.
82. Graf BA, et al. Biphenotypic B/macrophage cells express COX-1 and up-regulate COX-2 expression and prostaglandin E(2) production in response to pro- inflammatory signals. Eur J Immunol 1999;29:3793-3803.
83. Borrello MA, Palis J, Phipps RP. The relationship of CD5+ B lymphocytes to macrophages: insights from normal biphenotypic B/macrophage cells. Int Rev Immunol 2001;20:137-155.
84. Perlingeiro RC, Kyba M, Daley GQ. Clonal analysis of differentiating embryonic stem cells reveals a hematopoietic progenitor with primitive erythroid and adult lymphoid-myeloid potential. Development 2001;118:4597-4604.
85. Teitell M, Rowland JM. Systemic mast cell disease associated with primary ovarian mixed malignant germ cell tumor. Hum Pathol 1998;29:1546-1547.
86. DiBernardino MA. Genomic potential of differentiated cells, 1st edn. New York: Columbia University Press, 1997.
87. DiBernardino MA. Genomic potential of differentiated cells in other cellular systems. In: DiBernardino MA, ed. Genomic potential of differentiated cells, 1st edn. New York: Columbia University Press, 1997: 214-243.
88. Campbell KH, McWhir J, Ritchie WA, Wilmut I. Sheep cloned by nuclear transfer from a cultured cell line. Nature 1996;380:64-66.
89. Solter D. Lambing by nuclear transfer. Nature 1996;380:24-25.
90. Wilmut I, Schnieke AE, McWhir J, Kind AJ, Campbell KH. Viable offspring derived from fetal and adult mammalian cells. Nature 1997;385:810-813.
91. Wakayama T, Perry AC, Zuccotti M, Johnson ICR, Yanagimachi R. Full-term development of mice from enucleated oocytes injected with cumulus cell nuclei. Nature 1998;394:369-374.
92. Wakayama T, et al. Cloning of mice to six generations. Nature 2000;407:318-319.
93. Wakayama T, Tateno H, Mombaerts P, Yanagimachi R. Nuclear transfer into mouse zygotes. Nat Genet 2000;24:108-109.
94. Rideout WM, 3rd Eggan K, Jaenisch R. Nuclear cloning and epigenetic reprogramming of the genome. Science 2001;293:1093-1098.
95. Wakayama T, Tabar V, Rodriguez I, Perry AC, Studer L, Mombaerts P. Differentiation of embryonic stem cell lines generated from adult somatic cells by nuclear transfer. Science 2001;292:740-743.
96. Perry AC, Wakayama T. Untimely ends and new beginnings in mouse cloning. Nat Genet 2002;30:243-244.
97. Brown KE, Baxter J, Graf D, Merkenschlager M, Fisher AG. Dynamic repositioning of genes in the nucleus of lymphocytes preparing for cell division. Mol Cell 1999;3:207-217.
98. Skok JA, et al. Nonequivalent nuclear location of immunoglobulin alleles in B lymphocytes. Nat Immunol 2001;2:848-854.
99. Sinale ST, Fisher AG. Chromatin structure and gene regulation in the immune system. Annu Rev Immunol 2002;20:427-462.
100. Heun P, Taddei A, Gasser SM. From snapshots to moving pictures: new perspectives on nuclear organization. Trends Cell Biol 2001;11:519-525.
101. Belmont AS. Visualizing chromosome dynamics with GFP. Trends Cell Biol 2001;11:250-257.
102. Edelmann P, Bornfleth H, Zink D, Cremer T, Cremer C. Morphology and dynamics of chromosome territories in living cells. Biochim Biophys Acta 2001;1551:M29-M39.
103. Tanabe H, et al. Evolutionary conservation of chromosome territory arrangements in cell nuclei from higher primates. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002;99:4424-4429.
104. Grunstein M. Historie function in transcription. Annu Rev Cell Biol 1990;6:643-678.
105. Weinmann AS, et al. Nucleosome remodeling at the IL- 12 p40 promoter is a TLR-dependent, Rel-independent event. Nat Immunol 2001;2:51-57.
106. Weinmann AS, Plevy SE, Smale ST. Rapid and selective remodeling of a positioned nucleosome during the induction of IL-12 p40 transcription. Immunity 1999;11:665-675.
107. Bjorklund S, Almouzni G, Davidson I, Nightingale KP, Weiss K. Global transcription regulators of eukaryotes. Cell 1999;96:759-767.
108. Peterson CL, Workman JL. Promoter targeting and chromatin remodeling by the SWI/SNF complex. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2000;10:187-192.
109. Narlikar GJ, Fan HY, Kingston RE. Cooperation between complexes that regulate chromatin structure and transcription. Cell 2002;108:475-487.
110. Kingston RE, Narlikar GJ. ATP-dependent remodeling and acetylation as regulators of chromatin fluidity. Genes Dev 1999;13:2339-2352.
111. Georgopoulos K. Haematopoietic cell-fate decisions, chromatin regulation and ikaros. Nat Rev Immunol 2002;2:162-174.
112. Cheung P, Allis CD, Sassone-Corsi P. Signaling to chromatin through histone modifications. Cell 2000;103:263-271.
113. Marmorstein R, Roth SY. Histone acetyltransferases: function, structure, catalysis. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2001;11:155-161.
114. Jenuwein T, Allis CD. Translating the histone code. Science 2001;293:1074-1080.
115. Strahl BD, Allis CD. The language of covalent histone modifications. Nature 2000;403:41-45.
116. Brownell JE, et al. Tetrahymena histone acetyltransferase A: a homolog to yeast Gcn5p linking histone acetylation to gene activation. Cell 1996;84:843-851.
117. Kouzarides T. Histone acetylases and deacetylases in cell proliferation. Curr Opin Genet Dev 1999;9:40-48.
118. Rea S, et al. Regulation of chromatin structure by site-specific histone H3 methyltransferases. Nature 2000;406:593-599.
119. Wei YYuL, Bowen J, Gorovsky MA, Allis CD. Phosphorylation of histone H3 is required for proper chromosome condensation and segregation. Cell 1999;97:99-109.
120. Hendzel MJ, et al. Mitosis-specific phosphorylation of histone H3 initiates primarily within pericentromeric heterochromatin during G2 and spreads in an ordered fashion coincident with mitotic chromosome condensation. Chromosoma 1997;106:348-360.
121. Reik W, Dean W, Walter J. Epigenetic reprogramming in mammalian development. Science 2001;293:1089-1093.
122. Jost JP, Bruhat A. The formation of DNA methylation patterns and the silencing of genes. Prog Nucleic Acid Res Mol Biol 1997;57:217-248.
123. Razin A. CpG methylation, chromatin structure and gene silencing - a three-way connection. EMBO J 1998;17:4905-4908.
124. Riggs AD, Jones PA. 5-Methylcytosine, gene regulation, and cancer. Adv Cancer Res 1983;40:1-30.
125. Costello JF, Plass C. Methylation matters. J Med Genet 2001;38:285-303.
126. Ferguson-Smith AC, Surani MA. Imprinting and the epigenetic asymmetry between parental genomes. Science 2001;293:1086-1089.
127. Surani MA. Reprogramming of genome function through epigenetic inheritance. Nature 2001;414:122-128.
128. Surani MA. Genetics: immaculate misconception. Nature 2002;416:491-493.
129. Moustafa LA, Brinster RL. Induced chimaerism by transplanting embryonic cells into mouse blastocysts. J Exp Zool 1972;181:193-201.
130. Moustafa LA, Brinster RL. The fate of transplanted cells in mouse blastocysts in vitro. J Exp Zool 1972;181:181-191.
131. Ying Y, Liu XM, Marble A, Lawson KA, Zhao GQ. Requirement of Bmp8b for the generation of primordial germ cells in the mouse. Mol Endocrinol 2000;14:1053-1063.
132. Lawson KA, et al. Bmp4 is required for the generation of primordial germ cells in the mouse embryo. Genes Dev 1999;13:424-436.
133. Agalioti T, Lomvardas S, Parekh B, Yie J, Maniatis T, Thanos D. Ordered recruitment of chromatin modifying and general transcription factors to the IFN-beta promoter. Cell 2000;103:667-678.
134. Oswald J, et al. Active demethylation of the paternal genome in the mouse zygote. Curr Biol 2000;10:475-478.
135. Mayer W, Niveleau A, Walter J, Fundele R, Haaf T. Demethylation of the zygotic paternal genome. Nature 2000;403:501-502.
136. Gardiner-Garden M, Frommer M. CpG islands in vertebrate genomes. J Mol Biol 1987;196:261-282.
137. Larsen F, Gundersen G, Lopez R, Prydz H. CpG islands as gene markers in the human genome. Genomics 1992;13:1095-1107.
138. Antequera F, Bird A. Number of CpG islands and genes in human and mouse. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1993;90:11995-11999.
139. Antequera F, Bird A. CpG islands. EXS 1993;64:169-185.
140. Grunstein M. Histone acetylation in chromatin structure and transcription. Nature 1997;389:349-352.
141. Struhl K. Histone acetylation and transcriptional regulatory mechanisms. Genes Dev 1998;12:599-606.
142. Knoepfler PS, Eisenman RN. Sin meets NuRD and other tails of repression. Cell 1999;99:447-450.
143. Lorincz MC, Groudine M. C(m)C(a/t)GG methylation: a new epigenetic mark in mammalian DNA? Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001;98:10034-10036.
144. Iguchi-Ariga SM, Schaffner W. CpG methylation of the cAMP-responsive enhancer/promoter sequence TGACGTCA abolishes specific factor binding as well as transcriptional activation. Genes Dev 1989;3:612-619.
145. Tate PH, Bird AP. Effects of DNA methylation on DNA-binding proteins and gene expression. Curr Opin Genet Dev 1993;3:226-231.
146. Nan X, et al. Transcriptional repression by the methyl-CpG-binding protein MeCP2 involves a histone deacetylase complex. Nature 1998;393:386-389.
147. Nan X, Cross S, Bird A. Gene silencing by methyl-CpG-binding proteins. Novartis Found Symp 1998;214:6-16.
148. Jones PL, et al. Methylated DNA and MeCP2 recruit histone deacetylase to repress transcription. Nat Genet 1998;19:187-191.
149. Wade PA, Gegonne A, Jones PL, Ballestar E, Aubry F, Wolffe AP. Mi-2 complex couples DNA methylation to chromatin remodelling and histone deacetylation. Nat Genet 1999;23:62-66.
150. Bird AP, Wolffe AP. Methylation-induced repression - belts, braces, and chromatin. Cell 1999;99:451-454.
151. Fuks F, Burgers WA, Brehm A, Hughes-Davies L, Kouzarides T. DNA methyltransferase Dnmt1 associates with histone deacetylase activity. Nat Genet 2000;24:88-91.
152. Ng HH, Bird A. Historie deacetylases: silencers for hire. Trends Biochem Sci 2000;25:121-126.
153. Ohki I et al. Solution structure of the methyl-CpG binding domain of human MBD1 in complex with methylated DNA. Cell 2001;105:487-497.
154. Ballestar E, Wolffe AP. Methyl-CpG-binding proteins. Targeting specific gene repression. Eur J Biochem 2001;268:1-6.
155. Cameron EE, Bachman KE, Myohanen S, Herman JG, Baylin SB. Synergy of demethylation and histone deacetylase inhibition in the re-expression of genes silenced in cancer. Nat Genet 1999;21:103-107.
156. Pikaart MJ, Recillas-Targa F, Felsenfeld G. Loss of transcriptional activity of a transgene is accompanied by DNA methylation and histone deacetylation and is prevented by insulators. Genes Dev 1998;12:2852-2862.
157. Emery DW, Yannaki E, Tubb J, Stamatoyannopoulos G. A chromatin insulator protects retrovirus vectors from chromosomal position effects. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000;97:9150-9155.
158. Lorincz MC, Schubeler D, Goeke SC, Walters M, Groudine M, Martin DI. Dynamic analysis of proviral induction and de novo methylation: implications for a histone deacetylase-independent, methylation density-dependent mechanism of transcriptional repression. Mol Cell Biol 2000;20:842-850.
159. Clark SJ, Harrison J, Frommer M. CpNpG methylation in mammalian cells. Nat Genet 1995;10:20-27.
160. Yisraeli J, Adelstein RS, Melloul D, Nudel U, Yaffe D, Cedar H. Muscle-specific activation of a methylated chimeric actin gene. Cell 1986;46:409-416.
161. Lubbert M, Mertelsmann R, Herrmann F. Cytosine methylation changes during normal hematopoiesis and in acute myeloid leukemia. Leukemia 1997;11:S12-S18.
162. Sakashita K, et al. Dynamic DNA methylation change in the CpG island region of p15 during human myeloid development. J Clin Invest 2001;108:1195-1204.
163. Agarwal S, Rao A. Modulation of chromatin structure regulates cytokine gene expression during T cell differentiation. Immunity 1998;9:765-775.
164. Bird JJ, et al. Helper T cell differentiation is controlled by the cell cyde. Immunity 1998;9:229-237.
165. Lee DU, Agarwal S, Rao A. Demethylation of the IL-4 gene is associated with efficient cytokine production. Immunity 2002;16:649-660.
166. Altheim BA, Schultz MC. Histone modification governs the cell cycle regulation of a replication-independent chromatin assembly pathway in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999;96:1345-1350.
167. Briggs SD, et al. Historie H3 lysine 4 methylation is mediated by Set1 and required for cell growth and rDNA silencing in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Genes Dev 2001;15:3286-3295.
168. Dobosy JR, Selker EU. Emerging connections between DNA methylation anal histone acetylation. Cell Mol Life Sci 2001;58:721-727.
169. Martienssen RA, Colot V. DNA methylation anal epigenetic inheritance in plants and filamentous fungi. Science 2001;293:1070-1074.
170. Tamaru H, Selker EU. A historie H3 methyltransferase controls DNA methylation in Neurospora crassa. Nature 2001;414:277-283.
171. Rice JC, Allis CD. Code of silence. Nature 2001;414:258-261.
172. Jackson JP, Lindroth AM, Cao X, Jacobsen SE. Control of CpNpG DNA methylation by the KRYPTONITE historie H3 methyltransferase. Nature 2002;416:556-560.
173. Nakayama J, Rice JC, Strahl BD, Allis CD, Grewal SI. Role of histone H3 lysine 9 methylation in epigenetic control of heterochromatin assembly. Science 2001;292:110-113.
174. Di Croce L, et al. Methyltransferase recruitment and DNA hypermethylation of target promoters by an oncogenic transcription factor. Science 2002;295:1079-1082.
175. French SW, et al. DNA methylation profiling: a new tool for evaluating hematologic malignancies. Clin Immunol 2002;103:217-230.
176. Lee PP, et al. A critical role for Dnmt1 and DNA methylation in T cell development, function, and survival. Immunity 2001;15:763-774.
177. McGrath J, Solter D. Nuclear transplantation in the mouse embryo by microsurgery and cell fusion. Science 1983;220:1300-1302.
178. Willadsen SM. Nuclear transplantation in sheep embryos. Nature 1986;320:63-65.
179. Hochedlinger K, Jaenisch R. Monoclonal mice generated by nuclear transfer from mature B and T donor cells. Nature 2002;415:1035-1038.
180. Wakayama T, Yanagimachi R. Mouse cloning with nucleus donor cells of different age and type. Mol Reprod Dev 2001;58:376-383.
181. Nagy A, Rossant J, Nagy R, Abramow-Newerly W, Roder JC. Derivation of completely cell culture-derived mice from early-passage embryonic stem cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1993;90:8424-8428.
182. Eggan K, et al. Hybrid vigor, fetal over-growth, and viability of mice derived by nuclear cloning and tetraploid embryo complementation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001;98:6209-6214.
183. Cross JC. Factors affecting the developmental potential of cloned mammalian embryos. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001;98:5949-5951.
184. Wright WE. Expression of differentiated functions in heterokaryons between skeletal myocytes, adrenal cells, fibroblasts and glial cells. Exp Cell Res 1984;151:55-69.
185. Spear BT, Tilghman SM. Role of alpha-fetoprotein regulatory elements in transcriptional activation in transient heterokaryons. Mol Cell Biol 1990;10:5047-5054.
186. Tada M, Tada T, Lefebvre L, Barton SC, Surani MA. Embryonic germ cells induce epigenetic reprogramming of somatic nucleus in hybrid cells. EMBO J 1997;16:6510-6520.
187. Tada M, Takahama Y, Abe K, Nakatsuji N, Tada T. Nuclear reprogramming of somatic cells by in vitro hybridization with ES cells. Curr Biol 2001;11:1553-1558.