Race-Related Differences in Promotions and Support: Underlying Effects of Human and Social Capital

Organization Science

Volumn 11, Issue 5, 2000, Pages 493-508

  James, Erika Hayes ^a  

^a EMORY UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Human Capital; Networks; Occupational Mobility; Race; Social Capital

Indexed keywords

EID: 0034364562     PISSN: 10477039     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1287/orsc.11.5.493.15202     Document Type: Article

References (85)

1. Alderfer, C. 1987. An intergroup perspective on group dynamics. J. W. Lorsch, ed. Handbook of Organizational Behavior. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 190-222.
2. _, D. A. Thomas. 1988. The significance of race and ethnicity for understanding organizational behavior. C. L. Cooper, I. T. Robertson, eds. International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Wiley, London, U.K. 1-42.
3. Ashmore, R. D., F. K. Del Boca. 1981. Conceptual approaches to stereotypes and stereotyping. D. L. Hamilton, ed. Cognitive Processes in Sterotyping and Intergroup Behavior. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, 1-36.
4. Baker, W. 1994. Networking Smart. McGraw Hill, New York.
5. Baldi, S., D. B. McBrier. 1997. Do the determinants of promotion differ for blacks and whites? Work and Occupations 24(4) 478-497.
6. Baron, R. M., D. A. Kenny. 1986. The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. J. Personality Social Psych. 51(6) 1173-1182.
7. Becker, G. S. 1975. Human Capital. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
8. _. 1993. Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis with Special Reference to Education. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
9. Berscheid, E. 1985. Interpersonal attraction. G. Lindzey, E. Aronson, eds. The Handbook of Social Psychology. Random House, New York.
10. Brass, D. J. 1984. Being in the right place: A structural analysis of individual influence in an organization. Admin. Sci. Quart. 29 518-539.
11. Brief, A. P. 1998. Attitudes In and Around Organizations. Sage, Newbury Park, CA.
12. _, R. T. Buttram, R. M. Reizenstein, S. D. Pugh, J. D. Callahan, R. L. McCline, J. B. Vaslow. 1997. Beyond good intentions: The next steps toward racial equality in the American workplace. Acad. Management Executive 11(4) 59-72.
13. _, E. L. Hayes. 1997. The continuing "American dilemma": Studying racism in organization. C. L. Cooper, D. M. Rousseau, eds. Trends in Organizational Behavior, vol. 4. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Chichester, England.
14. Burt, R. S. 1992. Structural Holes: The Social Structure of Competition. University Press, Cambridge, MA.
15. Cancio, A. S., T. D. Evans, D. J. Maume. 1996. Reconsidering the declining significance of race: Racial differences in early career wages. Amer. Soc. Rev. 61 541-556.
16. Cianni, M., B. Romberger. 1995. Perceived racial, ethnic, and gender differences in access to developmental experiences. Group Organ. Management 20(4) 440-459.
17. Coleman, J. S. 1986. Social theory social research, and a theory of action. Amer. J. Soc. 91 1309-1335.
18. Collins, S. 1997. Black mobility in white corporations: Up the corporate ladder but out on a limb. Social Problems 44(1) 55-67.
19. Cox, T., S. M. Nkomo. 1990. Invisible men and women: A status report on race as a variable in organization behavior research. J. Organ. Behavior 11 419-431.
20. Dreher, G. F., R. A. Ash. 1990. A comparative study of mentoring among men and women in managerial, professional, and technical positions. J. Appl. Psych. 75(5) 539-546.
21. _, T. H. Cox. 1996. Race, gender, and opportunity: A study of compensation attainment and the establishment of mentoring relationships. J. Appl. Psych. 81(3) 297-308.
22. Eagly, A. H. 1995. The science and politics of comparing women and men. Amer. Psych. 50 145-158.
23. Essed, P. 1991. Understanding Everyday Racism. Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA.
24. Esses, V. M., G. Haddock, M. P. Zanna. 1993. Values, stereotypes, and emotions as determinants of intergroup attitudes. D. M. Mackie, D. L. Hamilton, eds. Affect, Cognition, and Sterotyping. Academic Press, San Diego, CA. 137-166.
25. Forbes, J. B., J. E. Piercy. 1991. Corporate mobility factors among black public administrators: The role of mentors. Centerboard: J. Center for Human Relations 3(1) 33-48.
26. Ford, D. L., L. Wells. 1985. Upward mobility factors among black public administrators: The role of mentors. Centerboard: J. Center for Human Relations 3(1) 33-48.
27. Freeman, R. 1976. The Overeducated American. Academic Press, New York.
28. Glaman, J. M., A. P. Jones, R. M. Rozelle. 1996. The effects of co-worker similarity on the emergence of affect in work teams. Group Organ. Management 21(2) 192-215.
29. Granovetter, M. 1973. The strength of weak ties. Amer. J. Soc. 6 1360-1380.
30. Greenhaus, J. H., S. Parasuraman, W. M. Wormley. 1990. Effects of race on organizational experiences, job performance evaluations, and career outcomes. Acad. Management J. 33(1) 64-86.
31. Halaby, C. N. 1979. Sexual inequality in the workplace: An employer-specific analysis of pay differences. Social Sci. Res. 8(1) 79-104.
32. Heider, F. 1958. The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. Wiley, New York.
33. Heikes, E. J. 1991. When men are the minority: The case of men in nursing. Soc. Quart. 32(3) 389-401.
34. Hilton, J. L., W. von Hippell. 1996. The role of consistency in the judgement of stereotypes-relevant behaviors. Personality Soc. Psych. Bull. 16 430-448.
35. Ibarra, H. 1992. Homophily and differential returns: Sex differences in network structure and access in an advertising firm. Admin. Sci. Quart. 37(3) 422-447.
36. _. 1993. Personal networks of women and minorities in management: A conceptual framework. Acad. Management Rev. 18(1) 56-87.
37. _. 1995. Race, opportunity, and diversity of social circles in managerial networks. Acad. Management J. 38(3) 673-703.
38. Izraeli, D. N. 1983. Sex effects or structural effects? An empirical test of Kanter's theory of proportions. Social Forces 62(1) 153-165.
39. Jackson, S. E., J. F. Brett, V. I. Sessa, D. M. Cooper, J. A. Julin, K. Peyronnin. 1991. Some differences do make a difference: Individual dissimilarity and group heterogeneity as correlates of recruitment, promotions, and turnover. J. Appl. Psych. 76 675-689.
40. _, V. K. Stone, E. B. Alvarez. 1993. Socialization amidst diversity: Impact of demographics on work team old-timers and newcomers. L. L. Cummings, B. M. Staw, eds. Research in Organizational Behavior, vol. 15, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, 45-109.
41. Johnston W. B., A. H. Packer. 1987. Workforce 2000. Hudson Institute, Indianapolis, IN.
42. Kanter, R. M. 1977. Men and Women of the Corporation. Basic Books, Inc., New York City, NY.
43. Keele, R. 1986. Mentoring or networking? Strong and weak ties in career development. L. L. Moore, ed. Not as Far as You Think. Lexington Books, Lexington, MA, 86-104.
44. Kram, K. E. 1985. Mentoring at Work. Scott, Foreman, Glenview, IL.
45. _. 1988. Mentoring at Work: Developmental Relationships in Organizational Life. University Press of America, New York.
46. _, L. A. Isabella. 1985. Mentoring alternatives: The role of peer relationships in career development. Acad. Management J. 28(1) 110-132.
47. Lawrence, B. S. 1990. At the crossroads: A multiple-level explanation of individual attainment. Organ. Sci. 1(1) 65-85.
48. _. 1996. Interest and indifference: The role of age in the organizational sciences. G. R. Ferris, ed. Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management vol. 14. JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, 1-59.
49. Lefkowitz, J. 1994. Race as a factor in job placement: Serendipitous findings of "ethnic drift." Personnel Psychology 47 497-513.
50. Levine, J. M., R. L. Moreland. 1990. Progress in small group research. Ann. Rev. Psych. 41 585-634.
51. Levitin, T., R. P. Quinn, G. L. Staines. 1971. Sex discrimination against the American working woman. Amer. Behavioral Scientist 15 238-254.
52. Li, J. 1994. Demographic diversity, tokenism, and their effects on individual's behavior in group processes. D. P. Moore, ed. Best Papers Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management. Academy of Management, Dallas, TX, 239-243.
53. Lott, A. J., B. E. Lott. 1965. Group cohesiveness and interpersonal attraction: A review of relationship with antecedent and consequent variables. Psych. Bull. 4 259-302.
54. Maranto, C., R. Rodgers. 1984. Does work experience increase productivity? A test of the on-the-job training hypothesis. J. Human Resources 19(3) 341-357.
55. Maxwell, N. L. 1994. The effect of black-white wage differences on differences in the quantity and quality of education. Indus. Labor Relations Rev. 47(2) 249-264.
56. McCue, K. 1996. Promotions and wage growth. J. Labor Econom. 14(2) 175-205.
57. Montgomery, J. D. 1992. Job search and network composition: Implications of the strength-of-weak-ties hypothes. Amer. Soc. Rev. 57 586-596.
58. Morrison, D., M. Von Glinow. 1990. Women and minorities in management. Amer. Psych. 45(2) 200-209.
59. Murphy, K. M., F. Welch. 1989. Wage premiums for college graduates: Recent growth and possible explanations. Education Researcher 18 17-27.
60. Nkomo, S. M., T. Cox. 1990. Factors affecting the upward mobility of black managers in private sector organizations. Rev. Black Political Psych. 18(3) 39-48.
61. O'Reilly, C. A., D. F. Caldwell, W. P. Barnett. 1989. Work group demography, social integration and turnover. Admin. Sci. Quart. 34(1) 21-37.
62. Powell, G. N., D. A. Butterfield. 1997. Effect of race on promotions to top management in a federal department. Acad. Management J. 40(1) 112-128.
63. Ragins, B. R. 1989. Barriers to mentoring: The female manager's dilemma. Human Relations 42 1-22.
64. _. 1994. Gender differences in expected outcomes of mentoring relationships. Acad. Management J. 37 957-971.
65. Rivkin, S. G. 1995. Black/white differences in schooling and employment. J. Human Resources 30 826-852.
66. Rosenbaum, J. E. 1979. Tournament mobility: Career patterns in a corporation. Admin. Sci. Quart. 24(2) 220-241.
67. _. 1984. Career Mobility in a Corporate Hierarchy. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
68. Sackett, P. R., C. L. Z. DuBois, A. W. Noe. 1991. Tokenism in performance evaluation: The effects of work group representation on male-female and white-black differences in performance ratings. J. Appl. Psych. 76(2) 263-267.
69. Schneider, B. 1983. An interactionist perspective on organizational effectiveness. L. L. Cummings, B. M. Staw, eds. Research in Organizational Behavior, vol. 5, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, 1-31.
70. Shenhav, Y. 1992. Entrance of blacks and women into managerial positions in scientific and engineering occupations: A longitudinal anlaysis. Acad. Management J. 35(4) 889-901.
71. Sheridan, J. E., J. W. Slocum, R. Buda. 1997. Factors influencing the probability of employee promotions: A comparative analysis of human capital, organizational screening and gender/race discrimination theories. J. Bus. Psych. 11(3) 373-380.
72. Smith, K. G., K. A. Smith, D. D. Olian, H. P. Sims, D. P. O'Bannon, J. A. Scully. 1994. Top management team demography and process: The role of social integration and communication. Admin. Sci. Quart. 39 412-438.
73. Stroh, L. K., J. M. Brett, A. H. Reilly. 1992. All the right stuff: A comparison of female and male managers' career progression. J. Appl. Psych. 77(3) 251-260.
74. Stumpf, S. A., M. London. 1981. Management promotions: Individual and organizational factors influencing the decision process. Acad. Management Rev. 6(4) 539-549.
75. Thomas, D. A. 1990. The impact of race on managers' experience of developmental relationships (mentoring and sponsorship): An intra-organizational study. J. Organ. Behavior 2 479-492.
76. _, R. J. Ely. 1996. Making differences matter: A new paradigm for managing diversity. Harvard Bus. Rev. 74(5) 79-90.
77. Tomaskovic-Devey, D. 1993. The gender and race composition of jobs and the male/female, white/black pay gaps. Social Forces 72(1) 45-76.
78. Tsui, A. S., T. D. Egan, C. A. O'Reilly. 1992. Beyond simple demographic effects: The importance of relational demography in superior-subordinate dyads. Acad. Management J. 32 402-423.
79. _, J. L. Farh. 1996. Where Guanxi matters: Relational demography and Guanxi in the Chinese context. Work and Occupations 24(1) 56-80.
80. _, B. A. Gutek. 1984. A role set analysis of gender differences in performance, affective relationships, and career success of industrial middle managers. Acad. Management J. 27(3) 619-635.
81. _, C. A. O'Reilly. 1989. Beyond simple demographic effects: The importance of relational demography in superior-subordinate dyads. Acad. Management J. 32 402-423.
82. Useem, M., J. Karabel. 1986. Pathways to corporate management. Amer. Soc. Rev. 51 184-200.
83. Veum, J. R. 1995. Sources of training and their impact on wages. Indus. Labor Relations Rev. 48 812-826.
84. Williams, C. L. 1995. Still a Man's World: Men Who Do "Women's Work". University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.
85. Wilson, W. J. 1977. The Declining Significance of Race. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.