Human Ebola virus infection in West Africa: A review of available therapeutic agents that target different steps of the life cycle of Ebola virus

Infectious Diseases of Poverty

Volumn 3, Issue 1, 2014, Pages

  Lai, Kang Y ^a   Ng, Wing Yiu G ^a   Cheng, Fan F ^a  

^a QUEEN ELIZABETH HOSPITAL   (Hong Kong)

Author keywords

Cocktail therapeutic intervention for RNA virus; Ebola virus; Non mutable host cell therapeutic targets for Ebola virus

Indexed keywords

AMILORIDE DERIVATIVE; ANTIOXIDANT; BETA INTERFERON; CHLOROQUINE; DIGITOXIN; DIGOXIN; FAVIPIRAVIR; OUABAIN; VIRUS GLYCOPROTEIN;

AFRICA; ARTICLE; EBOLA VIRUS; EBOLA VIRUS INFECTION; HUMAN; IMMUNE EVASION; LIFE CYCLE; NONHUMAN; PASSIVE IMMUNIZATION; PATHOGENESIS; PHASE 1 CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); PRIORITY JOURNAL; VIRUS ENTRY; VIRUS GENOME; VIRUS INFECTION; VIRUS REPLICATION;

EID: 84930190664     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20499957     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1186/2049-9957-3-43     Document Type: Article

References (256)

1. World Health Organization Ebola response roadmap Situation reports: 1 October 2014. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/144117/1/roadmapsitrep_21Nov2014_eng.pdf?ua=1 (Accessed 22/11/2014).
2. World Health Organization Statement on the WHO Consultation on potential Ebola therapies and vaccines. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/statements/2014/ebola-therapies-consultation/en/(Accessed 2/10/2014).
3. World Health Organization: Ethical considerations for use of unregistered interventions for Ebola viral disease. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/130997/1/WHO_HIS_KER_GHE_14.1_eng.pdf (Accessed 2/10/2014).
4. Choi JH, Croyle MA. Emerging targets and novel approaches to Ebola virus prophylaxis and treatment. BioDrugs 2013, 27:565-583. 10.1007/s40259-013-0046-1, 3833964, 23813435.
5. World Health Organization: potential Ebola therapies and vaccines. http://www.who.int/csr/disease/ebola/ebola-new-interventions-02-sep-2014.pdf (Accessed 2/10/2014).
6. Ansari AA. Clinical features and pathobiology of Ebolavirus infection. J Autoimmun In press.
7. Hoenen T, Groseth A, Falzarano D, Feldmann H. Ebola virus: unravelling pathogenesis to combat a deadly disease. Trends Mol Med 2006, 12:206-215. 10.1016/j.molmed.2006.03.006, 16616875.
8. Volchkova VA, Klenk HD, Volchkov VE. Delta-peptide is the carboxy-terminal cleavage fragment of the nonstructural small glycoprotein sGP of Ebola virus. Virology 1999, 265:164-171. 10.1006/viro.1999.0034, 10603327.
9. Feldmann H, Volchkov VE, Volchkova VA, Klenk HD. The glycoproteins of Marburg and Ebola virus and their potential roles in pathogenesis. Arch Virol Suppl 1999, 15:159-169.
10. Volchkov VE, Volchkova VA, Slenczka W, Klenk HD, Feldmann H. Release of viral glycoproteins during Ebola virus infection. Virology 1998, 245:110-119. 10.1006/viro.1998.9143, 9614872.
11. Cook JD, Lee JE. The secret life of viral entry glycoproteins: moonlighting in immune evasion. PLoS Pathog 2013, 9:e1003258. 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003258, 3656028, 23696729.
12. Takada A, Kawaoka Y. The pathogenesis of Ebola hemorrhagic fever. Trends Microbiol 2001, 9:506-511. 10.1016/S0966-842X(01)02201-6, 11597453.
13. Wahl-Jensen V, Kurz SK, Hazelton PR, Schnittler HJ, Ströher U, Burton DR, Feldmann H. Role of Ebola virus secreted glycoproteins and virus-like particles in activation of human macrophages. J Virol 2005, 79:2413-2419. 10.1128/JVI.79.4.2413-2419.2005, 546544, 15681442.
14. Yang ZY, Duckers HJ, Sullivan NJ, Sanchez A, Nabel EG, Nabel GJ. Identification of the Ebola virus glycoprotein as the main viral determinant of vascular cell cytotoxicity and injury. Nat Med 2000, 6:886-889. 10.1038/78645, 10932225.
15. Escudero-Pérez B, Volchkova VA, Dolnik O, Lawrence P, Volchkov VE. Shed GP of Ebola Virus Triggers Immune Activation and Increased Vascular Permeability. PLoS Pathog 2014, 10:e1004509. 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004509, 4239094, 25412102.
16. Lopez LA, Yang SJ, Hauser H, Exline CM, Haworth KG, Oldenburg J, Cannon PM. Ebola virus glycoprotein counteracts BST-2/Tetherin restriction in a sequence-independent manner that does not require tetherin surface removal. J Virol 2010, 84:7243-7255. 10.1128/JVI.02636-09, 2898217, 20444895.
17. Lopez LA, Yang SJ, Exline CM, Rengarajan S, Haworth KG, Cannon PM. Anti-tetherin activities of HIV-1 Vpu and Ebola virus glycoprotein do not involve removal of tetherin from lipid rafts. J Virol 2012, 86:5467-5480. 10.1128/JVI.06280-11, 3347301, 22398279.
18. Yasuda J. Ebolavirus Replication and Tetherin/BST-2. Front Microbiol 2012, 3:111. 3316994, 22485110.
19. Volchkova VA, Feldmann H, Klenk HD, Volchkov VE. The nonstructural small glycoprotein sGP of Ebola virus is secreted as an antiparallel-orientated homodimer. Virology 1998, 250:408-414. 10.1006/viro.1998.9389, 9792851.
20. Mohan GS, Li W, Ye L, Compans RW, Yang C. Antigenic subversion: a novel mechanism of host immune evasion by Ebola virus. PLoS Pathog 2012, 8:e1003065. 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003065, 3521666, 23271969.
21. Basler CF. A novel mechanism of immune evasion mediated by Ebola virus soluble glycoprotein. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2013, 11:475-478. 10.1586/eri.13.30, 23627853.
22. Yang Z, Delgado R, Xu L, Todd RF, Nabel EG, Sanchez A, Nabel GJ. Distinct cellular interactions of secreted and transmembrane Ebola virus glycoproteins. Science 1998, 279:1034-1037. 10.1126/science.279.5353.1034, 9461435.
23. Kindzelskii AL, Yang Z, Nabel GJ, Todd RF, Petty HR. Ebola virus secretory glycoprotein (sGP) diminishes Fc gamma RIIIB-to-CR3 proximity on neutrophils. J Immunol 2000, 164:953-958. 10.4049/jimmunol.164.2.953, 10623844.
24. Wahl-Jensen VM, Afanasieva TA, Seebach J, Ströher U, Feldmann H, Schnittler HJ. Effects of Ebola virus glycoproteins on endothelial cell activation and barrier function. J Virol 2005, 79:10442-10450. 10.1128/JVI.79.16.10442-10450.2005, 1182673, 16051836.
25. Alazard-Dany N, Volchkova V, Reynard O, Carbonnelle C, Dolnik O, Ottmann M, Khromykh A, Volchkov VE. Ebola virus glycoprotein GP is not cytotoxic when expressed constitutively at a moderate level. J Gen Virol 2006, 87(Pt 5):1247-1257.
26. Radoshitzky SR, Warfield KL, Chi X, Dong L, Kota K, Bradfute SB, Gearhart JD, Retterer C, Kranzusch PJ, Misasi JN, Hogenbirk MA, Wahl-Jensen V, Volchkov VE, Cunningham JM, Jahrling PB, Aman MJ, Bavari S, Farzan M, Kuhn JH. Ebolavirus delta-peptide immunoadhesins inhibit marburgvirus and ebolavirus cell entry. J Virol 2011, 85:8502-8513. 10.1128/JVI.02600-10, 3165852, 21697477.
27. Mehedi M, Falzarano D, Seebach J, Hu X, Carpenter MS, Schnittler HJ, Feldmann H. A new Ebola virus nonstructural glycoprotein expressed through RNA editing. J Virol 2011, 85:5406-5414. 10.1128/JVI.02190-10, 3094950, 21411529.
28. Aleksandrowicz P, Marzi A, Biedenkopf N, Beimforde N, Becker S, Hoenen T, Feldmann H, Schnittler HJ. Ebola virus enters host cells by macropinocytosis and clathrin-mediated endocytosis. J Infect Dis 2011, 204(Suppl 3):S957-S967. 10.1093/infdis/jir326, 3189988, 21987776.
29. Mulherkar N, Raaben M, de la Torre JC, Whelan SP, Chandran K. The Ebola virus glycoprotein mediates entry via a non-classical dynamin-dependent macropinocytic pathway. Virology 2011, 419:72-83. 10.1016/j.virol.2011.08.009, 3177976, 21907381.
30. Nanbo A, Imai M, Watanabe S, Noda T, Takahashi K, Neumann G, Halfmann P, Kawaoka Y. Ebolavirus is internalized into host cells via macropinocytosis in a viral glycoprotein-dependent manner. PLoS Pathog 2010, 6:e1001121. 10.1371/journal.ppat.1001121, 2944813, 20886108.
31. Carette JE, Raaben M, Wong AC, Herbert AS, Obernosterer G, Mulherkar N, Kuehne AI, Kranzusch PJ, Griffin AM, Ruthel G, Dal Cin P, Dye JM, Whelan SP, Chandran K, Brummelkamp TR. Ebola virus entry requires the cholesterol transporter Niemann-Pick C1. Nature 2011, 477:340-343. 10.1038/nature10348, 3175325, 21866103.
32. Côté M, Misasi J, Ren T, Bruchez A, Lee K, Filone CM, Hensley L, Li Q, Ory D, Chandran K, Cunningham J. Small molecule inhibitors reveal Niemann-Pick C1 is essential for Ebola virus infection. Nature 2011, 477:344-348. 10.1038/nature10380, 3230319, 21866101.
33. Miller EH, Obernosterer G, Raaben M, Herbert AS, Deffieu MS, Krishnan A, Ndungo E, Sandesara RG, Carette JE, Kuehne AI, Ruthel G, Pfeffer SR, Dye JM, Whelan SP, Brummelkamp TR, Chandran K. Ebola virus entry requires the host-programmed recognition of an intracellular receptor. EMBO J 2012, 31:1947-1960. 10.1038/emboj.2012.53, 3343336, 22395071.
34. Krishnan A, Miller EH, Herbert AS, Ng M, Ndungo E, Whelan SP, Dye JM, Chandran K. Niemann-Pick C1 (NPC1)/NPC1-like1 chimeras define sequences critical for NPC1's function as a flovirus entry receptor. Viruses 2012, 4:2471-2484. 10.3390/v4112471, 3509659, 23202491.
35. Hofmann-Winkler H, Kaup F, Pöhlmann S. Host cell factors in filovirus entry: novel players, new insights. Viruses 2012, 4:3336-3362. 10.3390/v4123336, 3528269, 23342362.
36. White JM, Schornberg KL. A new player in the puzzle of filovirus entry. Nat Rev Microbiol 2012, 10:317-322. 3540776, 22491356.
37. Martinez O, Ndungo E, Tantral L, Miller EH, Leung LW, Chandran K, Basler CF. A mutation in the Ebola virus envelope glycoprotein restricts viral entry in a host species- and cell-type-specific manner. J Virol 2013, 87:3324-3334. 10.1128/JVI.01598-12, 3592116, 23302883.
38. Shoemaker CJ, Schornberg KL, Delos SE, Scully C, Pajouhesh H, Olinger GG, Johansen LM, White JM. Multiple cationic amphiphiles induce a Niemann-Pick C phenotype and inhibit Ebola virus entry and infection. PLoS One 2013, 8:e56265. 10.1371/journal.pone.0056265, 3575416, 23441171.
39. Hunt CL, Lennemann NJ, Maury W. Filovirus entry: a novelty in the viral fusion world. Viruses 2012, 4:258-275. 10.3390/v4020258, 3315215, 22470835.
40. Kühl A, Pöhlmann S. How Ebola virus counters the interferon system. Zoonoses Public Health 2012, 59(Suppl 2):116-131.
41. Noda T, Kolesnikova L, Becker S, Kawaoka Y. The importance of the NP: VP35 ratio in Ebola virus nucleocapsid formation. J Infect Dis 2011, 204(Suppl 3):S878-S883. 10.1093/infdis/jir310, 3189984, 21987764.
42. Mateo M, Carbonnelle C, Martinez MJ, Reynard O, Page A, Volchkova VA, Volchkov VE. Knockdown of Ebola virus VP24 impairs viral nucleocapsid assembly and prevents virus replication. J Infect Dis 2011, 204(Suppl 3):S892-S896. 10.1093/infdis/jir311, 21987766.
43. Huang Y, Xu L, Sun Y, Nabel GJ. The assembly of Ebola virus nucleocapsid requires virion-associated proteins 35 and 24 and posttranslational modification of nucleoprotein. Mol Cell 2002, 10:307-316. 10.1016/S1097-2765(02)00588-9, 12191476.
44. Groseth A, Charton JE, Sauerborn M, Feldmann F, Jones SM, Hoenen T, Feldmann H. The Ebola virus ribonucleoprotein complex: a novel VP30-L interaction identified. Virus Res 2009, 140(1-2):8-14. 3398801, 19041915.
45. Martínez MJ, Biedenkopf N, Volchkova V, Hartlieb B, Alazard-Dany N, Reynard O, Becker S, Volchkov V. Role of Ebola virus VP30 in transcription reinitiation. J Virol 2008, 82:12569-12573. 10.1128/JVI.01395-08, 2593317, 18829754.
46. Martinez MJ, Volchkova VA, Raoul H, Alazard-Dany N, Reynard O, Volchkov VE. Role of VP30 phosphorylation in the Ebola virus replication cycle. J Infect Dis 2011, 204(Suppl 3):S934-S940. 10.1093/infdis/jir320, 21987772.
47. Biedenkopf N, Hartlieb B, Hoenen T, Becker S. Phosphorylation of Ebola virus VP30 influences the composition of the viral nucleocapsid complex: impact on viral transcription and replication. J Biol Chem 2013, 288:11165-11174. 10.1074/jbc. M113.461285, 3630872, 23493393.
48. Halfmann P, Ebihara H, Marzi A, Hatta Y, Watanabe S, Suresh M, Neumann G, Feldmann H, Kawaoka Y. Replication-deficient ebolavirus as a vaccine candidate. J Virol 2009, 83:3810-3815. 10.1128/JVI.00074-09, 2663241, 19211761.
49. Hoenen T, Jung S, Herwig A, Groseth A, Becker S. Both matrix proteins of Ebola virus contribute to the regulation of viral genome replication and transcription. Virology 2010, 403:56-66. 10.1016/j.virol.2010.04.002, 20444481.
50. Licata JM, Johnson RF, Han Z, Harty RN. Contribution of ebola virus glycoprotein, nucleoprotein, and VP24 to budding of VP40 virus-like particles. J Virol 2004, 78:7344-7351. 10.1128/JVI.78.14.7344-7351.2004, 434112, 15220407.
51. Han Z, Boshra H, Sunyer JO, Zwiers SH, Paragas J, Harty RN. Biochemical and functional characterization of the Ebola virus VP24 protein: implications for a role in virus assembly and budding. J Virol 2003, 77:1793-1800. 10.1128/JVI.77.3.1793-1800.2003, 140957, 12525613.
52. Noda T, Ebihara H, Muramoto Y, Fujii K, Takada A, Sagara H, Hyun Kim J, Kida H, Feldmann H, Kawaoka Y. Assembly and Budding of Ebolavirus. PLoS Pathog 2006, 2:e99. 10.1371/journal.ppat.0020099, 1579243, 17009868.
53. Stahelin RV. Could the Ebola virus matrix protein VP40 be a drug target?. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2014, 18:115-120. 10.1517/14728222.2014.863877, 24283270.
54. Soni SP, Adu-Gyamfi E, Yong SS, Jee CS, Stahelin RV. The Ebola virus matrix protein deeply penetrates the plasma membrane: an important step in viral egress. Biophys J 2013, 104:1940-1949. 10.1016/j.bpj.2013.03.021, 3647161, 23663837.
55. Conzelmann KK. Transcriptional activation of alpha/beta interferon genes: interference by nonsegmented negative-strand RNA viruses. J Virol 2005, 79:5241-5248. 10.1128/JVI.79.9.5241-5248.2005, 1082782, 15827138.
56. Smith LM, Hensley LE, Geisbert TW, Johnson J, Stossel A, Honko A, Yen JY, Geisbert J, Paragas J, Fritz E, Olinger G, Young HA, Rubins KH, Karp CL. Interferon-β therapy prolongs survival in rhesus macaque models of Ebola and Marburg hemorrhagic fever. J Infect Dis 2013, 208:310-318. 10.1093/infdis/jis921, 3685222, 23255566.
57. Basler CF, Amarasinghe GK. Evasion of interferon responses by Ebola and Marburg viruses. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2009, 29:511-520. 10.1089/jir.2009.0076, 2988466, 19694547.
58. Ramanan P, Shabman RS, Brown CS, Amarasinghe GK, Basler CF, Leung DW. Filoviral immune evasion mechanisms. Viruses 2011, 3:1634-1649. 10.3390/v3091634, 3187693, 21994800.
59. Xu W, Edwards MR, Borek DM, Feagins AR, Mittal A, Alinger JB, Berry KN, Yen B, Hamilton J, Brett TJ, Pappu RV, Leung DW, Basler CF, Amarasinghe GK. Ebola Virus VP24 Targets a Unique NLS Binding Site on Karyopherin Alpha 5 to Selectively Compete with Nuclear Import of Phosphorylated STAT1. Cell Host Microbe 2014, 16:187-200. 10.1016/j.chom.2014.07.008, 25121748.
60. Bowen ETW, Baskerville A, Cantell K, Mann GF, Simpson DIH, Zuckerman AJ. Ebola Virus Haemorrhagic Fever 1978, 245-253. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevie, Pattyn SR.
61. Sanchez A, Lukwiya M, Bausch D, Mahanty S, Sanchez AJ, Wagoner KD, Rollin PE. Analysis of human peripheral blood samples from fatal and nonfatal cases of Ebola (Sudan) hemorrhagic fever: cellular responses, virus load, and nitric oxide levels. J Virol 2004, 78:10370-10377. 10.1128/JVI.78.19.10370-10377.2004, 516433, 15367603.
62. Towner JS, Rollin PE, Bausch DG, Sanchez A, Crary SM, Vincent M, Lee WF, Spiropoulou CF, Ksiazek TG, Lukwiya M, Kaducu F, Downing R, Nichol ST. Rapid diagnosis of Ebola hemorrhagic fever by reverse transcription-PCR in an outbreak setting and assessment of patient viral load as a predictor of outcome. J Virol 2004, 78:4330-4341. 10.1128/JVI.78.8.4330-4341.2004, 374287, 15047846.
63. Baize S, Leroy EM, Georges-Courbot MC, Capron M, Lansoud-Soukate J, Debré P, Fisher-Hoch SP, McCormick JB, Georges AJ. Defective humoral responses and extensive intravascular apoptosis are associated with fatal outcome in Ebola virus-infected patients. Nat Med 1999, 5:423-426. 10.1038/7422, 10202932.
64. Sullivan N, Yang ZY, Nabel GJ. Ebola virus pathogenesis: implications for vaccines and therapies. J Virol 2003, 77:9733-9737. 10.1128/JVI.77.18.9733-9737.2003, 224575, 12941881.
65. Hensley LE, Young HA, Jahrling PB, Geisbert TW. Proinflammatory response during Ebola virus infection of primate models: possible involvement of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily. Immunol Lett 2002, 80:169-179. 10.1016/S0165-2478(01)00327-3, 11803049.
66. Harcourt BH, Sanchez A, Offermann MK. Ebola virus selectively inhibits responses to interferons, but not to interleukin-1beta, in endothelial cells. J Virol 1999, 73:3491-34916. 104118, 10074208.
67. Baize S, Leroy EM, Georges AJ, Georges-Courbot MC, Capron M, Bedjabaga I, Lansoud-Soukate J, Mavoungou E. Inflammatory responses in Ebola virus-infected patients. Clin Exp Immunol 2002, 128:163-168. 10.1046/j.1365-2249.2002.01800.x, 1906357, 11982604.
68. Leroy EM, Baize S, Volchkov VE, Fisher-Hoch SP, Georges-Courbot MC, Lansoud-Soukate J, Capron M, Debré P, McCormick JB, Georges AJ. Human asymptomatic Ebola infection and strong inflammatory response. Lancet 2000, 355:2210-2215. 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02405-3, 10881895.
69. Ströher U, West E, Bugany H, Klenk HD, Schnittler HJ, Feldmann H. Infection and activation of monocytes by Marburg and Ebola viruses. J Virol 2001, 75:11025-11033. 10.1128/JVI.75.22.11025-11033.2001, 114683, 11602743.
70. Gupta M, Mahanty S, Ahmed R, Rollin PE. Monocyte-derived human macrophages and peripheral blood mononuclear cells infected with ebola virus secrete MIP-1alpha and TNF-alpha and inhibit poly-IC-induced IFN-alpha in vitro. Virology 2001, 284:20-25. 10.1006/viro.2001.0836, 11352664.
71. Villinger F, Rollin PE, Brar SS, Chikkala NF, Winter J, Sundstrom JB, Zaki SR, Swanepoel R, Ansari AA, Peters CJ. Markedly elevated levels of interferon (IFN)-gamma, IFN-alpha, interleukin (IL)-2, IL-10, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha associated with fatal Ebola virus infection. J Infect Dis 1999, 179(Suppl 1):S188-S191.
72. Geisbert TW, Young HA, Jahrling PB, Davis KJ, Larsen T, Kagan E, Hensley LE. Pathogenesis of Ebola hemorrhagic fever in primate models: evidence that hemorrhage is not a direct effect of virus-induced cytolysis of endothelial cells. Am J Pathol 2003, 163:2371-2382. 10.1016/S0002-9440(10)63592-4, 1892396, 14633609.
73. Sullivan NJ, Peterson M, Yang ZY, Kong WP, Duckers H, Nabel E, Nabel GJ. Ebola virus glycoprotein toxicity is mediated by a dynamin-dependent protein-trafficking pathway. J Virol 2005, 79:547-553. 10.1128/JVI.79.1.547-553.2005, 538691, 15596847.
74. Feldmann H, Bugany H, Mahner F, Klenk HD, Drenckhahn D, Schnittler HJ. Filovirus-induced endothelial leakage triggered by infected monocytes/macrophages. J Virol 1996, 70:2208-2214. 190060, 8642644.
75. Simmons G, Wool-Lewis RJ, Baribaud F, Netter RC, Bates P. Ebola virus glycoproteins induce global surface protein down-modulation and loss of cell adherence. J Virol 2002, 76:2518-2528. 10.1128/jvi.76.5.2518-2528.2002, 153797, 11836430.
76. Francica JR, Matukonis MK, Bates P. Requirements for cell rounding and surface protein down-regulation by Ebola virus glycoprotein. Virology 2009, 383:237-247. 10.1016/j.virol.2008.10.029, 2654768, 19013626.
77. Geisbert TW, Young HA, Jahrling PB, Davis KJ, Kagan E, Hensley LE. Mechanisms underlying coagulation abnormalities in ebola hemorrhagic fever: overexpression of tissue factor in primate monocytes/macrophages is a key event. J Infect Dis 2003, 188:1618-1629. 10.1086/379724, 14639531.
78. Geisbert TW, Hensley LE, Jahrling PB, Larsen T, Geisbert JB, Paragas J, Young HA, Fredeking TM, Rote WE, Vlasuk GP. Treatment of Ebola virus infection with a recombinant inhibitor of factor VIIa/tissue factor: a study in rhesus monkeys. Lancet 2003, 362:1953-1958. 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)15012-X, 14683653.
79. Lee AY, Vlasuk GP. Recombinant nematode anticoagulant protein c2 and other inhibitors targeting blood coagulation factor VIIa/tissue factor. J Intern Med 2003, 254:313-321. 10.1046/j.1365-2796.2003.01224.x, 12974870.
80. Zampieri CA, Sullivan NJ, Nabel GJ. Immunopathology of highly virulent pathogens: insights from Ebola virus. Nat Immunol 2007, 8:1159-1164. 10.1038/ni1519, 17952040.
81. Feldmann H, Geisbert TW. Ebola haemorrhagic fever. Lancet 2011, 377:849-862. 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60667-8, 3406178, 21084112.
82. Bray M. Pathogenesis of viral hemorrhagic fever. Curr Opin Immunol 2005, 17:399-403. 10.1016/j.coi.2005.05.001, 15955687.
83. Geisbert TW, Hensley LE, Larsen T, Young HA, Reed DS, Geisbert JB, Scott DP, Kagan E, Jahrling PB, Davis KJ. Pathogenesis of Ebola hemorrhagic fever in cynomolgus macaques: evidence that dendritic cells are early and sustained targets of infection. Am J Pathol 2003, 163:2347-2370. 10.1016/S0002-9440(10)63591-2, 1892369, 14633608.
84. Yen B, Mulder LC, Martinez O, Basler CF. Molecular Basis for Ebola Virus VP35 Suppression of Human Dendritic Cell Maturation. J Virol In press.
85. Bray M, Geisbert TW. Ebola virus: the role of macrophages and dendritic cells in the pathogenesis of Ebola hemorrhagic fever. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2005, 37:1560-1566. 10.1016/j.biocel.2005.02.018, 15896665.
86. Martinez O, Leung LW, Basler CF. The role of antigen-presenting cells in filoviral hemorrhagic fever: gaps in current knowledge. Antiviral Res 2012, 93:416-428. 10.1016/j.antiviral.2012.01.011, 3299938, 22333482.
87. Wauquier N, Becquart P, Padilla C, Baize S, Leroy EM. Human fatal zaire ebola virus infection is associated with an aberrant innate immunity and with massive lymphocyte apoptosis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2010, 4:e837. 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000837, 2950153, 20957152.
88. Bradfute SB, Swanson PE, Smith MA, Watanabe E, McDunn JE, Hotchkiss RS, Bavari S. Mechanisms and consequences of ebolavirus-induced lymphocyte apoptosis. J Immunol 2010, 184:327-335. 10.4049/jimmunol.0901231, 20028660.
89. Olejnik J, Alonso J, Schmidt KM, Yan Z, Wang W, Marzi A, Ebihara H, Yang J, Patterson JL, Ryabchikova E, Mühlberger E. Ebola virus does not block apoptotic signaling pathways. J Virol 2013, 87:5384-5396. 10.1128/JVI.01461-12, 3648168, 23468487.
90. Wong G, Kobinger GP, Qiu X. Characterization of host immune responses in Ebola virus infections. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2014, 10:781-790. 10.1586/1744666X.2014.908705, 24742338.
91. Mohamadzadeh M, Chen L, Olinger GG, Pratt WD, Schmaljohn AL. Filoviruses and the balance of innate, adaptive, and inflammatory responses. Viral Immunol 2006, 19:602-612. 10.1089/vim.2006.19.602, 17201655.
92. Bradfute SB, Warfield KL, Bavari S. Functional CD8+ T cell responses in lethal Ebola virus infection. J Immunol 2008, 180:4058-4066. 10.4049/jimmunol.180.6.4058, 18322215.
93. Gupta M, Greer P, Mahanty S, Shieh WJ, Zaki SR, Ahmed R, Rollin PE. CD8-mediated protection against Ebola virus infection is perforin dependent. J Immunol 2005, 174:4198-4202. 10.4049/jimmunol.174.7.4198, 15778381.
94. Warfield KL, Olinger G, Deal EM, Swenson DL, Bailey M, Negley DL, Hart MK, Bavari S. Induction of humoral and CD8+ T cell responses are required for protection against lethal Ebola virus infection. J Immunol 2005, 175:1184-1191. 10.4049/jimmunol.175.2.1184, 16002721.
95. Rao M, Bray M, Alving CR, Jahrling P, Matyas GR. Induction of immune responses in mice and monkeys to Ebola virus after immunization with liposome-encapsulated irradiated Ebola virus: protection in mice requires CD4(+) T cells. J Virol 2002, 76:9176-9185. 10.1128/JVI.76.18.9176-9185.2002, 136452, 12186901.
96. Mahanty S, Hutchinson K, Agarwal S, McRae M, Rollin PE, Pulendran B. Cutting edge: impairment of dendritic cells and adaptive immunity by Ebola and Lassa viruses. J Immunol 2003, 170:2797-2801. 10.4049/jimmunol.170.6.2797, 12626527.
97. Bradfute SB, Bavari S. Correlates of immunity to filovirus infection. Viruses 2011, 3:982-1000. 10.3390/v3070982, 3185794, 21994766.
98. de La Vega MA, Wong G, Kobinger GP, Qiu X. The Multiple Roles of sGP in Ebola Pathogenesis. Viral Immunol 2014, 28:1-7.
99. Reynard O, Borowiak M, Volchkova VA, Delpeut S, Mateo M, Volchkov VE. Ebolavirus glycoprotein GP masks both its own epitopes and the presence of cellular surface proteins. J Virol 2009, 83:9596-9601. 10.1128/JVI.00784-09, 2738224, 19587051.
100. Francica JR, Varela-Rohena A, Medvec A, Plesa G, Riley JL, Bates P. Steric shielding of surface epitopes and impaired immune recognition induced by the ebola virus glycoprotein. PLoS Pathog 2010, 6:e1001098. 10.1371/journal.ppat.1001098, 2936550, 20844579.
101. Dowling W, Thompson E, Badger C, Mellquist JL, Garrison AR, Smith JM, Paragas J, Hogan RJ, Schmaljohn C. Influences of glycosylation on antigenicity, immunogenicity, and protective efficacy of ebola virus GP DNA vaccines. J Virol 2007, 81:1821-1837. 10.1128/JVI.02098-06, 1797596, 17151111.
102. Takada A, Kawaoka Y. Antibody-dependent enhancement of viral infection: molecular mechanisms and in vivo implications. Rev Med Virol 2003, 13:387-398. 10.1002/rmv.405, 14625886.
103. Takada A, Watanabe S, Okazaki K, Kida H, Kawaoka Y. Infectivity-enhancing antibodies to Ebola virus glycoprotein. J Virol 2001, 75:2324-2330. 10.1128/JVI.75.5.2324-2330.2001, 114815, 11160735.
104. Takada A, Feldmann H, Ksiazek TG, Kawaoka Y. Antibody-dependent enhancement of Ebola virus infection. J Virol 2003, 77:7539-7544. 10.1128/JVI.77.13.7539-7544.2003, 164833, 12805454.
105. Takada A, Ebihara H, Feldmann H, Geisbert TW, Kawaoka Y. Epitopes required for antibody-dependent enhancement of Ebola virus infection. J Infect Dis 2007, 196(Suppl 2):S347-S356.
106. Maruyama T, Rodriguez LL, Jahrling PB, Sanchez A, Khan AS, Nichol ST, Peters CJ, Parren PW, Burton DR. Ebola virus can be effectively neutralized by antibody produced in natural human infection. J Virol 1999, 73:6024-6030. 112663, 10364354.
107. Bale S, Dias JM, Fusco ML, Hashiguchi T, Wong AC, Liu T, Keuhne AI, Li S, Woods VL, Chandran K, Dye JM, Saphire EO. Structural basis for differential neutralization of ebolaviruses. Viruses 2012, 4:447-470. 10.3390/v4040447, 3347318, 22590681.
108. Shedlock DJ, Bailey MA, Popernack PM, Cunningham JM, Burton DR, Sullivan NJ. Antibody-mediated neutralization of Ebola virus can occur by two distinct mechanisms. Virology 2010, 401:228-235. 10.1016/j.virol.2010.02.029, 3351102, 20304456.
109. Dias JM, Kuehne AI, Abelson DM, Bale S, Wong AC, Halfmann P, Muhammad MA, Fusco ML, Zak SE, Kang E, Kawaoka Y, Chandran K, Dye JM, Saphire EO. A shared structural solution for neutralizing ebolaviruses. Nat Struct Mol Biol 2011, 18:1424-1427. 10.1038/nsmb.2150, 3230659, 22101933.
110. Qiu X, Alimonti JB, Melito PL, Fernando L, Ströher U, Jones SM. Characterization of Zaire ebolavirus glycoprotein-specific monoclonal antibodies. Clin Immunol 2011, 141:218-227. 10.1016/j.clim.2011.08.008, 21925951.
111. Wilson JA, Hevey M, Bakken R, Guest S, Bray M, Schmaljohn AL, Hart MK. Epitopes involved in antibody-mediated protection from Ebola virus. Science 2000, 287:1664-1666. 10.1126/science.287.5458.1664, 10698744.
112. Oswald WB, Geisbert TW, Davis KJ, Geisbert JB, Sullivan NJ, Jahrling PB, Parren PW, Burton DR. Neutralizing antibody fails to impact the course of Ebola virus infection in monkeys. PLoS Pathog 2007, 3:e9. 10.1371/journal.ppat.0030009, 1779296, 17238286.
113. Geisbert TW, Feldmann H. Recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus-based vaccines against Ebola and Marburg virus infections. J Infect Dis 2011, 204(Suppl 3):S1075-S1081. 10.1093/infdis/jir349, 3218670, 21987744.
114. Feldmann H, Jones SM, Daddario-DiCaprio KM, Geisbert JB, Ströher U, Grolla A, Bray M, Fritz EA, Fernando L, Feldmann F, Hensley LE, Geisbert TW. Effective post-exposure treatment of Ebola infection. PLoS Pathog 2007, 3:e2. 10.1371/journal.ppat.0030002, 1779298, 17238284.
115. Geisbert TW, Daddario-Dicaprio KM, Geisbert JB, Reed DS, Feldmann F, Grolla A, Ströher U, Fritz EA, Hensley LE, Jones SM, Feldmann H. Vesicular stomatitis virus-based vaccines protect nonhuman primates against aerosol challenge with Ebola and Marburg viruses. Vaccine 2008, 26:6894-6900. 10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.09.082, 3398796, 18930776.
116. Geisbert TW, Daddario-Dicaprio KM, Lewis MG, Geisbert JB, Grolla A, Leung A, Paragas J, Matthias L, Smith MA, Jones SM, Hensley LE, Feldmann H, Jahrling PB. Vesicular stomatitis virus-based ebola vaccine is well-tolerated and protects immunocompromised nonhuman primates. PLoS Pathog 2008, 4:e1000225. 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000225, 2582959, 19043556.
117. Stanley DA, Honko AN, Asiedu C, Trefry JC, Lau-Kilby AW, Johnson JC, Hensley L, Ammendola V, Abbate A, Grazioli F, Foulds KE, Cheng C, Wang L, Donaldson MM, Colloca S, Folgori A, Roederer M, Nabel GJ, Mascola J, Nicosia A, Cortese R, Koup RA, Sullivan NJ. Chimpanzee adenovirus vaccine generates acute and durable protective immunity against ebolavirus challenge. Nat Med In press.
118. Geisbert TW, Bailey M, Hensley L, Asiedu C, Geisbert J, Stanley D, Honko A, Johnson J, Mulangu S, Pau MG, Custers J, Vellinga J, Hendriks J, Jahrling P, Roederer M, Goudsmit J, Koup R, Sullivan NJ. Recombinant adenovirus serotype 26 (Ad26) and Ad35 vaccine vectors bypass immunity to Ad5 and protect nonhuman primates against ebolavirus challenge. J Virol 2011, 85:4222-4233. 10.1128/JVI.02407-10, 3126236, 21325402.
119. Hensley LE, Mulangu S, Asiedu C, Johnson J, Honko AN, Stanley D, Fabozzi G, Nichol ST, Ksiazek TG, Rollin PE, Wahl-Jensen V, Bailey M, Jahrling PB, Roederer M, Koup RA, Sullivan NJ. Demonstration of cross-protective vaccine immunity against an emerging pathogenic Ebolavirus Species. PLoS Pathog 2010, 6:e1000904. 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000904, 2873919, 20502688.
120. Richardson JS, Pillet S, Bello AJ, Kobinger GP. Airway delivery of an adenovirus-based Ebola virus vaccine bypasses existing immunity to homologous adenovirus in nonhuman primates. J Virol 2013, 87:3668-3677. 10.1128/JVI.02864-12, 3624216, 23302894.
121. Falzarano D, Geisbert TW, Feldmann H. Progress in filovirus vaccine development: evaluating the potential for clinical use. Expert Rev Vaccines 2011, 10:63-77. 10.1586/erv.10.152, 3398800, 21162622.
122. Sullivan NJ, Geisbert TW, Geisbert JB, Shedlock DJ, Xu L, Lamoreaux L, Custers JH, Popernack PM, Yang ZY, Pau MG, Roederer M, Koup RA, Goudsmit J, Jahrling PB, Nabel GJ. Immune protection of nonhuman primates against Ebola virus with single low-dose adenovirus vectors encoding modified GPs. PLoS Med 2006, 3:e177. 10.1371/journal.pmed.0030177, 1459482, 16683867.
123. Ledgerwood JE, Costner P, Desai N, Holman L, Enama ME, Yamshchikov G, Mulangu S, Hu Z, Andrews CA, Sheets RA, Koup RA, Roederer M, Bailer R, Mascola JR, Pau MG, Sullivan NJ, Goudsmit J, Nabel GJ, Graham BS,. VRC 205 Study Team A replication defective recombinant Ad5 vaccine expressing Ebola virus GP is safe and immunogenic in healthy adults. Vaccine 2010, 29:304-313. 10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.10.037, 21034824, VRC 205 Study Team.
124. Sullivan NJ, Hensley L, Asiedu C, Geisbert TW, Stanley D, Johnson J, Honko A, Olinger G, Bailey M, Geisbert JB, Reimann KA, Bao S, Rao S, Roederer M, Jahrling PB, Koup RA, Nabel GJ. CD8+ cellular immunity mediates rAd5 vaccine protection against Ebola virus infection of nonhuman primates. Nat Med 2011, 17:1128-1131. 10.1038/nm.2447, 21857654.
125. Jones SM, Feldmann H, Ströher U, Geisbert JB, Fernando L, Grolla A, Klenk HD, Sullivan NJ, Volchkov VE, Fritz EA, Daddario KM, Hensley LE, Jahrling PB, Geisbert TW. Live attenuated recombinant vaccine protects nonhuman primates against Ebola and Marburg viruses. Nat Med 2005, 11:786-790. 10.1038/nm1258, 15937495.
126. Marzi A, Engelmann F, Feldmann F, Haberthur K, Shupert WL, Brining D, Scott DP, Geisbert TW, Kawaoka Y, Katze MG, Feldmann H, Messaoudi I. Antibodies are necessary for rVSV/ZEBOV-GP-mediated protection against lethal Ebola virus challenge in nonhuman primates. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013, 110:1893-1898. 10.1073/pnas.1209591110, 3562844, 23319647.
127. Wilson JA, Hart MK. Protection from Ebola virus mediated by cytotoxic T lymphocytes specific for the viral nucleoprotein. J Virol 2001, 75:2660-2664. 10.1128/JVI.75.6.2660-2664.2001, 115890, 11222689.
128. Ayithan N, Bradfute SB, Anthony SM, Stuthman KS, Dye JM, Bavari S, Bray M, Ozato K. Ebola virus-like particles stimulate type I interferons and proinflammatory cytokine expression through the toll-like receptor and interferon signaling pathways. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2014, 34:79-89. 10.1089/jir.2013.0035, 24102579.
129. Warfield KL, Swenson DL, Olinger GG, Kalina WV, Aman MJ, Bavari S. Ebola virus-like particle-based vaccine protects nonhuman primates against lethal Ebola virus challenge. J Infect Dis 2007, 196(Suppl 2):S430-S437.
130. Olinger GG, Bailey MA, Dye JM, Bakken R, Kuehne A, Kondig J, Wilson J, Hogan RJ, Hart MK. Protective cytotoxic T-cell responses induced by venezuelan equine encephalitis virus replicons expressing Ebola virus proteins. J Virol 2005, 79:14189-14196. 10.1128/JVI.79.22.14189-14196.2005, 1280180, 16254354.
131. Wilson JA, Bray M, Bakken R, Hart MK. Vaccine potential of Ebola virus VP24, VP30, VP35, and VP40 proteins. Virology 2001, 286:384-390. 10.1006/viro.2001.1012, 11485406.
132. Tavakoli I, Judge A, Hensley LE, Maclachlan I. Postexposure protection of non-human primates against a lethal Ebola virus challenge with RNA interference: a proof-of-concept study. Lancet 2010, 375:1896-1905. 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60357-1, 20511019.
133. Hoenen T, Feldmann H. Ebolavirus in West Africa, and the use of experimental therapies or vaccines. BMC Biol 2014, 12:80. 10.1186/s12915-014-0080-6, 4177057, 25286348.
134. Warfield KL, Swenson DL, Olinger GG, Nichols DK, Pratt WD, Blouch R, Stein DA, Aman MJ, Iversen PL, Bavari S. Gene-specific countermeasures against Ebola virus based on antisense phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomers. PLoS Pathog 2006, 2:e1. 10.1371/journal.ppat.0020001, 1326218, 16415982.
135. Iversen PL, Warren TK, Wells JB, Garza NL, Mourich DV, Welch LS, Panchal RG, Bavari S. Discovery and early development of AVI-7537 and AVI-7288 for the treatment of Ebola virus and Marburg virus infections. Viruses 2012, 4:2806-2830. 10.3390/v4112806, 3509674, 23202506.
136. Ksiazek TG, Rollin PE, Williams AJ, Bressler DS, Martin ML, Swanepoel R, Burt FJ, Leman PA, Khan AS, Rowe AK, Mukunu R, Sanchez A, Peters CJ. Clinical virology of Ebola hemorrhagic fever (EHF): virus, virus antigen, and IgG and IgM antibody findings among EHF patients in Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1995. J Infect Dis 1999, 179(Suppl 1):S177-S187.
137. Casillas AM, Nyamathi AM, Sosa A, Wilder CL, Sands H. A current review of Ebola virus: pathogenesis, clinical presentation, and diagnostic assessment. Biol Res Nurs 2003, 4:268-275. 10.1177/1099800403252603, 12698919.
138. Mupapa K, Massamba M, Kibadi K, Kuvula K, Bwaka A, Kipasa M, Colebunders R, Muyembe-Tamfum JJ. Treatment of Ebola hemorrhagic fever with blood transfusions from convalescent patients. International Scientific and Technical Committee. J Infect Dis 1999, 179(Suppl 1):S18-S23.
139. Konduru K, Bradfute SB, Jacques J, Manangeeswaran M, Nakamura S, Morshed S, Wood SC, Bavari S, Kaplan GG. Ebola virus glycoprotein Fc fusion protein confers protection against lethal challenge in vaccinated mice. Vaccine 2011, 29:2968-2977. 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.01.113, 3070761, 21329775.
140. Gupta M, Mahanty S, Bray M, Ahmed R, Rollin PE. Passive transfer of antibodies protects immunocompetent and imunodeficient mice against lethal Ebola virus infection without complete inhibition of viral replication. J Virol 2001, 75:4649-4654. 10.1128/JVI.75.10.4649-4654.2001, 114218, 11312335.
141. Parren PW, Geisbert TW, Maruyama T, Jahrling PB, Burton DR. Pre- and postexposure prophylaxis of Ebola virus infection in an animal model by passive transfer of a neutralizing human antibody. J Virol 2002, 76:6408-6412. 10.1128/JVI.76.12.6408-6412.2002, 136210, 12021376.
142. Takada A, Ebihara H, Jones S, Feldmann H, Kawaoka Y. Protective efficacy of neutralizing antibodies against Ebola virus infection. Vaccine 2007, 25:993-999. 10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.09.076, 17055127.
143. Takada A, Feldmann H, Stroeher U, Bray M, Watanabe S, Ito H, McGregor M, Kawaoka Y. Identification of protective epitopes on ebola virus glycoprotein at the single amino acid level by using recombinant vesicular stomatitis viruses. J Virol 2003, 77:1069-1074. 10.1128/JVI.77.2.1069-1074.2003, 140786, 12502822.
144. Shahhosseini S, Das D, Qiu X, Feldmann H, Jones SM, Suresh MR. Production and characterization of monoclonal antibodies against different epitopes of Ebola virus antigens. J Virol Methods 2007, 143:29-37. 10.1016/j.jviromet.2007.02.004, 17368819.
145. Marzi A, Yoshida R, Miyamoto H, Ishijima M, Suzuki Y, Higuchi M, Matsuyama Y, Igarashi M, Nakayama E, Kuroda M, Saijo M, Feldmann F, Brining D, Feldmann H, Takada A. Protective efficacy of neutralizing monoclonal antibodies in a nonhuman primate model of Ebola hemorrhagic fever. PLoS One 2012, 7:e36192. 10.1371/journal.pone.0036192, 3338609, 22558378.
146. Saphire EO. An update on the use of antibodies against the filoviruses. Immunotherapy 2013, 5:1221-1233. 10.2217/imt.13.124, 24188676.
147. Takada A. Do therapeutic antibodies hold the key to an effective treatment for Ebola hemorrhagic fever?. Immunotherapy 2013, 5:441-443. 10.2217/imt.13.29, 23638738.
148. Audet J, Wong G, Wang H, Lu G, Gao GF, Kobinger G, Qiu X. Molecular characterization of the monoclonal antibodies composing ZMAb: a protective cocktail against Ebola virus. Sci Rep 2014, 4:6881.
149. Pettitt J, Zeitlin L, Kim do H, Working C, Johnson JC, Bohorov O, Bratcher B, Hiatt E, Hume SD, Johnson AK, Morton J, Pauly MH, Whaley KJ, Ingram MF, Zovanyi A, Heinrich M, Piper A, Zelko J, Olinger GG. Therapeutic intervention of Ebola virus infection in rhesus macaques with the MB-003 monoclonal antibody cocktail. Sci Transl Med 2013, 5:199ra113.
150. Qiu X, Audet J, Wong G, Pillet S, Bello A, Cabral T, Strong JE, Plummer F, Corbett CR, Alimonti JB, Kobinger GP. Successful treatment of Ebola virus-infected cynomolgus macaques with monoclonal antibodies. Sci Transl Med 2012, 4:138ra81.
151. Qiu X, Wong G, Audet J, Bello A, Fernando L, Alimonti JB, Fausther-Bovendo H, Wei H, Aviles J, Hiatt E, Johnson A, Morton J, Swope K, Bohorov O, Bohorova N, Goodman C, Kim D, Pauly MH, Velasco J, Pettitt J, Olinger GG, Whaley K, Xu B, Strong JE, Zeitlin L, Kobinger GP. Reversion of advanced Ebola virus disease in nonhuman primates with ZMapp. Nature 2014, 514:47-53.
152. Qiu X, Wong G, Fernando L, Ennis J, Turner JD, Alimonti JB, Yao X, Kobinger GP. Monoclonal antibodies combined with adenovirus-vectored interferon significantly extend the treatment window in Ebola virus-infected guinea pigs. J Virol 2013, 87:7754-7757. 10.1128/JVI.00173-13, 3700280, 23616649.
153. Qiu X, Wong G, Fernando L, Audet J, Bello A, Strong J, Alimonti JB, Kobinger GP. mAbs and Ad-vectored IFN-α therapy rescue Ebola-infected nonhuman primates when administered after the detection of viremia and symptoms. Sci Transl Med 2013, 5:207ra143.
154. Furuta Y, Gowen BB, Takahashi K, Shiraki K, Smee DF, Barnard DL. Favipiravir (T-705), a novel viral RNA polymerase inhibitor. Antiviral Res 2013, 100:446-454. 10.1016/j.antiviral.2013.09.015, 3880838, 24084488.
155. Furuta Y, Takahashi K, Shiraki K, Sakamoto K, Smee DF, Barnard DL, Gowen BB, Julander JG, Morrey JD. T-705 (favipiravir) and related compounds: Novel broad-spectrum inhibitors of RNA viral infections. Antiviral Res 2009, 82:95-102. 10.1016/j.antiviral.2009.02.198, 19428599.
156. Oestereich L, Lüdtke A, Wurr S, Rieger T, Muñoz-Fontela C, Günther S. Successful treatment of advanced Ebola virus infection with T-705 (favipiravir) in a small animal model. Antiviral Res 2014, 105:17-21.
157. Smither SJ, Eastaugh LS, Steward JA, Nelson M, Lenk RP, Lever MS. Post-exposure efficacy of oral T-705 (Favipiravir) against inhalational Ebola virus infection in a mouse model. Antiviral Res 2014, 104:153-155.
158. Lever MS, Piercy TJ, Steward JA, Eastaugh L, Smither SJ, Taylor C, Salguero FJ, Phillpotts RJ. Lethality and pathogenesis of airborne infection with filoviruses in A129 α/β -/- interferon receptor-deficient mice. J Med Microbiol 2012, 61(Pt 1):8-15.
159. Warren TK, Wells J, Panchal RG, Stuthman KS, Garza NL, Van Tongeren SA, Dong L, Retterer CJ, Eaton BP, Pegoraro G, Honnold S, Bantia S, Kotian P, Chen X, Taubenheim BR, Welch LS, Minning DM, Babu YS, Sheridan WP, Bavari S. Protection against filovirus diseases by a novel broad-spectrum nucleoside analogue BCX4430. Nature 2014, 508:402-405. 10.1038/nature13027, 24590073.
160. Vere Hodge RA. Meeting report: 27th International conference on antiviral research. Antiviral Res In press.
161. Madrid PB, Chopra S, Manger ID, Gilfillan L, Keepers TR, Shurtleff AC, Green CE, Iyer LV, Dilks HH, Davey RA, Kolokoltsov AA, Carrion R, Patterson JL, Bavari S, Panchal RG, Warren TK, Wells JB, Moos WH, Burke RL, Tanga MJ. A systematic screen of FDA-approved drugs for inhibitors of biological threat agents. PLoS One 2013, 8:e60579. 10.1371/journal.pone.0060579, 3618516, 23577127.
162. Gnirss K, Kühl A, Karsten C, Glowacka I, Bertram S, Kaup F, Hofmann H, Pöhlmann S. Cathepsins B and L activate Ebola but not Marburg virus glycoproteins for efficient entry into cell lines and macrophages independent of TMPRSS2 expression. Virology 2012, 424:3-10. 10.1016/j.virol.2011.11.031, 22222211.
163. Misasi J, Chandran K, Yang JY, Considine B, Filone CM, Côté M, Sullivan N, Fabozzi G, Hensley L, Cunningham J. Filoviruses require endosomal cysteine proteases for entry but exhibit distinct protease preferences. J Virol 2012, 86:3284-3292. 10.1128/JVI.06346-11, 3302294, 22238307.
164. Neumann G, Feldmann H, Watanabe S, Lukashevich I, Kawaoka Y. Reverse genetics demonstrates that proteolytic processing of the Ebola virus glycoprotein is not essential for replication in cell culture. J Virol 2002, 76:406-410. 10.1128/JVI.76.1.406-410.2002, 135697, 11739705.
165. Neumann G, Geisbert TW, Ebihara H, Geisbert JB, Daddario-DiCaprio KM, Feldmann H, Kawaoka Y. Proteolytic processing of the Ebola virus glycoprotein is not critical for Ebola virus replication in nonhuman primates. J Virol 2007, 81:2995-2998. 10.1128/JVI.02486-06, 1866002, 17229700.
166. Marzi A, Reinheckel T, Feldmann H. Cathepsin B & L are not required for ebola virus replication. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2012, 6:e1923. 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001923, 3516577, 23236527.
167. Elshabrawy HA, Fan J, Haddad CS, Ratia K, Broder CC, Caffrey M, Prabhakar BS. Identification of a broad-spectrum antiviral small molecule against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus and Ebola, Hendra, and Nipah viruses by using a novel high-throughput screening assay. J Virol 2014, 88:4353-4365. 10.1128/JVI.03050-13, 3993759, 24501399.
168. Gehring G, Rohrmann K, Atenchong N, Mittler E, Becker S, Dahlmann F, Pöhlmann S, Vondran FW, David S, Manns MP, Ciesek S, von Hahn T. The clinically approved drugs amiodarone, dronedarone and verapamil inhibit filovirus cell entry. J Antimicrob Chemother 2014, 69:2123-2131. 10.1093/jac/dku091, 24710028.
169. Palmeri S, Battisti C, Malandrini A, Federico A. Amiodarone induced lipidosis similar to Niemann-Pick C disease. Biochemical and morphological study. Life Sci 1995, 57:1963-1971. 10.1016/0024-3205(95)02129-7, 7475945.
170. Piccoli E, Nadai M, Caretta CM, Bergonzini V, Del Vecchio C, Ha HR, Bigler L, Dal Zoppo D, Faggin E, Pettenazzo A, Orlando R, Salata C, Calistri A, Palù G, Baritussio A. Amiodarone impairs trafficking through late endosomes inducing a Niemann-Pick C-like phenotype. Biochem Pharmacol 2011, 82:1234-1249. 10.1016/j.bcp.2011.07.090, 21878321.
171. Garver WS, Heidenreich RA. The Niemann-Pick C proteins and trafficking of cholesterol through the late endosomal/lysosomal system. Curr Mol Med 2002, 2:485-505. 10.2174/1566524023362375, 12125814.
172. Rodriguez-Lafrasse C, Rousson R, Bonnet J, Pentchev PG, Louisot P, Vanier MT. Abnormal cholesterol metabolism in imipramine-treated fibroblast cultures. Similarities with Niemann-Pick type C disease. Biochim Biophys Acta 1990, 1043:123-128. 10.1016/0005-2760(90)90284-5, 2317521.
173. Kaufmann AM, Krise JP. Niemann-Pick C1 functions in regulating lysosomal amine content. J Biol Chem 2008, 283:24584-24593. 10.1074/jbc. M803715200, 2528997, 18591242.
174. Johansen LM, Brannan JM, Delos SE, Shoemaker CJ, Stossel A, Lear C, Hoffstrom BG, Dewald LE, Schornberg KL, Scully C, Lehár J, Hensley LE, White JM, Olinger GG. FDA-approved selective estrogen receptor modulators inhibit Ebola virus infection. Sci Transl Med 2013, 5:190ra79. 3955358, 23785035.
175. Could estrogen receptor antagonists treated Ebola ? Josh Farkas 8/6/2014. http://www.pulmcrit.org/2014/08/could-estrogen-receptor-antagonists.html.
176. Young SL, Opsahl MS, Fritz MA. Serum concentrations of enclomiphene and zuclomiphene across consecutive cycles of clomiphene citrate therapy in anovulatory infertile women. Fertil Steril 1999, 71:639-644. 10.1016/S0015-0282(98)00537-8, 10202872.
177. Ghobadi C, Amer S, Lashen H, Lennard MS, Ledger WL, Rostami-Hodjegan A. Evaluation of the relationship between plasma concentrations of en- and zuclomiphene and induction of ovulation in anovulatory women being treated with clomiphene citrate. Fertil Steril 2009, 91:1135-1140. 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.01.058, 18353317.
178. Wiebe VJ, Benz CC, Shemano I, Cadman TB, DeGregorio MW. Pharmacokinetics of toremifene and its metabolites in patients with advanced breast cancer. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 1990, 25:247-251. 10.1007/BF00684880, 2136809.
179. Bishop J, Murray R, Webster L, Pitt P, Stokes K, Fennessy A, Olver I, Leber G. Phase I clinical and pharmacokinetics study of high-dose toremifene in postmenopausal patients with advanced breast cancer. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 1992, 30:174-178. 10.1007/BF00686307, 1385761.
180. Kohler PC, Hamm JT, Wiebe VJ, DeGregorio MW, Shemano I, Tormey DC. Phase I study of the tolerance and pharmacokinetics of toremifene in patients with cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat 1990, 16(Suppl):S19-S26.
181. Goldstein SR, Siddhanti S, Ciaccia AV, Plouffe L. A pharmacological review of selective oestrogen receptor modulators. Hum Reprod Update 2000, 6:212-224. 10.1093/humupd/6.3.212, 10874566.
182. Taras TL, Wurz GT, Linares GR, DeGregorio MW. Clinical pharmacokinetics of toremifene. Clin Pharmacokinet 2000, 39:327-334. 10.2165/00003088-200039050-00002, 11108432.
183. Gennari L, Merlotti D, Stolakis K, Nuti R. Pharmacokinetic evaluation of toremifene and its clinical implications for the treatment of osteoporosis. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2012, 8:505-513. 10.1517/17425255.2012.665873, 22356442.
184. Tanaka SS, Yamaguchi YL, Tsoi B, Lickert H, Tam PP. IFITM/Mil/fragilis family proteins IFITM1 and IFITM3 play distinct roles in mouse primordial germ cell homing and repulsion. Dev Cell 2005, 9:745-756. 10.1016/j.devcel.2005.10.010, 16326387.
185. Diamond MS, Farzan M. The broad-spectrum antiviral functions of IFIT and IFITM proteins. Nat Rev Immunol 2013, 13:46-57. 3773942, 23237964.
186. Raychoudhuri A, Shrivastava S, Steele R, Kim H, Ray R, Ray RB. ISG56 and IFITM1 proteins inhibit hepatitis C virus replication. J Virol 2011, 85:12881-12889. 10.1128/JVI.05633-11, 3233139, 21976647.
187. Bhanja Chowdhury J, Shrivastava S, Steele R, Di Bisceglie AM, Ray R, Ray RB. Hepatitis C virus infection modulates expression of interferon stimulatory gene IFITM1 by upregulating miR-130A. J Virol 2012, 86:10221-10225. 10.1128/JVI.00882-12, 3446586, 22787204.
188. Huang IC, Bailey CC, Weyer JL, Radoshitzky SR, Becker MM, Chiang JJ, Brass AL, Ahmed AA, Chi X, Dong L, Longobardi LE, Boltz D, Kuhn JH, Elledge SJ, Bavari S, Denison MR, Choe H, Farzan M. Distinct patterns of IFITM-mediated restriction of filoviruses, SARS coronavirus, and influenza A virus. PLoS Pathog 2011, 7:e1001258. 10.1371/journal.ppat.1001258, 3017121, 21253575.
189. Kleyman TR, Cragoe EJ. Amiloride and its analogs as tools in the study of ion transport. J Membr Biol 1988, 105:1-21. 10.1007/BF01871102, 2852254.
190. Nakayama S, Nomura H. Mechanisms of intracellular Mg2+ regulation affected by amiloride and ouabain in the guinea-pig taenia caeci. J Physiol 1995, 488(Pt 1):1-12. 1156696, 8568645.
191. Uetani T, Matsubara T, Nomura H, Murohara T, Nakayama S. Ca2 + -dependent modulation of intracellular Mg2+ concentration with amiloride and KB-R7943 in pig carotid artery. J Biol Chem 2003, 278:47491-47497. 10.1074/jbc. M307898200, 12958315.
192. Günther T, Vormann J, Cragoe EJ. Species-specific Mn2+/Mg2+ antiport from Mg2(+)-loaded erythrocytes. FEBS Lett 1990, 261:47-51. 10.1016/0014-5793(90)80633-T, 1689673.
193. Kerr MC, Teasdale RD. Defining macropinocytosis. Traffic 2009, 10:364-371. 10.1111/j.1600-0854.2009.00878.x, 19192253.
194. Mercer J, Helenius A. Virus entry by macropinocytosis. Nat Cell Biol 2009, 11:510-520. 10.1038/ncb0509-510, 19404330.
195. Raghu H, Sharma-Walia N, Veettil MV, Sadagopan S, Chandran B. Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus utilizes an actin polymerization-dependent macropinocytic pathway to enter human dermal microvascular endothelial and human umbilical vein endothelial cells. J Virol 2009, 83:4895-4911. 10.1128/JVI.02498-08, 2682094, 19279100.
196. Harrison DN, Gazina EV, Purcell DF, Anderson DA, Petrou S. Amiloride derivatives inhibit coxsackievirus B3 RNA replication. J Virol 2008, 82:1465-1473. 10.1128/JVI.01374-07, 2224459, 18032495.
197. Saeed MF, Kolokoltsov AA, Albrecht T, Davey RA. Cellular entry of ebola virus involves uptake by a macropinocytosis-like mechanism and subsequent trafficking through early and late endosomes. PLoS Pathog 2010, 6:e1001110. 10.1371/journal.ppat.1001110, 2940741, 20862315.
198. Hunt CL, Kolokoltsov AA, Davey RA, Maury W. The Tyro3 receptor kinase Axl enhances macropinocytosis of Zaire ebolavirus. J Virol 2011, 85:334-347. 10.1128/JVI.01278-09, 3014168, 21047970.
199. Levi LI, Gnädig NF, Beaucourt S, McPherson MJ, Baron B, Arnold JJ, Vignuzzi M. Fidelity variants of RNA dependent RNA polymerases uncover an indirect, mutagenic activity of amiloride compounds. PLoS Pathog 2010, 6:e1001163. 10.1371/journal.ppat.1001163, 2965762, 21060812.
200. Ogram SA, Boone CD, McKenna R, Flanegan JB. Amiloride inhibits the initiation of Coxsackievirus and poliovirus RNA replication by inhibiting VPg uridylylation. Virology 2014, 464-465:87-97.
201. Hui EK, Nayak DP. Role of ATP in influenza virus budding. Virology 2001, 290:329-341. 10.1006/viro.2001.1181, 11883197.
202. Hoffmann HH, Palese P, Shaw ML. Modulation of influenza virus replication by alteration of sodium ion transport and protein kinase C activity. Antiviral Res 2008, 80:124-134. 10.1016/j.antiviral.2008.05.008, 2614658, 18585796.
203. Deng L, Dai P, Ciro A, Smee DF, Djaballah H, Shuman S. Identification of novel antipoxviral agents: mitoxantrone inhibits vaccinia virus replication by blocking virion assembly. J Virol 2007, 81:13392-13402. 10.1128/JVI.00770-07, 2168821, 17928345.
204. Katzen J, Hurtado J, Lecuona E, Sznajder JI. The cardioactive glycoside ouabain inhibits influenza A viral replication. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2014, 189:A2733.
205. Dodson AW, Taylor TJ, Knipe DM, Coen DM. Inhibitors of the sodium potassium ATPase that impair herpes simplex virus replication identified via a chemical screening approach. Virology 2007, 366:340-348. 10.1016/j.virol.2007.05.001, 2099250, 17544048.
206. Nagai Y, Maeno K, Iinuma M, Yoshida T, Matsumoto T. Inhibition of virus growth by ouabain: effect of ouabain on the growth of HVJ in chick embryo cells. J Virol 1972, 9:234-243. 356288, 4335518.
207. Tomita Y, Kuwata T. Suppression of murine leukaemia virus production by ouabain and interferon in mouse cells. J Gen Virol 1978, 38:223-230. 10.1099/0022-1317-38-2-223, 75244.
208. Karuppannan AK, Wu KX, Qiang J, Chu JJ, Kwang J. Natural compounds inhibiting the replication of Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Antiviral Res 2012, 94:188-194. 10.1016/j.antiviral.2012.03.008, 22487208.
209. Altamirano AA, Fons MP, Russell JM, Cragoe EJ, Albrecht T. Human cytomegalovirus infection increases the number of ouabain-binding sites in human fibroblasts. Virology 1994, 199:151-159. 10.1006/viro.1994.1107, 8116238.
210. García-Dorival I, Wu W, Dowall S, Armstrong S, Touzelet O, Wastling J, Barr JN, Matthews D, Carroll M, Hewson R, Hiscox JA. Elucidation of the Ebola virus VP24 cellular interactome and disruption of virus biology through targeted inhibition of host cell protein function. J Proteome Res In press.
211. Valente RC, Capella LS, Monteiro RQ, Rumjanek VM, Lopes AG, Capella MA. Mechanisms of ouabain toxicity. FASEB J 2003, 17:1700-1702.
212. Bhattacharyya S, Hope TJ. Full-length Ebola glycoprotein accumulates in the endoplasmic reticulum. Virol J 2011, 8:11. 10.1186/1743-422X-8-11, 3024955, 21223600.
213. Martinez O, Valmas C, Basler CF. Ebola virus-like particle-induced activation of NF-kappaB and Erk signaling in human dendritic cells requires the glycoprotein mucin domain. Virology 2007, 364:342-354. 10.1016/j.virol.2007.03.020, 2034500, 17434557.
214. Volchkov VE, Volchkova VA, Muhlberger E, Kolesnikova LV, Weik M, Dolnik O, Klenk HD. Recovery of infectious Ebola virus from complementary DNA: RNA editing of the GP gene and viral cytotoxicity. Science 2001, 291:1965-1969. 10.1126/science.1057269, 11239157.
215. Pahl HL, Baeuerle PA. The ER-overload response: activation of NF-kappa B. Trends Biochem Sci 1997, 22:63-67. 10.1016/S0968-0004(96)10073-6, 9048485.
216. Boo KH, Yang JS. Intrinsic cellular defenses against virus infection by antiviral type I interferon. Yonsei Med J 2010, 51:9-17. 10.3349/ymj.2010.51.1.9, 2799977, 20046508.
217. Panchal RG, Reid SP, Tran JP, Bergeron AA, Wells J, Kota KP, Aman J, Bavari S. Identification of an antioxidant small-molecule with broad-spectrum antiviral activity. Antiviral Res 2012, 93:23-29. 10.1016/j.antiviral.2011.10.011, 22027648.
218. Pahl HL, Baeuerle PA. Activation of NF-kappa B by ER stress requires both Ca2+ and reactive oxygen intermediates as messengers. FEBS Lett 1996, 392:129-136. 10.1016/0014-5793(96)00800-9, 8772190.
219. Lai KY, Ng WY, Osburga Chan PK, Wong KF, Cheng F. High-dose N-acetylcysteine therapy for novel H1N1 influenza pneumonia. Ann Intern Med 2010, 152:687-688. 10.7326/0003-4819-152-10-201005180-00017, 20479037.
220. Borgström L, Kågedal B, Paulsen O. Pharmacokinetics of N-acetylcysteine in man. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1986, 31:217-222. 10.1007/BF00606662, 3803419.
221. De Flora S, Izzotti A, D'Agostini F, Balansky RM. Mechanisms of N-acetylcysteine in the prevention of DNA damage and cancer, with special reference to smoking-related end-points. Carcinogenesis 2001, 22:999-1013. 10.1093/carcin/22.7.999, 11408342.
222. McElhatton PR, Sullivan FM, Volans GN. Paracetamol overdose in pregnancy analysis of the outcomes of 300 cases referred to the Teratology Information Service. Reprod Toxicol 1997, 11:85-94. 10.1016/S0890-6238(96)00200-6, 9138637.
223. Kozer E, Koren G. Management of paracetamol overdose: current controversies. Drug Saf 2001, 24:503-512. 10.2165/00002018-200124070-00003, 11444723.
224. Gire SK, Goba A, Andersen KG, Sealfon RS, Park DJ, Kanneh L, Jalloh S, Momoh M, Fullah M, Dudas G, Wohl S, Moses LM, Yozwiak NL, Winnicki S, Matranga CB, Malboeuf CM, Qu J, Gladden AD, Schaffner SF, Yang X, Jiang PP, Nekoui M, Colubri A, Coomber MR, Fonnie M, Moigboi A, Gbakie M, Kamara FK, Tucker V, Konuwa E, et al. Genomic surveillance elucidates Ebola virus origin and transmission during the 2014 outbreak. Science 2014, 345:1369-1372. 10.1126/science.1259657, 25214632.
225. Baize S, Pannetier D, Oestereich L, Rieger T, Koivogui L, Magassouba N, Soropogui B, Sow MS, Keïta S, De Clerck H, Tiffany A, Dominguez G, Loua M, Traoré A, Kolié M, Malano ER, Heleze E, Bocquin A, Mély S, Raoul H, Caro V, Cadar D, Gabriel M, Pahlmann M, Tappe D, Schmidt-Chanasit J, Impouma B, Diallo AK, Formenty P, Van Herp M, et al. Emergence of zaire ebola virus disease in Guinea - preliminary report. N Engl J Med 2014, 371:1418-1425. 10.1056/NEJMoa1404505, 24738640.
226. Check Hayden E. Ebola virus mutating rapidly as it spreads. Nature News In press.
227. Lauring AS, Andino R. Quasispecies theory and the behavior of RNA viruses. PLoS Pathog 2010, 6:e1001005. 10.1371/journal.ppat.1001005, 2908548, 20661479.
228. Domingo E, Sheldon J, Perales C. Viral quasispecies evolution. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2012, 76:159-216. 10.1128/MMBR.05023-11, 3372249, 22688811.
229. Luo R, Piovoso MJ, Martinez-Picado J, Zurakowski R. Optimal antiviral switching to minimize resistance risk in HIV therapy. PLoS One 2011, 6:e27047. 10.1371/journal.pone.0027047, 3207836, 22073250.
230. von Kleist M, Menz S, Stocker H, Arasteh K, Schütte C, Huisinga W. HIV quasispecies dynamics during pro-active treatment switching: impact on multi-drug resistance and resistance archiving in latent reservoirs. PLoS One 2011, 6:e18204. 10.1371/journal.pone.0018204, 3063788, 21455303.
231. Gelman MA, Glenn JS. Mixing the right hepatitis C inhibitor cocktail. Trends Mol Med In press.
232. Poordad F, Lawitz E, Kowdley KV, Cohen DE, Podsadecki T, Siggelkow S, Heckaman M, Larsen L, Menon R, Koev G, Tripathi R, Pilot-Matias T, Bernstein B. Exploratory study of oral combination antiviral therapy for hepatitis C. N Engl J Med 2013, 368:45-53. 10.1056/NEJMoa1208809, 23281975.
233. Domingo E. Quasispecies and the development of new antiviral strategies. Prog Drug Res 2003, 60:133-158.
234. Holmes EC. Error thresholds and the constraints to RNA virus evolution. Trends Microbiol 2003, 11:543-546. 10.1016/j.tim.2003.10.006, 14659685.
235. Andrei G, De Clercq E. Molecular approaches for the treatment of hemorrhagic fever virus infections. Antiviral Res 1993, 22:45-75. 10.1016/0166-3542(93)90085-W, 8250543.
236. Baskerville A, Fisher-Hoch SP, Neild GH, Dowsett AB. Ultrastructural pathology of experimental Ebola haemorrhagic fever virus infection. J Pathol 1985, 147:199-209. 10.1002/path.1711470308, 4067737.
237. Feldmann H, Jones S, Klenk HD, Schnittler HJ. Ebola virus: from discovery to vaccine. Nat Rev Immunol 2003, 3:677-685. 10.1038/nri1154, 12974482.
238. Ellis DS, Bowen ET, Simpson DI, Stamford S. Ebola virus: a comparison, at ultrastructural level, of the behaviour of the Sudan and Zaire strains in monkeys. Br J Exp Pathol 1978, 59:584-593. 2041404, 106868.
239. Baskerville A, Bowen ET, Platt GS, McArdell LB, Simpson DI. The pathology of experimental Ebola virus infection in monkeys. J Pathol 1978, 125:131-138. 10.1002/path.1711250303, 102747.
240. Ellis DS, Simpson IH, Francis DP, Knobloch J, Bowen ET, Lolik P, Deng IM. Ultrastructure of Ebola virus particles in human liver. J Clin Pathol 1978, 31:201-208. 10.1136/jcp.31.3.201, 1145228, 641193.
241. Lee YJ, Zhang X, Vazquez E, Shivasabesan G, Young HA, Murphy A, Wang H, Suffredini AF, Siebenlist U, Kottilil S. Impaired HCV clearance in HIV/HCV coinfected subjects treated with PegIFN and RBV due to interference of IFN signaling by IFNαR2a. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2014, 34:28-34. 10.1089/jir.2013.0032, 24171456.
242. Younossi ZM, Afendy A, Stepanova M, Hossain N, Younossi I, Ankrah K, Gramlich T, Baranova A. Gene expression profile associated with superimposed non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and hepatic fibrosis in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Liver Int 2009, 29:1403-1412. 10.1111/j.1478-3231.2009.02060.x, 19515216.
243. Wilkins C, Woodward J, Lau DT, Barnes A, Joyce M, McFarlane N, McKeating JA, Tyrrell DL, Gale M. IFITM1 is a tight junction protein that inhibits hepatitis C virus entry. Hepatology 2013, 57:461-469. 10.1002/hep.26066, 3566288, 22996292.
244. Suzuki F, Chayama K, Tsubota A, Akuta N, Someya T, Kobayashi M, Suzuki Y, Saitoh S, Arase Y, Ikeda K, Kumada H. Twice-daily administration of interferon-beta for chronic hepatitis C is not superior to a once-daily regimen. J Gastroenterol 2001, 36:242-247. 10.1007/s005350170110, 11324727.
245. Hosseini-Moghaddam SM, Mousavi A, Alavian SM. Is β-interferon a promising therapeutic option for the management of hepatitis C?. J Antimicrob Chemother 2009, 63:1097-1103. 10.1093/jac/dkp092, 19329508.
246. Moreno-Otero R, Trapero-Marugán M, Gómez-Domínguez E, García-Buey L, Moreno-Monteagudo JA. Is interferon-beta an alternative treatment for chronic hepatitis C?. World J Gastroenterol 2006, 12:2730-2736. 4130982, 16718760.
247. Kogure T, Ueno Y, Kanno N, Fukushima K, Yamagiwa Y, Nagasaki F, Kakazu E, Matsuda Y, Kido O, Nakagome Y, Ninomiya M, Shimosegawa T. Sustained viral response of a case of acute hepatitis C virus infection via needle-stick injury. World J Gastroenterol 2006, 12:4757-4760. 4087847, 16937453.
248. Oketani M, Higashi T, Yamasaki N, Shinmyozu K, Osame M, Arima T. Complete response to twice-a-day interferon-beta with standard interferon-alpha therapy in acute hepatitis C after a needle-stick. J Clin Gastroenterol 1999, 28:49-51. 10.1097/00004836-199901000-00013, 9916668.
249. Matsui K, Iwabuchi S, Shimizu H, Yoshida A, Fujikawa T, Takatsuka K. Two week induction of interferon-beta followed by pegylated interferon alpha-2b and ribavirin for chronic infection with hepatitis C. Hepatol Res 2010, 40:757-762. 10.1111/j.1872-034X.2010.00669.x, 20557368.
250. Okushin H, Morii K, Uesaka K, Yuasa S. Twenty four-week peginterferon plus ribavirin after interferon-β induction for genotype 1b chronic hepatitis C. World J Hepatol 2010, 2:226-232. 10.4254/wjh.v2.i6.226, 2998969, 21161001.
251. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Emergency Preparedness and Response for Bioterrorism Agents/Diseases http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/agentlist-category.asp (Accessed 22/11/2014), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
252. Polesky A, Bhatia G. Ebola hemorrhagic fever in the era of bioterrorism. Semin Respir Infect 2003, 18:206-215.
253. Balali-Mood M, Moshiri M, Etemad L. Medical aspects of bio-terrorism. Toxicon 2013, 69:131-142.
254. Gomes MFC, Pastore y Piontti A, Rossi L, Chao D, Longini I, Halloran ME, Vespignani A. Assessing the International Spreading Risk Associated with the 2014 West African Ebola Outbreak. PLOS Currents Outbreaks In press.
255. Fisman D, Khoo E, Tuite A. Early epidemic dynamics of the West African 2014 Ebola outbreak: estimates derived with a simple two-parameter model. PLOS Currents Outbreaks In press.
256. Martina BE, Osterhaus AD. "Filoviruses": a real pandemic threat?. EMBO Mol Med 2009, 1:10-18. 10.1002/emmm.200900005, 3378103, 20049699.