Stereotype Threat in Organizations: Implications for Equity and Performance

Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior

Volumn 2, Issue , 2015, Pages 523-550

  Walton, Gregory M ^a   Murphy, Mary C ^b   Ryan, Ann Marie ^c  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b INDIANA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Gender; Performance; Race; Stereotype threat

Indexed keywords

EID: 84949637359     PISSN: None     EISSN: 23270608     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032414-111322     Document Type: Review

References (202)

1. Aguinis H, ed. 2004. Test Score Banding in Human Resource Selection: Legal, Technical and Societal Issues. Westport, CT: Praeger
2. Aguinis H, Culpepper SA, Pierce CA. 2010. Revival of test bias research in preemployment testing. J. Appl. Psychol. 95(4): 648-80
3. Allmendinger J, Hackman JR. 1995. The more, the better? A four-nation study of the inclusion of women in symphony orchestras. Soc. Forces 74: 423-60
4. Aronson J, Fried CB, Good C. 2002. Reducing the effect of stereotype threat on African American college students by shaping theories of intelligence. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 38: 113-25
5. Aronson J, Lustina MJ, Good C, Keough K, Steele CM, Brown J. 1999. When white men can't do math: necessary and sufficient factors in stereotype threat. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 35: 29-46
6. Arvey RD, Faley RH. 1988. Fairness in Selecting Employees. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. 2nd ed.
7. Autin F, Branscombe NR, Croizet J-C. 2014. Creating, closing, and reversing the gender gap in test performance: how selection policies trigger social identity threat or safety among women and men. Psychol. Women Q. 38: 327-39
8. Avery DR. 2003. Reactions to diversity in recruitment advertising-Are differences black and white? J. Appl. Psychol. 88(4): 672-79
9. Avery DR, McKay PF. 2006. Target practice: an organizational impression management approach to attracting minority and female job applicants. Pers. Psychol. 59(1): 157-87
10. Avery DR, McKay PF, Wilson DC. 2008. What are the odds? How demographic similarity affects the prevalence of perceived employment discrimination. J. Appl. Psychol. 93(2): 235-49
11. Avery DR, McKay PF, Wilson DC, Tonidandel S. 2007. Unequal attendance: the relationships between race, organizational diversity cues, and absenteeism. Pers. Psychol. 60(4): 875-902
12. Avery DR, Volpone SD, Stewart RW, Luksyte A, Hernandez M, et al. 2013. Examining the draw of diversity: how diversity climate perceptions affect job-pursuit intentions. Hum. Resour. Manag. 52: 175-93
13. Beilock SL, Rydell RJ, McConnell AR. 2007. Stereotype threat and working memory: mechanisms, alleviation, and spillover. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 136(2): 256-76
14. BerryCM, ClarkMA, McClure TK. 2011. Racial/ethnic differences in the criterion-related validity of cognitive ability tests: a qualitative and quantitative review. J. Appl. Psychol. 96(5): 881-906
15. Berry CM, Cullen MJ, Meyer JM. 2014. Racial/ethnic subgroup differences in cognitive ability test range restriction: implications for differential validity. J. Appl. Psychol. 99(1): 21-37
16. Bielby WT. 2008. Promoting racial diversity at work: challenges and solutions. In Diversity at Work, ed. AP Brief, pp. 53-88. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
17. Blackwell LA, Trzesniewski KH, Dweck CS. 2007. Theories of intelligence and achievement across the junior high school transition: a longitudinal study and an intervention. Child Dev. 78: 246-63
18. Blascovich J, Spencer SJ, Quinn D, Steele C. 2001. African Americans and high blood pressure: the role of stereotype threat. Psychol. Sci. 12(3): 225-29
19. Blume BD, Baldwin TT, Rubin RS. 2009. Reactions to different types of forced distribution performance evaluation systems. J. Bus. Psychol. 24(1): 77-91
20. BommerWH, Johnson J, Rich GA, Podsakoff PM, MacKenzie SB. 1995. Onthe interchangeability of objective and subjective measures of employee performance: a meta-analysis. Pers. Psychol. 48(3): 587-605
21. Bonilla-Silva E. 2006. Racism Without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield
22. Bosson JK, Haymovitz EL, Pinel EC. 2004. When saying and doing diverge: the effects of stereotype threat on self-reported versus non-verbal anxiety. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 40: 247-55
23. Breaugh JA. 2013. Employee recruitment. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 64: 388-416
24. Breaugh JA, Greising LA, Taggart JW, Chen H. 2003. The relationship of recruiting sources and pre-hire outcomes: examination of yield ratios and applicant quality. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 33: 2267-87
25. Brief AP, Umphress EE, Dietz J, Burrows JW, Butz RM, Scholten L. 2005. Community matters: realistic group conflict theory and the impact of diversity. Acad. Manag. J. 48: 830-44
26. Brown M, Setren E, Topa G. 2012. Do informal referrals lead to better matches? Evidence from a firm's employee referral system. Staff Rep. No. 568, Fed. Reserv. Bank N. Y. http://www. newyorkfed. org/research/staff-reports/sr568. pdf
27. Brown RP, Charnsangavej T, Keough KA, Newman ML, Rentfrow PJ. 2000. Putting the "affirm" into affirmative action: preferential selection and academic performance. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 79: 736-37
28. Brown RP, Day EA. 2006. The difference isn't black and white: stereotype threat and the race gap on Raven's advanced progressive matrices. J. Appl. Psychol. 91: 979-85
29. Brown RP, Lee MN. 2005. Stigma consciousness and the race gap in college academic achievement. Self Identity 4(2): 149-57
30. Browne I, ed. 1999. Latinas and African American Women at Work: Race, Gender, and Economic Inequality. New York: Russell Sage Found.
31. Bruce TA. 2013. Sexual orientation harassment in the workplace: the development of a measure. Master's Thesis, Mich. State Univ., East Lansing
32. Cable DM, Gino F, Staats BR. 2013. Breaking them in or eliciting their best? Reframing socialization around newcomers' authentic self-expression. Adm. Sci. Q. 58(1): 1-36
33. Chao GT. 1997. Mentoring phases and outcomes. J. Vocat. Behav. 51: 15-28
34. Cheryan S, Plaut VC, Davies P, Steele CM. 2009. Ambient belonging: how stereotypical environments impact gender participation in computer science. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 97: 1045-60
35. Chung BG, Ehrhart MG, Ehrhart KH, Hattrup K, Solamon J. 2010. Stereotype threat, state anxiety, and specific self-efficacy as predictors of promotion exam performance. Group Organ. Manag. 35(1): 77-107
36. Cohen GL, Garcia J. 2008. Identity, belonging, and achievement: a model, interventions, implications. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 17: 365-69
37. Cohen GL, Garcia J, Purdie-Vaughns V, Apfel N, Brzustoski P. 2009. Recursive processes in self-affirmation: intervening to close the minority achievement gap. Science 324: 400-3
38. Cohen GL, Steele CM. 2002. A barrier of mistrust: how stereotypes affect cross-race mentoring. In Improving Academic Achievement: Impact of Psychological Factors on Education, ed. J Aronson, pp. 305-31. Oxford, UK: Academic
39. Cohen GL, Steele CM, Ross LD. 1999. The mentor's dilemma: providing critical feedback across the racial divide. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 25: 1302-18
40. Cohen LL, Swim JK. 1995. The differential impact of gender ratios on women and men: tokenism, selfconfidence, and expectations. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 21: 876-84
41. Correll SJ. 2004. Constraints into preferences: gender, status, and emerging career aspirations. Am. Sociol. Rev. 69: 93-113
42. Crocker J, Voelkl K, Testa M, Major B. 1991. Social stigma: the affective consequences of attributional ambiguity. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 60(2): 218-28
43. Croizet JC, Claire T. 1998. Extending the concept of stereotype threat to social class: the intellectual underperformance of students from low socioeconomic backgrounds. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 24: 588-94
44. Crosby FJ. 1999. The developing literature on developmental relationship. In Mentoring Dilemmas: Developmental RelationshipWithinMulticulturalOrganizations, ed. AJ Murrell, FJ Crosby, RJ Ely, pp. 1-18. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
45. Cullen MJ, HardisonCM, Sackett PR. 2004. Using SAT-grade and ability-job performance relationships to test predictions derived from stereotype threat theory. J. Appl. Psychol. 89: 220-30
46. Czukor G, Bayazit M. 2014. Casting a wide net? Performance deficit, priming, and subjective performance evaluation in organizational stereotype threat research. Ind. Organ. Psychol. 7: 409-13
47. Danaher K, Crandall CS. 2008. Stereotype threat in applied settings re-examined. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 38: 1639-55
48. Davies PG, Spencer SJ, Steele CM. 2005. Clearing the air: Identity safety moderates the effects of stereotype threat on women's leadership aspirations. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 88: 276-87
49. De Corte W, Lievens F, Sackett PR. 2007. Combining predictors to achieve optimal trade-offs between selection quality and adverse impact. J. Appl. Psychol. 92(5): 1380-93
50. DiTomaso N. 2012. The American Non-Dilemma: Racial InequalityWithout Racism. NewYork: Russell Sage Found.
51. Dovidio JF, Gaertner SL. 2004. Aversive racism. Adv. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 36: 1-52
52. Dovidio JF, Hebl MR, Richeson JA, Shelton JN. 2006. Nonverbal communication, race, and intergroup interaction. In The Sage Handbook of Nonverbal Communication, ed. V Manusov, ML Patterson, pp. 481-500. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
53. Dovidio JF, Kawakami K, Gaertner SL. 2002. Implicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 82(1): 62-68
54. Duckworth AL, Peterson C, Matthews MD, Kelly DR. 2007. Grit: perseverance and passion for long-term goals. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 92: 1087-101
55. Duckworth AL, Seligman ME. 2005. Self-discipline outdoes IQ in predicting academic performance of adolescents. Psychol. Sci. 16(12): 939-44
56. Duguid M. 2011. Female tokens in high-prestige work groups: catalysts or inhibitors of group diversification? Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 116(1): 104-15
57. Dweck CS. 2006. Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. New York: Random House
58. Eagly AH, Karau SJ. 2002. Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychol. Rev. 109: 573-98
59. Ely RJ. 1995. The power of demography: women's social constructions of gender identity at work. Acad. Manag. J. 38: 589-634
60. Ely RJ, Thomas DA. 2001. Cultural diversity at work: the effects of diversity perspectives on work group processes and outcomes. Adm. Sci. Q. 46: 229-73
61. Emerson KTU, Murphy MC. 2014. Identity threat at work: how social identity threat and situational cues contribute to racial and ethnic disparities in the workplace. Cult. Divers. Ethnic Minor. Psychol. 20(4): 508-20
62. Emerson KTU, Murphy MC. 2015. A company I can trust? Organizational lay theories moderate stereotype threat for women. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 41(2): 295-307
63. Erman S, Walton GM. 2015. Stereotype threat and anti-discrimination law: Affirmative steps to promote meritocracy and racial equality in education. South. Calif. Law Rev. 88(2). In Press
64. Ford JK, Kraiger K, Schechtman SL. 1986. Study of race effects in objective indices and subjective evaluations of performance: a meta-analysis of performance criteria. Psychol. Bull. 99(3): 330-37
65. Frear KA, Paustian-Underdahl S. 2011. From elusive to obvious: improving performance management through specificity. Ind. Organ. Psychol. 4(2): 198-200
66. Garcia J, Cohen GL. 2012. A social psychological approach to educational intervention. In Behavioral Foundations of Public Policy, ed. E Shafir, pp. 329-47. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
67. Gaucher D, Friesen J, Kay AC. 2011. Evidence that gendered wording in job advertisements exists and sustains gender inequality. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 101: 109-28
68. Giumetti GW, Schroeder AN, Switzer FS, 2014. Forced distribution rating systems: When does "rank and yank" lead to adverse impact? J. Appl. Psychol. 100(1): 180-93
69. Goff PA, Steele CM, Davies PG. 2008. The space between us: stereotype threat and distance in interracial contexts. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 94: 91-107
70. Golubovich J, Grand J, Ryan AM, Schmitt N. 2014. An examination of common sensitivity review practices in test development. Int. J. Sel. Assess. 22: 1-11
71. Golubovich J, Ryan AM. 2012. Demographic cues in video-based situational judgment items. Presented at Annu. Conf. Soc. Ind. Organ. Psych. Conference, 27th, Apr. 26-28, San Diego
72. Good C, Aronson J, Harder JA. 2008. Problems in the pipeline: stereotype threat and women's achievement in high-level math courses. J. Appl. Dev. Psychol. 29: 17-28
73. Good C, Aronson J, Inzlicht M. 2003. Improving adolescents' standardized test performance: an intervention to reduce the effects of stereotype threat. J. Appl. Dev. Psychol. 24: 645-62
74. Grand J. 2012. An examination of stereotype threat effects on knowledge acquisition in an exploratory learning paradigm. PhD Thesis, Mich. State Univ., East Lansing
75. Grand JA, Ryan AM, Schmitt N, Hmurovic J. 2011. How far does stereotype threat reach? The potential detriment of face validity in cognitive ability testing. Hum. Perform. 24: 1-28
76. Greenhaus JH, Parasuraman S, Wormley WM. 1990. Effects of race on organizational experiences, job performance evaluations, and career outcomes. Acad. Manag. J. 33: 64-86
77. Harber KD. 1998. Feedback to minorities: evidence of a positive bias. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 74(3): 622-28
78. Hattrup K, Rock J. 2002. A comparison of predictor-based and criterion-based methods for weighing predictors to reduce adverse impact. Appl. HRM Res. 7(1/2): 22-38
79. Hebl MR, Foster JB, Mannix LM, Dovidio JF. 2002. Formal and interpersonal discrimination: a field study of bias toward homosexual applicants. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 28(6): 815-25
80. Herdman AO, McMillan-Capehart A. 2010. Establishing a diversity program is not enough: exploring the determinants of diversity climate. J. Bus. Psychol. 25: 39-53
81. Hess TM, Auman C, Colcombe S, Rahhal T. 2003. The impact of stereotype threat on age differences in memory performance. J. Gerontol. B Psychol. Sci. Soc. Sci. 58: 3-11
82. Hmurovic J, Ryan AM, Schmitt N, Grand J 2009. Sensitivity or stereotype threat? Effects of gendered test content. Presented at Annu. Conf. Soc. Ind. Organ. Psychol., 24th, Apr. 2-4, New Orleans, LA
83. Holleran SE, Whitehead J, Schmader T, Mehl MR. 2011. Talking shop and shooting the breeze: a study of workplace conversation and job disengagement among STEM faculty. Soc. Psychol. Personal. Sci. 2(1): 65-71
84. Holoien DS, Shelton JN. 2012. You deplete me: the cognitive costs of colorblindness on ethnic minorities. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 48(2): 562-65
85. Homan AC, Van Knippenberg D, Van Kleef GA, De Dreu CKW. 2007. Interacting dimensions of diversity: cross-categorization and the functioning of diverse work groups. Group Dyn. 11(2): 79-94
86. Hough LM, Oswald FL, Ployhart RE. 2001. Determinants, detection and amelioration of adverse impact in personnel selection procedures: issues, evidence and lessons learned. Int. J. Sel. Assess. 9(1/2): 152-94
87. Huffcutt AI, Roth PL. 1998. Racial group differences in employment interview evaluations. J. Appl. Psychol. 83(2): 179-89
88. Ilgen DR, YoutzMA. 1986. Factors affecting the evaluation and development of minorities in organizations. In Research in Personnel and Human Resource Management: A Research Annual, ed. K Rowland, G Ferris, pp. 307-37. Greenwich, CT: JAI
89. Inzlicht M, Ben-Zeev T. 2000. A threatening intellectual environment: why females are susceptible to experiencing problem-solving deficits in the presence of males. Psychol. Sci. 11: 365-71
90. Inzlicht M, Schmader T, eds. 2012. Stereotype Threat: Theory, Process, and Application. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
91. Ioannides YM, Loury LD. 2004. Job information networks, neighborhood effects, and inequality. J. Econ. Lit. 42: 1056-93
92. Jackson PB, Thoits PA, Taylor HF. 1995. Composition of the workplace and psychological well-being: the effects of tokenism on America's Black elite. Soc. Forces 74(2): 543-57
93. James EH. 2000. Race-related differences in promotions and support: underlying effects of human and social capital. Organ. Sci. 11: 493-508
94. Jamieson JP, Mendes WB, Blackstock E, Schmader T. 2010. Turning the knots in your stomach into bows: Reappraising arousal improves performance on the GRE. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 46(1): 208-12
95. Johns J, Inzlicht M, Schmader T. 2008. Stereotype threat and executive resource depletion: examining the influence of emotion regulation. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 137: 691-705
96. Johns M, Schmader T, Martens A. 2005. Knowing is half the battle: teaching stereotype threat as a means of improving women's math performance. Psychol. Sci. 16: 175-79
97. Kabat-Farr D, Cortina LM. 2014. Sex-based harassment in employment: new insights into gender and context. Law Hum. Behav. 38(1): 58-72
98. Kalev A, Dobbin F, Kelly E. 2006. Best practices or best guesses? Assessing the efficacy of corporate affirmative action and diversity policies. Am. Sociol. Rev. 71: 589-617
99. Kalokerinos EK, Von Hippel C, Zacher H. 2014. Is stereotype threat a useful construct for organizational psychology research and practice? Ind. Organ. Psychol. 7: 381-402
100. Kanter RM. 1979. Differential access to opportunity and power. In Discrimination in Organizations, ed. R Alvarez, pp. 52-68. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
101. Karsten MF, ed. 2006. Gender, Race, and Ethnicity in the Workplace: Management, Gender, and Ethnicity in the United States, Vol. 1. Westport, CT: Praeger
102. Kasinitz P, Rosenberg J. 1996. Missing the connection: social isolation and employment on the Brooklyn waterfront. Soc. Probl. 43: 180-96
103. Kirby D, Jackson JS. 1999. Mitigating perceptions of racism: the importance of work group composition and supervisor's race. In Mentoring Dilemmas: Developmental Relationship Within Multicultural Organizations, ed. AJ Murrell, FJ Crosby, RJ Ely, pp. 143-55. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
104. Kirnan JP, Alfieri JA, Bragger JD, Harris RS. 2009. An investigation of stereotype threat in employment tests. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 39: 359-88
105. Klein HJ, Polin B. 2012. Are organizations on board with best practices onboarding? In The OxfordHandbook of Organizational Socialization, ed. CR Wanberg, pp. 267-87. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
106. Kray LJ, Shirako A. 2012. Stereotype threat in organizations: an examination of its scope, triggers and possible interventions. See Inzlicht & Schmader 2012, pp. 173-87
107. Kray LJ, Thompson L, Galinsky A. 2001. Battle of the sexes: gender stereotype confirmation and reactance in negotiations. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 80: 942-58
108. Landau J. 1995. The relationship of race and gender to managers' ratings of promotion potential. J. Organ. Behav. 16: 391-400
109. Leskinen EA, Cortina LM. 2014. Dimensions of disrespect: mapping and measuring gender harassment in organizations. Psychol. Women Q. 38(1): 107-23
110. Logel C, Iserman EC, Davies PG, QuinnDM, Spencer SJ. 2009a. The perils of double consciousness: the role of thought suppression in stereotype threat. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 45: 299-312
111. Logel C, Walton GM, Spencer SJ, Iserman EC, Von Hippel W, Bell A. 2009b. Interacting with sexist men triggers social identity threat among female engineers. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 96: 1089-103
112. London M. 1997. Job Feedback: Giving, Seeking, and Using Feedback for Performance Improvement. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
113. Madera JM, Hebl MR. 2013. "Don't stigmatize": the ironic effects of equal opportunity guidelines in interviews. Basic Appl. Soc. Psych. 35: 123-30
114. Mannix E, Neale MA. 2006. What differences make a difference? The promise and reality of diverse teams in organizations. Psychol. Sci. Public Interest 6: 31-55
115. Markus HR, Steele CM, Steele DM. 2000. Color blindness as a barrier to inclusion: assimilation and nonimmigrant minorities. In Engaging Cultural Differences: The Multicultural Challenge in Liberal Democracies, ed. RA Shweder, Minow M, pp. 453-72. New York: Russell Sage Found.
116. Marsden PV, Gorman EH. 2001. Social networks, job changes, and recruitment. In Sourcebook of Labor Markets: Evolving Structures and Processes, Vol. 4, ed. I Berg, AL Kalleberg, pp. 467-502. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum
117. Martens A, Johns M, Greenberg J, Schimel J. 2006. Combating stereotype threat: the effect of self-affirmation on women's intellectual performance. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 42: 236-43
118. Marx DM, Goff PA. 2005. Clearing the air: the effect of experimenter race on target's test performance and subjective experience. Br. J. Soc. Psychol. 44: 645-57
119. Massey DS, Fischer MJ. 2005. Stereotype threat and academic performance: new findings from a racially diverse sample of college freshmen. Du Bois Rev. 2: 45-67
120. McConnell AR, Leibold JM. 2001. Relations among the Implicit Association Test, discriminatory behavior, and explicit measures of racial attitudes. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 37: 435-42
121. McDonald S. 2011. What's in the "old boys" network? Accessing social capital in gendered and racialized networks. Soc. Netw. 33(4): 317-30
122. McIntyre RB, Paulson RM, Lord CG. 2003. Alleviating women's mathematics stereotype threat through salience of group achievements. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 39: 83-90
123. McKay PF, Avery DR, Tonidandel S, Morris MA, Hernandez M, Hebl MR. 2007. Racial differences in employee retention: Are diversity climate perceptions the key? Pers. Psychol. 60: 35-62
124. McLean B, Elkind P. 2003. Smartest Guys in the Room: The Amazing Rise and Scandalous Fall of Enron. New York: Penguin
125. Miyake A, Smith-Kost LE, Finkelstein ND, Pollock SJ, Cohen GL, Ito TA. 2010. Reducing the gender achievement gap in college science: a classroom study of values affirmation. Science 330: 1234-37
126. Moss P, Tilly C. 2001. Stories Employers Tell: Race, Skill, and Hiring in America. New York: Russell Sage Found.
127. Mueller CW, De Coster S, Estes SB. 2001. Sexual harassment in the workplace: unanticipated consequences of modern social control in organizations. Work Occup. 28(4): 411-46
128. Murphy MC, Dweck CS. 2010. A culture of genius: how an organization's lay theory shapes people's cognition, affect, and behavior. Personal. Psychol. Bull. 36: 283-96
129. Murphy MC, Richeson JA, Shelton JN, Rheinschmidt ML, Bergsieker HB. 2013. Cognitive costs of contemporary prejudice. Group Process. Intergroup Relat. 16: 560-71
130. Murphy MC, Steele CM, Gross JJ. 2007. Signaling threat: how situational cues affect women in math, science, and engineering settings. Psychol. Sci. 18: 879-85
131. Murphy MC, Taylor VJ. 2012. The role of situational cues in signaling and maintaining stereotype threat. See Inzlicht & Schmader 2012, pp. 17-33
132. Murphy MC, Walton GM. 2013. From prejudiced people to prejudiced places. In Stereotyping and Prejudice, ed. C Stangor, CS Crandall, pp. 181-203. New York: Psychol. Press
133. Nguyen HD, Ryan AM. 2008. Does stereotype threat affect test performance of minorities and women? A meta-analysis of experimental evidence. J. Appl. Psychol. 93: 1314-34
134. Niemann YF, Dovidio JF. 1998. Relationship of solo status, academic rank, and perceived distinctiveness to job satisfaction of racial/ethnic minorities. J. Appl. Psychol. 83: 55-71
135. Obama M, Obama B. 2014. Remarks by the President and First Lady. Presented at Coll. Oppor. Summit, Jan. 16, Washington, DC. http://www. whitehouse. gov/the-press-office/2014/01/16/remarks-president-andfirst-lady-college-opportunity-summit
136. Osborne JW. 2006. Gender, stereotype threat, and anxiety: psychophysiological and cognitive evidence. Electron. J. Res. Educ. Psychol. 4(1): 109-38
137. Paunesku D, Walton GM, Romero CL, Smith EN, Yeager DS, Dweck CS. In press. Mindset interventions are a scalable treatment for academic underperformance. Psychol. Sci.
138. Plaut VC, Garnett FG, Buffardi L, Sanchez-Burks J. 2011. What about me? Perceptions of exclusion and Whites' reactions to multiculturalism. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 101: 337-53
139. Plaut VC, Thomas KM, Goren MJ. 2009. Is multiculturalism or color blindness better for minorities? Psychol. Sci. 20: 444-46
140. Purdie-Vaughns V, Steele CM, Davies PG, Ditlmann R, Crosby JR. 2008. Social identity contingencies: how diversity cues signal threat or safety for African Americans in mainstream institutions. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 94(4): 615-30
141. Raeburn N. 2004. Lesbian and Gay Workplace Rights: Changing Corporate America from Inside Out. Minneapolis: Univ. Minn. Press
142. Reskin BF, McBrier DB, Kmec JA. 1999. The determinants and consequences of workplace sex and race composition. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 25: 335-61
143. Richeson JA, Shelton JN. 2012. Stereotype threat in interracial interactions. See Inzlicht & Schmader 2012, pp. 231-48
144. Roberson L, Deitch EA, Brief AP, Block CJ. 2003. Stereotype threat and feedback seeking in the workplace. J. Vocat. Behav. 62(1): 176-88
145. Roberson L, Galvin BM, Charles AC. 2007. When group identities matter: bias in performance appraisal. Acad. Manag. Ann. 1: 617-50
146. Roberson L, Kulik CT. 2007. Stereotype threat at work. Acad. Manag. Perspect. 21(2): 24-40
147. Ross L, Nisbett RE. 1991. The Person and the Situation: Perspectives of Social Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill
148. Roth PL, Le H, Oh I, Van Iddekinge CH, Buster MA, et al. 2014. Differential validity for cognitive ability tests in employment and educational settings: not much more than range restriction? J. Appl. Psychol. 99(1): 1-20
149. RyanAM, Sackett PR. 2013. Stereotype threat in assessments. InAPAHandbook of Testing and Assessment in Psychology, Vol. 1: Test Theory and Testing and Assessment in Industrial and Organizational Psychology, ed. KF Geisinger, BA Bracken, JF Carlson, JC Hansen, NR Kuncel, pp. 661-73. Washington, DC: Am. Psychol. Assoc.
150. Ryan CS, Hunt JS, Weible JA, Peterson CR, Casas JF. 2007. Multicultural and colorblind ideology, stereotypes, and ethnocentrism among Black and White Americans. Group Process. Intergroup Relat. 10: 617-37
151. Rydell RJ, Shiffrin RM, Boucher KL, Van Loo K, Rydell MT. 2010. Stereotype threat prevents perceptual learning. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 107: 14042-47
152. Sackett PR, Roth L. 1991. AMonte Carlo examination of banding and rank order methods of test score use in personnel selection. Hum. Perform. 4: 279-95
153. Sackett PR, Ryan AM. 2012. Concerns about generalizing stereotype threat research findings to operational high-stakes testing. See Inzlicht & Schmader 2012, pp. 249-63
154. Sackett PR, Wilk SL. 1994. Within-group norming and other forms of score adjustment in preemployment testing. Am. Psychol. 49: 929-54
155. Saenz DS, Lord CG. 1989. Reversing roles: a cognitive strategy for undoing memory deficits associated with token status. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 56: 698-708
156. Salvatore J, Shelton JN. 2007. Cognitive costs of exposure to racial prejudice. Psychol. Sci. 18: 810-15
157. Schleicher DJ, Bull RA, Green SG. 2009. Rater reactions to forced distribution rating systems. J. Manag. 35(4): 899-927
158. Schmader T, Beilock S. 2012. An integration of processes that underlie stereotype threat. See Inzlicht & Schmader 2012, pp. 34-50
159. Schmader T, Johns M. 2003. Converging evidence that stereotype threat reduces working memory capacity. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 85: 440-52
160. Schmader T, Johns M, Forbes C. 2008. An integrated process model of stereotype threat effects on performance. Psychol. Rev. 115(2): 336-56
161. Schneider KT, Swan S, Fitzgerald LF. 1997. Job-related and psychological effects of sexual harassment in the workplace: empirical evidence from two organizations. J. Appl. Psychol. 82: 401-15
162. Sekaquaptewa D, Espinoza P, Thompson M, Vargas P, Von Hippel W. 2003. Stereotypic explanatory bias: implicit stereotyping as a predictor of discrimination. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 39(1): 75-82
163. Sekaquaptewa D, Thompson M. 2002. The differential effects of solo status on members of high-and lowstatus groups. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 28(5): 694-707
164. Sekaquaptewa D, Thompson M. 2003. Solo status, stereotype threat, and performance expectancies: their effects on women's performance. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 39(1): 68-74
165. Sherman DK, Cohen GL. 2006. The psychology of self-defense: self-affirmation theory. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 38, ed. MP Zanna, pp. 183-242. San Diego: Academic
166. Sherman DK, Hartson KA. 2011. Reconciling self-defense with self-criticism: self-affirmation theory. In Handbook of Self-Enhancement and Self-Protection, ed. MDAlicke, CSedikides, pp. 128-51. NewYork: Guilford
167. Sherman DK, Hartson KA, Binning KR, Purdie-Vaughns V, Garcia J, et al. 2013. Deflecting the trajectory and changing the narrative: how self-affirmation affects academic performance and motivation under identity threat. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 104: 591-618
168. Shih M, Young MJ, Bucher A. 2013. Working to reduce the effects of discrimination: identity management strategies in organizations. Am. Psychol. 68(3): 145-57
169. Singh B, Winkel DE, Selvarajan TT. 2013. Managing diversity at work: Does psychological safety hold the key to racial differences in employee performance? J. Occup. Organ. Psychol. 86: 242-63
170. Spencer SJ, Steele CM, Quinn DM. 1999. Stereotype threat and women's math performance. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 35: 4-28
171. Stangor C, Carr C, Kiang L. 1998. Activating stereotypes undermines task performance expectations. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 75(5): 1191-97
172. SteeleCM. 1997. Athreat in the air: how stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. Am. Psychol. 52: 613-29
173. Steele CM. 2010. Whistling Vivaldi: And Other Clues to How Stereotypes Affect Us. New York: Norton
174. Steele CM, Aronson J. 1995. Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 69: 797-811
175. SteeleCM, Spencer SJ, Aronson J. 2002. Contending with group image: the psychology of stereotype and social identity threat. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 34, ed. MPZanna, pp. 379-440. San Diego: Academic
176. Steele DM, Cohn-Vargas B. 2013. Identity Safe Classrooms: Places to Belong and Learn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin
177. Sternberg RJ, Rainbow Proj. Collab. 2006. The Rainbow Project: enhancing the SAT through assessments of analytical, practical, and creative skills. Intelligence 34: 321-50
178. Stevens FG, Plaut VC, Sanchez-Burks J. 2008. Unlocking the benefits of diversity: all-inclusive multiculturalism and positive organizational change. J. Appl. Behav. Sci. 44: 116-33
179. Stoker JI, Van der Velde M, Lammers J. 2012. Factors relating to managerial stereotypes: the role of gender of the employee and the manager and management gender ratio. J. Bus. Psychol. 27: 31-42
180. Stone J, Lynch CI, Sjomeling M, Darley JM. 1999. Stereotype threat effects on Black and White athletic performance. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 77: 1213-27
181. Tapia AH, Kvasny L. 2004. Recruitment is never enough: retention of women and minorities in the IT workplace. Proc. 2004 SIGMIS Conf. Comput. Pers. Res. : Careers Cult. Ethics Netw. Environ., Tucson, AZ, pp. 84-91. New York: Assoc. Comput. Mach.
182. Taylor VJ, Walton GM. 2011. Stereotype threat undermines academic learning. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 37: 1055-67
183. Thomas DA, Kram KE. 1988. Promoting career-enhancing relationships in organizations: the role of the human resource professional. In The Human Resource Professional and Employee Career Development, ed. M London, E Mone, pp. 49-66. New York: Greenwood
184. Thomas KM. 2008. Diversity Resistance in Organizations. New York: Erlbaum-Taylor Francis
185. Topa G. 2011. Labor markets and referrals. In Handbook of Social Economics, ed. J Benhabib, A Bisin, MO Jackson, pp. 1193-221. Amsterdam: Elsevier North Holland
186. Tracey JB, Tannenbaum SI, Kavanagh MJ. 1995. Applying trained skills on the job: the importance of the work environment. J. Appl. Psychol. 80(2): 239-52
187. Turner ME, Pratkanis AR. 1994. Social identity maintenance prescriptions for preventing groupthink: reducing identity protection and enhancing intellectual conflict. Int. J. Conflict Manag. 5(3): 254-70
188. Voyles E, Finkelstein L, King E. 2014. A tale of two theories: stereotype threat and metastereotypes. Ind. Organ. Psychol. 7: 419-22
189. Walton GM, Carr PB. 2012. Social belonging and the motivation and intellectual achievement of negatively stereotyped students. See Inzlicht & Schmader 2012, pp. 89-106
190. Walton GM, Cohen GL. 2003. Stereotype lift. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 39: 456-67
191. Walton GM, Cohen GL. 2007. A question of belonging: race, social fit, and achievement. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 92: 82-96
192. Walton GM, Cohen GL. 2011. A brief social-belonging intervention improves academic and health outcomes of minority students. Science 331: 1447-51
193. Walton GM, Logel C, Peach J, Spencer S, Zanna MP. 2014. Two brief interventions to mitigate a "chilly climate" transform women's experience, relationships, and achievement in engineering. J. Educ. Psychol. In Press
194. Walton GM, Spencer SJ. 2009. Latent ability: grades and test scores systematically underestimate the intellectual ability of negatively stereotyped students. Psychol. Sci. 20: 1132-39
195. Walton GM, Spencer SJ, Erman S. 2013. Affirmative meritocracy. Soc. Issues Policy Rev. 7: 1-35
196. Wee S, Newman DA, Joseph DL. 2014. More than g: selection quality and adverse impact implications of considering second-stratum cognitive abilities. J. Appl. Psychol. 99(4): 547-63
197. Wiesenfeld BM, Brockner J, Martin C. 1999. A self-affirmation analysis of survivors' reactions to unfair organizational downsizings. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 35(5): 441-60
198. Williams JR, Miller CE, Steelman LA, Levy PE. 1999. Increasing feedback seeking in public contexts: It takes two (or more) to tango. J. Appl. Psychol. 84(6): 969-76
199. Wolsko C, Park B, Judd CM, Wittenbrink B. 2000. Framing interethnic ideology: effects of multicultural and color-blind perspectives on judgments of groups and individuals. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 78: 635-54
200. Woodcock A, Hernandez PR, Estrada M, Schultz PW. 2012. The consequences of chronic stereotype threat: domain disidentification and abandonment. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 103(4): 635-46
201. Yeager DS, Paunesku D, Walton GM, Dweck CS. 2013. How can we instill productive mindsets at scale? A review of the evidence and an initial R&D agenda. Prepared for White House Meet. Excell. Educ. : Importance Acad. Mindsets, May 10, Washington, DC
202. Yeager DS, Walton GM. 2011. Social-psychological interventions in education: They're not magic. Rev. Educ. Res. 81: 267-301