Cortisol and the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis in PTSD

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: From Neurobiology to Treatment

Volumn , Issue , 2016, Pages 265-290

  Lehrner, Amy ^a   Daskalakis, Nicolaos ^a   Yehuda, Rachel ^a  

^a MOUNT SINAI SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Adrenal cortex; Adrenocorticotropic hormone; Corticotropin releasing factor; Corticotropin releasing hormone; Cortisol; Glucocorticoid; Hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis; Posttraumatic stress disorder

Indexed keywords

EID: 84984584172     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9781118356142.ch11     Document Type: Chapter

References (163)

1. Aardal-Eriksson E, Eriksson TE, Thorell LH (2001) Salivary cortisol, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and general health in the acute phase and during 9-month follow-up. Biol Psychiatry Dec 15;50, 986-93.
2. Acheson D, Feifel D, de Wilde S et al. (2013) The effect of intranasal oxytocin treatment on conditioned fear extinction and recall in a healthy human sample. Psychopharmacology 229, 199-208.
3. Aerni A, Traber R, Hock C et al. (2004) Low-dose cortisol for symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 161, 1488-90.
4. Amstadter AB, Nugent NR, Yang BZ et al. (2011) Corticotrophin-releasing hormone type 1 receptor gene (CRHR1) variants predict posttraumatic stress disorder onset and course in pediatric injury patients. Dis Markers 30(2-3), 89-99.
5. Bangasser DA. Sex differences in stress-related receptors: ''micro'' differences with ''macro'' implications for mood and anxiety disorders. Biol Sex Differ 4, 2.
6. Basu A, Levendosky AA, Lonstein JS (2013) Trauma sequelae and cortisol levels in women exposed to intimate partner violence. Psychodyn Psychiatry 41, 247-75.
7. Bentz D, Michael T, de Quervain DJ et al. (2010) Enhancing exposure therapy for anxiety disorders with glucocorticoids: from basicmechanisms of emotional learning to clinical applications. J Anxiety Disord 24, 223-30.
8. Bestor TH (2000) The DNA methyltransferases of mammals. Hum Mol Genet 9, 2395-2402.
9. Binder EB, Bradley RG, LiuWet al. (2008) Association of FKBP5 polymorphisms and childhood abuse with risk of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in adults. JAMA 299, 1291-305.
10. Binder EB (2009) The role of fkbp5, a co-chaperone of the glucocorticoid receptor in the pathogenesis and therapy of affective and anxiety disorders. Psychoneuroendocrinology 34 Suppl 1, S186-195.
11. Bonanno GA, Mancini AD, Horton JL et al. (2012) Trajectories of trauma symptoms and resilience in deployed U.S. military service members: prospective cohort study. Br J Psychiatry 200, 317-23.
12. Bonne O, Brandes D, Segman R et al. (2003) Prospective evaluation of plasma cortisol in recent trauma survivors with posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res 119(1-2), 171-5.
13. Boscarino JA (2004) Posttraumatic stress disorder and physical illness: results from clinical and epidemiologic studies. Ann NY Acad Sci 1032, 141-53.
14. Bremner JD, Licinio J, Darnell A et al. (1997) Elevated CSF corticotropin-releasing factor concentrations in posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 154, 624-9.
15. Bremner JD, Vermetten E, Kelley ME (2007) Cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone, and estradiol measured over 24 hours in women with childhood sexual abuse-related posttraumatic stress disorder. J Nerv Ment Dis 195, 919-927.
16. Bremner JD, Vythilingam M, Vermetten E et al. (2003b) Cortisol response to a cognitive stress challenge in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) related to childhood abuse. Psychoneuroendocrinology 28, 733-50.
17. Bremner JD (2001) Hypotheses and controversies related to effects of stress on the hippocampus: an argument for stress-induced damage to the hippocampus in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. Hippocampus 11, 75-81.
18. Breslau N, Anthony JC (2007) Gender differences in the sensitivity to posttraumatic stress disorder: An epidemiological study of urban young adults. J Abnorm Psychol 116, 607-11.
19. Breslau N, Davis GC, Andreski P et al. Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults. Arch Gen Psychiatry 48, 216-222.
20. Breslau N, Kessler RC, Chilcoat HD et al. Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in the community: the 1996 Detroit Area Survey of Trauma. Arch Gen Psychiatry 55, 626-32.
21. Breslau N (2002) Gender differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder. J Gend Specif Med 5, 34-40.
22. Breslau N (2009) The epidemiology of trauma, PTSD, and other posttrauma disorders. Trauma Violence Abuse 10, 198-210.
23. Carrion VG,Weems CF, Ray RD et al. (2002) Diurnal salivary cortisol in pediatric posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 51, 575-82.
24. Cheung J, Chervonsky L, Felmingham KL et al. (2013) The role of estrogen in intrusive memories. Neurobiol Learn Mem 106C, 87-94.
25. Chrousos GP (2009) Stress and disorders of the stress system. Nat Rev Endocrinol 5, 374-381.
26. Cohen H, Kaplan Z, Kozlovsky N et al. (2010) Hippocampal microinfusion of oxytocin attenuates the behavioural response to stress by means of dynamic interplay with the glucocorticoid-catecholamine responses. J Neuroendocrinol 22, 889-904.
27. Cohen H, Matar MA, Buskila D et al. (2008) Early post-stressor intervention with high-dose corticosterone attenuates posttraumatic stress response in an animal model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 64, 708-17.
28. Cohen H, Zohar J, Gidron Y et al. (2006) Blunted HPA axis response to stress influences susceptibility to posttraumatic stress response in rats. Biol Psychiatry 59, 1208-18.
29. Daskalakis NP, Lehrner A, Yehuda R (2013) Endocrine aspects of post-traumatic stress disorder and implications for diagnosis and treatment. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 42, 503-13.
30. Daskalakis NP, Cohen H, Cai G et al. (2014). Expression profiling associates blood and brain glucocorticoid receptor signaling with trauma-related individual differences in both sexes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 111, 13529-13534.
31. de Bitencourt RM, Pamplona FA, Takahashi RN (2013) A current overview of cannabinoids and glucocorticoids in facilitating extinction of aversive memories:potential extinction enhancers. Neuropharmacology 64, 389-95.
32. de Kleine RA, Rothbaum BO, van Minnen A (2013) Pharmacological enhancement of exposure-based treatment in PTSD: a qualitative review. Eur J Psychotraumatol Oct 17, 4.
33. de Kloet CS, Vermetten E, Bikker A et al. (2007) Leukocyte glucocorticoid receptor expression and immunoregulation in veterans with and without post-traumatic stress disorder. Mol Psychiatry 12, 443-53.
34. de Kloet CS, Vermetten E, Geuze E et al. (2006) Assessment of HPA-axis function in posttraumatic stress disorder: pharmacological and non-pharmacological challenge tests, a review. J Psychiatr Res 40, 550-67.
35. de Kloet ER, Joëls M, Holsboer F (2005) Stress and the brain: from adaptation to disease. Nat Rev Neurosci 6, 463-75.
36. de Quervain DJ, Bentz D, Michael T et al. (2011) Glucocorticoids enhance extinction-based psychotherapy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108, 6621-5.
37. de Vries GJ, Olff M (2009) The lifetime prevalence of traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in the Netherlands. J Trauma Stress 22, 259-67.
38. Dekel S, Ein-Dor T, Gordon KM et al. (2013) Cortisol and PTSD Symptoms Among Male and Female High-Exposure 9/11 Survivors. J Trauma Stress 26, 621-625.
39. Delahanty DL, Gabert-Quillen C, Ostrowski SA et al. (2013) The efficacy of initial hydrocortisone administration at preventing posttraumatic distress in adult trauma patients: a randomized trial. CNS Spectr 18, 103-11.
40. Delahanty DL, Nugent NR, Christopher NC et al. (2005) Initial urinary epinephrine and cortisol levels predict acute PTSD symptoms in child trauma victims. Psychoneuroendocrinology 30, 121-8.
41. Delahanty DL, Raimonde AJ, Spoonster E (2000) Initial posttraumatic urinary cortisol levels predict subsequent PTSD symptoms in motor vehicle accident victims. Biol Psychiatry 48, 940-7.
42. Dunlop BW, Mansson E, Gerardi M (2012) Pharmacological innovations for posttraumatic stress disorder and medication-enhanced psychotherapy. Curr Pharm Des 18, 5645-58.
43. Ehring T, Ehlers A, Cleare AJ et al. (2008) Do acute psychological and psychobiological responses to trauma predict subsequent symptom severities of PTSD and depression? Psychiatry Res 161, 67-75.
44. Elzinga BM, Bakker A, Bremner JD (2005) Stress-induced cortisol elevations are associated with impaired delayed, but not immediate recall. Psychiatry Res 134, 211-223.
45. Elzinga BM, Schmahl CS, Vermetten E et al. (2003) Higher cortisol levels following exposure to traumatic reminders in abuse-related PTSD. Neuropsychopharmacology 28, 1656-1665.
46. Eskandarian S, Vafaei AA, Vaezi GH et al. (2013) Effects of systemic administration of oxytocin on contextual fear extinction in a rat model of post-traumatic stress disorder. Basic Clin Neurosci 4, 315-22.
47. Ferree NK, Wheeler M, Cahill L (2012) The influence of emergency contraception on post-traumatic stress symptoms following sexual assault. J Forensic Nurs 8, 122-30.
48. Finsterwald C, Alberini CM (2013) Stress and glucocorticoid receptor-dependent mechanisms in long-term memory: From adaptive responses to psychopathologies. Neurobiol Learn Mem 112, 17-29.
49. Fletcher S, Creamer M, Forbes D (2010) Preventing post traumatic stress disorder: are drugs the answer? Aust NZ J Psychiatry 44, 1064-71.
50. Freidenberg BM, Gusmano R, Hickling EJ et al. (2010) Women with PTSD have lower basal salivary cortisol levels later in the day than do men with PTSD: a preliminary study. Physiol Behav 99, 234-6.
51. Glover DA, Poland RE (2002) Urinary cortisol and catecholamines in mothers of child cancer survivors with and without PTSD. Psychoneuroendocrinology 27, 805-19.
52. Glover EM, Jovanovic T, Mercer KB et al. (2012) Estrogen levels are associated with extinction deficits in women with posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 72, 19-24.
53. Glover EM, Mercer KB, Norrholm SD et al. (2013) Inhibition of fear is differentially associated with cycling estrogen levels in women. J Psychiatry Neurosci 38, 341-8.
54. Golier JA, Caramanica K, Demaria R et al. (2012) A pilot study of mifepristone in combat-related PTSD. Depress Res Treat, 393251.
55. Hawk LW, Dougall AL, Ursano RJ et al. (2000) Urinary catecholamines and cortisol inrecent-onset posttraumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accidents. Psychosom Med 62, 423-34.
56. Hidalgo RB, Davidson JR (2000) Posttraumatic stress disorder: epidemiology and health-related considerations. J Clin Psychiatry 61 Suppl 7, 5-13.
57. Hongrong Luo, Xun Hu, Xiang Liu et al. (2012) Hair cortisol level as a biomarker for altered hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal activity in female adolescents with posttraumatic stress disorder after the 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake. Biol Psychiatry 72, 65-69.
58. Johnson DM, Delahanty DL, Pinna K (2008) The cortisol awakening response as a function of PTSD severity and abuse chronicity in sheltered battered women. J Anxiety Disord 22, 793-800.
59. Kanter ED, Wilkinson CW, Radant AD et al. (2001) Glucocorticoid feedback sensitivity and adrenocortical responsiveness in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 50, 238-45.
60. Kellner M, Wiedemann K, Yassouridis A et al. (2000) Behavioral and endocrine response to cholecystokinin tetrapeptide in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 47, 107-11.
61. Kendall-Tackett KA (2000) Physiological correlates of childhood abuse: chronic hyperarousal in PTSD, depression, and irritable bowel syndrome. Child Abuse Negl 24, 799-810.
62. Kim JK, Samaranayake M, Pradhan S. (2009) Epigenetic mechanisms in mammals. Cell Mol Life Sci 66, 596-612.
63. Klaassens ER, Giltay EJ, Cuijpers P et al. (2012) Adulthood trauma and HPA-axis functioning in healthy subjects and PTSD patients: a meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology 37, 317-31.
64. Klengel T, Mehta D, Anacker C, et al. (2013) Allele-specific FKBP5 DNA demethylationmediates gene-childhood trauma interactions. Nat Neurosci 16, 33-41.
65. Lehrner A, Bierer LM, Passarelli V et al. (2014) Maternal PTSD associates with greater glucocorticoid sensitivity in offspring of Holocaust survivors. Psychoneuroendocrinology 40, 213-20.
66. Lehrner A, Yehuda R (2014) Biomarkers of PTSD: military applications and considerations. Eur J Psychotraumatol 5.
67. Luo H, Hu X, Liu X et al. (2012) Hair cortisol level as a biomarker for altered hypothalamicpituitary-adrenal activity in female adolescents with posttraumatic stress disorder after the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake. Biol Psychiatry 72, 65-9.
68. Mason JW, Giller EL, Kosten TR et al. (1986) Urinary free-cortisol levels in posttraumatic stress disorder patients. J Nerv Ment Dis 174, 145-9.
69. Matić G,Milutinović DV, Nestorov J et al. (2013) Lymphocyteglucocorticoid receptor expression level and hormone-binding properties differ between war trauma-exposed men with and without PTSD. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry Jun 3;43, 238-45.
70. McEwen BS, Wingfield JC (2003) The concept of allostasis in biology and biomedicine. Horm Behav 43, 2-15. Review.
71. McEwen BS (2012) Brain on stress: how the social environment gets under the skin. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 109 Suppl 2, 17180-17185. Erratum in: Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 110, 1561.
72. McFarlane AC, Atchison M, Yehuda R (1997) The acute stress response following motor vehicle accidents and its relation to PTSD. Ann NY Acad Sci 821, 437-41.
73. McFarlane AC, Barton CA, Yehuda R et al. (2011) Cortisol response to acute trauma and risk of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 36, 720-7.
74. McGowan PO (2013) Epigenomic mechanisms of early adversity and HPA dysfunction: considerations for PTSD research. Front Psychiatry Sep 4, 110.
75. Meaney MJ (2001) Maternal care, gene expression, and the transmission of individual differences in stress reactivity across generations. Annu Rev Neurosci 24, 1161-92.
76. Meewisse ML, Reitsma JB, de Vries GJ et al. (2007) Cortisol and post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: systematic review and meta-analysis. BrJ Psychiatry 191, 387-92. Review.
77. Mehta D, Binder EB (2012) Gene × environment vulnerability factors for PTSD: the HPA-axis. Neuropharmacology 62, 654-662.
78. Meyer JS, Novak MA (2012) Minireview: Hair cortisol: a novel biomarker of hypothalamicpituitary-adrenocortical activity. Endocrinology 153, 4120-7.
79. Morris MC, Compas BE, Garber J (2012) Relations among posttraumatic stress disorder, comorbid major depression, and HPA function: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Rev 32, 301-15.
80. Nemeroff CB (1996) The corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) hypothesis of depression: new findings and new directions. Mol Psychiatry 1, 336-42. Review.
81. Newport DJ, Heim C, Bonsall R et al. (2004) Pituitary-adrenal responses to standard and low-dose dexamethasone suppression tests in adult survivors of child abuse. Biol Psychiatry 55, 10-20.
82. Neylan TC, Schadt EE, Yehuda R (2014) Biomarkers for combat-related PTSD: focus on molecular networks from high-dimensional data. Eur J Psychotraumatol Aug 14, 5.
83. Olff M, de Vries GJ, Güzelcan Y et al. (2007) Changes in cortisol and DHEA plasma levels after psychotherapy for PTSD. Psychoneuroendocrinology 32, 619-26.
84. Olff M (2012) Bonding after trauma: on the role of social support and the oxytocin system in traumatic stress. Eur J Psychotraumatol 3.
85. Pariante CM,Miller AH (2001) Glucocorticoid receptors inmajor depression: relevance to pathophysiology and treatment. Biol Psychiatry 49, 391-404.
86. Perroud N, Paoloni-Giacobino A, Prada P et al. (2011) Increased methylation of glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1) in adults with a history of childhood maltreatment: a link with the severity and type of trauma. Transl Psychiatry Dec 1, e59.
87. Pervanidou P (2008) Biology of post-traumatic stress disorder in childhood and adolescence. J Neuroendocrinol 20, 632-8.
88. Pietrzak RH, Feder A, Schechter CB et al. (2013) Dimensional structure and course of post-traumatic stress symptomatology in World Trade Center responders. Psychol Med Dec 2, 1-14. [Epub 2013 Dec 2]
89. Pineles SL, Rasmusson AM, Yehuda R et al. (2013) Predicting emotional responses to potentially traumatic events from pre-exposure waking cortisol levels: a longitudinal study of police and firefighters. Anxiety Stress Coping 26, 241-53.
90. Pinna KL, Johnson DM, Delahanty DL. (2014) PTSD, comorbid depression, and the cortisol waking response in victims of intimate partner violence: preliminary evidence. Anxiety Stress Coping 27, 253-69.
91. Pitman RK, Orr SP, Lasko NB (1993) Effects of intranasal vasopressin and oxytocin on physiologic responding during personal combat imagery in Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res 48, 107-17.
92. Pratchett LC, Pelcovitz MR, Yehuda R. (2010) Trauma and violence: are women the weaker sex? Psychiatr Clin North Am 33, 465-74.
93. Qureshi SU, Pyne JM, Magruder KM et al. (2009) The link between post-traumatic stress disorder and physical comorbidities: a systematic review. Psychiatr Q 80, 87-97.
94. Raison CL, Miller AH. (2003) When not enough is too much: the role of insufficient glucocorticoid signaling in the pathophysiology of stress-related disorders. AmJ Psychiatry 160, 1554-65. Review.
95. Resnick HS, Yehuda R, Pitman RK et al. (1995) Effect of previous trauma on acute plasma cortisol level following rape. Am J Psychiatry 152, 1675-7.
96. Robison AJ, Vialou V, Sun HS et al. (2014). Fluoxetine epigenetically alters the CaMKIIα promoter in nucleus accumbens to regulate ΔFosB binding and antidepressant effects. Neuropsychopharmacology 39, 1178-1186.
97. Rohleder N, Joksimovic L, Wolf JM et al. (2004) Hypocortisolism and increasedglucocorticoid sensitivity of pro-Inflammatory cytokine production in Bosnian war refugees with posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 55, 745-51.
98. Roozendaal B, Okuda S, de Quervain DJ et al. (2006) Glucocorticoids interact with emotion-induced noradrenergic activation in influencing different memory functions. Neuroscience 138, 901-10.
99. Sarapas C, Cai G, Bierer LM et al. (2011) Genetic markers for PTSD risk and resilience among survivors of the World Trade Center attacks. Dis Markers 30(2-3), 101-10.
100. Schelling G, Briegel J, Roozendaal B et al. (2001) The effect of stress doses of hydrocortisone during septic shock on posttraumatic stress disorder in survivors. Biol Psychiatry 50, 978-85.
101. Schelling G, Kilger E, Roozendaal B et al. (2004b) Stress doses of hydrocortisone, traumatic memories, and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder in patients after cardiac surgery: a randomized study. Biol Psychiatry 55, 627-33.
102. Schelling G, Roozendaal B, De Quervain DJ (2004a) Can posttraumatic stress disorder be prevented with glucocorticoids? Ann NY Acad Sci 1032, 158-66.
103. Schelling G, Stoll C, Kapfhammer HP et al. (1999) The effect of stress doses of hydrocortisone during septic shock on posttraumatic stress disorder and health-related quality of life in survivors. Crit Care Med 27, 2678-83.
104. Schmidt U, Kaltwasser SF, Wotjak CT (2013). Biomarkers in posttraumatic stress disorder: overview and implications for future research. Dis Markers 35, 43-54.
105. Shalev AY, Freedman S, Peri T et al.(1997) Predicting PTSD in trauma survivors: prospective evaluation of self-report and clinician-administered instruments. Br J Psychiatry 170, 558-64.
106. Shalev AY, Videlock EJ, Peleg T et al. (2008) Stress hormones and post-traumatic stress disorder in civilian trauma victims: a longitudinal study. Part I: HPA axis responses. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 11, 365-72.
107. Sharpley CF, McFarlane JR, Slominski A (2011) Stress-linked cortisol concentrations in hair: what we know and what we need to know. Rev Neurosci Dec 23, 111-21.
108. Skelton K, Ressler KJ, Norrholm SD et al. PTSD and gene variants: new pathways and new thinking. Neuropharmacology (2012) 62, 628-37.
109. Slominski A, Wortsman J, Tuckey RC et al. (2007) Differential expression of HPA axis homolog in the skin. Mol Cell Endocrinol 265-266, 143-149.
110. Smith AK, Conneely KN, Kilaru V et al. (2011) Differential immune system DNA methylation and cytokine regulation in post-traumatic stress disorder. Am J Med Genet 156, 700-708.
111. Southwick SM, Bremner JD, Rasmusson A et al. (1999) Role of norepinephrine in the pathophysiology and treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 46, 1192-204.
112. Sriram K, Rodriguez-Fernandez M, Doyle FJ 3rd (2012) Modeling cortisol dynamics in the neuro-endocrine axis distinguishes normal, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in humans. PLoS Comput Biol 8, e1002379.
113. Stalder T, Kirschbaum C (2012) Analysis of cortisol in hair -state of the art and future directions. Brain Behav Immun 26, 1019-29.
114. Staufenbiel SM, Penninx BW, Spijker AT et al. (2013) Hair cortisol, stress exposure, and mental health in humans: a systematic review. Psychoneuroendocrinology 38, 1220-35.
115. Steckler T, Risbrough V (2012) Pharmacological treatment of PTSD -established and new approaches. Neuropharmacology 62, 617-27.
116. Steudte S, Kirschbaum C, Gao W et al. (2013) Hair cortisol as a biomarker of traumatization in healthy individuals and posttraumatic stress disorder patients. Biol Psychiatry 74, 639-46.
117. Surís A, North C, Adinoff B et al. (2010) Effects of exogenous glucocorticoid on combat-related PTSD symptoms. Ann Clin Psychiatry 22, 274-9.
118. Szyf M, McGowan P, Meaney MJ (2008) The social environment and the epigenome. Environ Mol Mutagen 49, 46-60.
119. Toth I, Neumann ID, Slattery DA (2012) Central administration of oxytocin receptor ligands affects cued fear extinction in rats and mice in a timepoint-dependent manner. Psychopharmacology(Berl) 223, 149-58.
120. Toyokawa S, Uddin M, Koenen KC et al. (2012) How does the social environment 'get into the mind'? Epigenetics at the intersection of social and psychiatric epidemiology. Soc Sci Med 74, 67-74.
121. Tsankova NM, Berton O, Renthal W et al. (2006) Sustained hippocampal chromatin regulation in a mouse model of depression and antidepressant action. Nature Neurosci 9, 519-525.
122. Tsankova, N., Renthal, W., Kumar, A., & Nestler, E. J. (2007). Epigenetic regulation in psychiatric disorders. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 8(5), 355-367.
123. Tyrka AR, Price LH, Marsit C et al. (2012) Childhood adversity and epigenetic modulation of the leukocyte glucocorticoid receptor: preliminary findings in healthy adults. PLoS One 7, e30148.
124. Van Cauter E, Leproult R, Kupfer DJ (1996) Effects of gender and age on the levels and circadian rhythmicity of plasma cortisol. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81, 2468-73.
125. van Stegeren AH (2008) The role of the noradrenergic system in emotionalmemory. Acta Psychol (Amst) 127, 532-41.
126. van Zuiden M, Geuze E, Willemen HL et al. (2011) Pre-existing high glucocorticoid receptor number predicting development of posttraumatic stress symptoms aftermilitary deployment. Am J Psychiatry 168, 89-96.
127. van Zuiden M, Geuze E, Willemen HL et al. (2012) Glucocorticoid receptor pathway components predict posttraumatic stress disorder symptom development: a prospective study. Biol Psychiatry 71, 309-16.
128. van Zuiden M, Heijnen CJ, Maas M et al. (2012) Glucocorticoid sensitivity of leukocytes predicts PTSD, depressive and fatigue symptoms after military deployment: A prospective study. Psychoneuroendocrinology 37, 1822-36.
129. van Zuiden M, Kavelaars A, Geuze E et al. (2013) Predicting PTSD: pre-existing vulnerabilities in glucocorticoid-signaling and implications for preventive interventions. Brain Behav Immun 30, 12-21.
130. Vermetten E, Vythilingam M, Schmahl C et al. (2006) Alterations in stress reactivity after long-term treatment with paroxetine in women with posttraumatic stress disorder. Ann NY Acad Sci 1071, 80-86.
131. Viveros MP, Mendrek A, Paus T et al. (2012) A comparative, developmental, and clinical perspectiveof neurobehavioral sexual dimorphisms. Front Neurosci 6, 84.
132. Vythilingam M, Lawley M, Collin C et al. (2006) Hydrocortisone impairs hippocampaldependent trace eyeblink conditioning in post-traumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 31, 182-8.
133. Wahbeh H, Oken BS (2013) Salivary cortisol lower in posttraumatic stress disorder. J Trauma Stress 26, 241-8.
134. Walsh K, Nugent NR, Kotte A et al. (2013) Cortisol at the emergency room rape visit as a predictor of PTSD and depression symptoms over time. Psychoneuroendocrinology 38, 2520-8.
135. Weaver IC, Champagne FA, Brown SE et al. (2005) Reversal of maternal programming of stress responses in adult offspring through methyl supplementation: altering epigenetic marking later in life. J Neurosci 25, 11045-11054.
136. Weis F, Kilger E, Roozendaal B et al. (2006) Stress doses of hydrocortisone reduce chronic stress symptoms and improve health-related quality of life in high-risk patients after cardiac surgery: a randomized study. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 131, 277-82.
137. White S, Acierno R, Ruggiero KJ, Koenen KC, et al. (2013) Association of CRHR1 variants and posttraumatic stress symptoms in hurricane exposed adults. J Anxiety Disord 27, 678-83.
138. Wilkinson MB, Xiao G, Kumar A et al. (2009) Imipramine treatment and resiliency exhibit similar chromatin regulation in the mouse nucleus accumbens in depression models. J Neurosci 29, 7820-7832.
139. Yehuda R, Bierer LM, Pratchett L et al. (2010a) Glucocorticoid augmentation of prolonged exposure therapy: rationale and case report. Eur J Psychotraumatol 1.
140. Yehuda R, Bierer LM, Pratchett LC et al. (2015b) Cortisol augmentation of a psychological treatment for warfighters with posttraumatic stress disorder: Randomized trial showing improved treatment retention and outcome. Psychoneuroendocrinology 51, 589-97.
141. Yehuda R, Boisoneau D, Mason JW et al. (1993) Glucocorticoid receptor number and cortisol excretion in mood, anxiety, and psychotic disorders. Biol Psychiatry 34(1-2), 18-25.
142. Yehuda R, Cai G, Golier JA et al. (2009) Gene expression patterns associated with posttraumatic stress disorder following exposure to theWorld Trade Center attacks. Biol Psychiatry 66, 708-11.
143. Yehuda R, Daskalakis NP, Desarnaud F et al. (2013) Epigenetic Biomarkers as Predictors and Correlates of Symptom Improvement Following Psychotherapy in Combat Veterans with PTSD. Front Psychiatry 4, 118.
144. Yehuda R, Engel SM, Brand SR et al. (2005) Transgenerational effects of posttraumatic stress disorder in babies of mothers exposed to the World Trade Center attacks during pregnancy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90, 4115-8.
145. Yehuda R, Flory JD, Bierer LMet al. (2015a) Lower methylation of glucocorticoid receptor gene promoter 1F in peripheral blood of veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 77, 356-64.
146. Yehuda R, Flory JD, Pratchett LC et al. (2010b) Psychopharmacology (Berl) 212, 405-17.
147. Yehuda R, Golier JA, Kaufman S (2005a) Circadian rhythm of salivary cortisol in Holocaust survivors with and without PTSD. Am J Psychiatry 162, 998-1000.
148. Yehuda R, Halligan SL, Grossman R et al. (2002) The cortisol and glucocorticoid receptor response to low dose dexamethasone administration in aging combat veterans and holocaust survivors with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry Sep 1;52, 393-403.
149. Yehuda R, Halligan SL, Grossman R (2001) Childhood trauma and risk for PTSD: relationship to intergenerational effects of trauma, parental PTSD, and cortisol excretion. Dev Psychopathol 13, 733-53.
150. Yehuda R, Kahana B, Binder-Brynes K et al. (1995) Low urinary cortisol excretion in Holocaust survivors with posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 152, 982-6.
151. Yehuda R, Koenen KC, Galea S et al. (2011) The role of genes in defining a molecular biology of PTSD. Dis Markers 30(2-3), 67-76.
152. Yehuda R, McFarlane AC, Shalev AY (1998) Predicting the development of posttraumatic stress disorder from the acute response to a traumatic event. Biol Psychiatry 44, 1305-13.
153. Yehuda R, Pratchett LC, ElmesMWet al. (2014) Glucocorticoid-related predictors and correlates of post-traumatic stress disorder treatment response in combat veterans. Interface Focus 4, 20140048.
154. Yehuda R, Teicher MH, Trestman RL et al. (1996) Cortisol regulation in posttraumatic stress disorder and major depression: a chronobiological analysis. Biol Psychiatry 40, 79-88.
155. Yehuda R, Yang RK, Buchsbaum MS et al. (2006) Alterations in cortisol negative feedback inhibition as examined using the ACTH response to cortisol administration in PTSD. Psychoneuroendocrinology 31, 447-51.
156. Yehuda R (2002) Current status of cortisol findings in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am 25, 341-68.
157. Yehuda R (1997) Sensitization of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in posttraumatic stress disorder. Ann NY Acad Sci 821, 57-75.
158. Yehuda R (2009) Status of glucocorticoid alterations in post-traumatic stress disorder. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1179, 56-69.
159. Yehuda, R., Halligan, S. L., Golier, J. A., Grossman, R., & Bierer, L. M. (2004). Effects of trauma exposure on the cortisol response to dexamethasone administration in PTSD and major depressive disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 29, 389-404.
160. Zohar J, Yahalom H, Kozlovsky N et al. (2011) High dose hydrocortisone immediately after trauma may alter the trajectory of PTSD: interplay between clinical and animal studies. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 21, 796-809.
161. Zoladz PR, Diamond DM. Current status on behavioral and biological markers of PTSD: a search for clarity in a conflicting literature. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 37, 860-95.
162. Zoladz PR, Diamond DM (2013) Current status on behavioral and biological markers of PTSD: a search for clarity in a conflicting literature. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 37, 860-95.
163. Zovkic IB, Meadows JP, Kaas GA et al. (2013) Interindividual variability in stress susceptibility: a role for epigenetic mechanisms in PTSD. Front Psychiatry 4, 60.