HIV-1 translation and its regulation by cellular factors PKR and PACT

Virus Research

Volumn 193, Issue , 2014, Pages 65-77

  Burugu, Samantha ^a,b   Daher, Aïcha ^a   Meurs, Eliane F ^d   Gatignol, Anne ^a,b,c  

^a MCGILL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b MCGILL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^c MCGILL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^d INSTITUT PASTEUR   (France)

Author keywords

HIV; PKR activator; Protein kinase R; Translation

Indexed keywords

ADENOSINE DEAMINASE; ENZYME ACTIVATOR; PROTEIN KINASE R; PROTEIN KINASE R ACTIVATOR; RIBONUCLEASE L; RNA; RNA BINDING PROTEIN; SCHLAFEN 11 PROTEIN; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VIRUS PROTEIN; PRKRA PROTEIN, HUMAN; VIRUS RNA;

ARTICLE; ENZYME ACTIVATION; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 1; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 1 INFECTION; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 2; INNATE IMMUNITY; NONHUMAN; PROTEIN DEGRADATION; PROTEIN STRUCTURE; REGULATORY MECHANISM; RIBOSOMAL FRAMESHIFTING; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SYNTHESIS; TRANSLATION INITIATION; VIRUS PARTICLE; VIRUS REPLICATION; VIRUS TRANSCRIPTION; HOST PATHOGEN INTERACTION; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; METABOLISM; PHYSIOLOGY; PROTEIN SYNTHESIS; VIROLOGY;

HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 1;

EIF-2 KINASE; HIV INFECTIONS; HIV-1; HIV-2; HOST-PATHOGEN INTERACTIONS; HUMANS; PROTEIN BIOSYNTHESIS; RNA, VIRAL; RNA-BINDING PROTEINS; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; VIRUS REPLICATION;

EID: 84914176391     PISSN: 01681702     EISSN: 18727492     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2014.07.014     Document Type: Article

References (235)

1. Adelson M.E., Martinand-Mari C., Iacono K.T., Muto N.F., Suhadolnik R.J. Inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) replication in SupT1 cells transduced with an HIV-1 LTR-driven PKR cDNA construct. Eur. J. Biochem. 1999, 264(3):806-815.
2. Ajamian L., Abrahamyan L., Milev M., Ivanov P.V., Kulozik A.E., Gehring N.H., Mouland A.J. Unexpected roles for UPF1 in HIV-1 RNA metabolism and translation. RNA 2008, 14(5):914-927.
3. Amorim R., Costa S.M., Cavaleiro N.P., da Silva E.E., da Costa L.J. HIV-1 transcripts use IRES-initiation under conditions where cap-dependent translation is restricted by poliovirus 2A protease. PLOS ONE 2014, 9(2):e88619.
4. Anderson J.L., Johnson A.T., Howard J.L., Purcell D.F. Both linear and discontinuous ribosome scanning are used for translation initiation from bicistronic human immunodeficiency virus type 1 env mRNAs. J. Virol. 2007, 81(9):4664-4676.
5. Arnaud N., Dabo S., Maillard P., Budkowska A., Kalliampakou K.I., Mavromara P., Garcin D., Hugon J., Gatignol A., Akazawa D., Wakita T., Meurs E.F. Hepatitis C virus controls interferon production through PKR activation. PLoS ONE 2010, 5(5):e10575.
6. Bannwarth S., Gatignol A. HIV-1 TAR RNA: the target of molecular interactions between the virus and its host. Curr. HIV Res. 2005, 3:61-71.
7. Bannwarth S., Lainé S., Daher A., Grandvaux N., Clerzius G., LeBlanc A.C., Hiscott J., Gatignol A. Cell-specific regulation of TRBP1 promoter by NF-Y transcription factor in lymphocytes and astrocytes. J. Mol. Biol. 2006, 355(5):898-910.
8. Bannwarth S., Talakoub L., Letourneur F., Duarte M., Purcell D.F., Hiscott J., Gatignol A. Organization of the human tarbp2 gene reveals two promoters that are repressed in an astrocytic cell line. J. Biol. Chem. 2001, 276(52):48803-48813.
9. Benkirane M., Neuveut C., Chun R.F., Smith S.M., Samuel C.E., Gatignol A., Jeang K.T. Oncogenic potential of TAR RNA binding protein TRBP and its regulatory interaction with RNA-dependent protein kinase PKR. EMBO J. 1997, 16(3):611-624.
10. Bennett R.L., Blalock W.L., May W.S. Serine 18 phosphorylation of RAX, the PKR activator, is required for PKR activation and consequent translation inhibition. J. Biol. Chem. 2004, 279(41):42687-42693.
11. Bennett R.L., Pan Y., Christian J., Hui T., May W.S. The RAX/PACT-PKR stress response pathway promotes p53 sumoylation and activation, leading to G(1) arrest. Cell Cycle 2012, 11(2):407-417.
12. Berkhout B., Gatignol A., Silver J., Jeang K.T. Efficient trans-activation by the HIV-2 Tat protein requires a duplicated TAR RNA structure. Nucleic Acids Res. 1990, 18(7):1839-1846.
13. Berlioz C., Darlix J.L. An internal ribosomal entry mechanism promotes translation of murine leukemia virus gag polyprotein precursors. J. Virol. 1995, 69(4):2214-2222.
14. Bierle C.J., Semmens K.M., Geballe A.P. Double-stranded RNA binding by the human cytomegalovirus PKR antagonist TRS1. Virology 2013, 442(1):28-37.
15. Billecocq A., Spiegel M., Vialat P., Kohl A., Weber F., Bouloy M., Haller O. NSs protein of Rift Valley fever virus blocks interferon production by inhibiting host gene transcription. J. Virol. 2004, 78(18):9798-9806.
16. Biswas N., Wang T., Ding M., Tumne A., Chen Y., Wang Q., Gupta P. ADAR1 is a novel multi targeted anti-HIV-1 cellular protein. Virology 2012, 422(2):265-277.
17. Black T.L., Barber G.N., Katze M.G. Degradation of the interferon-induced 68,000-M(r) protein kinase by poliovirus requires RNA. J. Virol. 1993, 67(2):791-800.
18. Bolinger C., Boris-Lawrie K. Mechanisms employed by retroviruses to exploit host factors for translational control of a complicated proteome. Retrovirology 2009, 6:8.
19. Bolinger C., Sharma A., Singh D., Yu L., Boris-Lawrie K. RNA helicase A modulates translation of HIV-1 and infectivity of progeny virions. Nucleic Acids Res. 2010, 38(5):1686-1696.
20. Borden E.C., Sen G.C., Uze G., Silverman R.H., Ransohoff R.M., Foster G.R., Stark G.R. Interferons at age 50: past, current and future impact on biomedicine. Nat Rev Drug Discovery 2007, 6(12):975-990.
21. Brakier-Gingras L., Charbonneau J., Butcher S.E. Targeting frameshifting in the human immunodeficiency virus. Expert Opin. Ther. Targets 2012, 16(3):249-258.
22. Brand S.R., Kobayashi R., Mathews M.B. The Tat protein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 is a substrate and inhibitor of the interferon-induced, virally activated protein kinase, PKR. J. Biol. Chem. 1997, 272(13):8388-8395.
23. Brasey A., Lopez-Lastra M., Ohlmann T., Beerens N., Berkhout B., Darlix J.L., Sonenberg N. The leader of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 genomic RNA harbors an internal ribosome entry segment that is active during the G2/M phase of the cell cycle. J. Virol. 2003, 77(7):3939-3949.
24. Brehin A.C., Casademont I., Frenkiel M.P., Julier C., Sakuntabhai A., Despres P. The large form of human 2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetase (OAS3) exerts antiviral effect against Chikungunya virus. Virology 2009, 384(1):216-222.
25. Buck C.B., Shen X., Egan M.A., Pierson T.C., Walker C.M., Siliciano R.F. The human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gag gene encodes an internal ribosome entry site. J. Virol. 2001, 75(1):181-191.
26. Cachat A., Chevalier S.A., Alais S., Ko N.L., Ratner L., Journo C., Dutartre H., Mahieux R. Alpha interferon restricts human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 and 2 de novo infection through PKR activation. J. Virol. 2013, 87(24):13386-13396.
27. Cai R., Carpick B., Chun R.F., Jeang K.T., Williams B.R. HIV-I TAT inhibits PKR activity by both RNA-dependent and RNA-independent mechanisms. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2000, 373(2):361-367.
28. Camerini V., Decimo D., Balvay L., Pistello M., Bendinelli M., Darlix J.L., Ohlmann T. A dormant internal ribosome entry site controls translation of feline immunodeficiency virus. J. Virol. 2008, 82(7):3574-3583.
29. Castello A., Franco D., Moral-Lopez P., Berlanga J.J., Alvarez E., Wimmer E., Carrasco L. HIV- 1 protease inhibits cap- and poly(A)-dependent translation upon eIF4GI and PABP cleavage. PLoS ONE 2009, 4(11):e7997.
30. Chakravarthy S., Sternberg S.H., Kellenberger C.A., Doudna J.A. Substrate-specific kinetics of Dicer-catalyzed RNA processing. J. Mol. Biol. 2010, 404(3):392-402.
31. Chamanian M., Purzycka K.J., Wille P.T., Ha J.S., McDonald D., Gao Y., Le Grice S.F., Arts E.J. A cis-acting element in retroviral genomic RNA links Gag-Pol ribosomal frameshifting to selective viral RNA encapsidation. Cell Host Microbe 2013, 13(2):181-192.
32. Chamond N., Locker N., Sargueil B. The different pathways of HIV genomic RNA translation. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 2010, 38(6):1548-1552.
33. Chang Y.N., Kenan D.J., Keene J.D., Gatignol A., Jeang K.T. Direct interactions between autoantigen La and human immunodeficiency virus leader RNA. J. Virol. 1994, 68(11):7008-7020.
34. Charbonneau J., Gendron K., Ferbeyre G., Brakier-Gingras L. The 5' UTR of HIV-1 full-length mRNA and the Tat viral protein modulate the programmed -1 ribosomal frameshift that generates HIV-1 enzymes. RNA 2012, 18(3):519-529.
35. Charnay N., Ivanyi-Nagy R., Soto-Rifo R., Ohlmann T., Lopez-Lastra M., Darlix J.L. Mechanism of HIV-1 Tat RNA translation and its activation by the Tat protein. Retrovirology 2009, 6:74.
36. Chen C.W., Tsay Y.G., Wu H.L., Lee C.H., Chen D.S., Chen P.J. The double-stranded RNA-activated kinase, PKR, can phosphorylate hepatitis D virus small delta antigen at functional serine and threonine residues. J. Biol. Chem. 2002, 277(36):33058-33067.
37. Chendrimada T.P., Gregory R.I., Kumaraswamy E., Norman J., Cooch N., Nishikura K., Shiekhattar R. TRBP recruits the Dicer complex to Ago2 for microRNA processing and gene silencing. Nature 2005, 436(7051):740-744.
38. Christensen H.S., Daher A., Soye K.J., Frankel L.B., Alexander M.R., Lainé S., Bannwarth S., Ong C.L., Chung S.W., Campbell S.M., Purcell D.F., Gatignol A. Small interfering RNAs against the TAR RNA Binding Protein, TRBP, a Dicer cofactor, inhibit Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1 long terminal repeat expression and viral production. J. Virol. 2007, 81(10):5121-5131.
39. Clerzius G., Gélinas J.F., Daher A., Bonnet M., Meurs E.F., Gatignol A. ADAR1 interacts with PKR during HIV infection of lymphocytes and contributes to viral replication. J. Virol. 2009, 83(19):10119-10128.
40. Clerzius G., Gélinas J.F., Gatignol A. Multiple levels of PKR inhibition during HIV-1 replication. Rev. Med. Virol. 2011, 21(1):42-53.
41. Clerzius G., Shaw E., Daher A., Burugu S., Gelinas J.F., Ear T., Sinck L., Routy J.P., Mouland A.J., Patel R.C., Gatignol A. The PKR activator, PACT, becomes a PKR inhibitor during HIV-1 replication. Retrovirology 2013, 10:96.
42. Cohen-Chalamish S., Hasson A., Weinberg D., Namer L.S., Banai Y., Osman F., Kaempfer R. Dynamic refolding of IFN-gamma mRNA enables it to function as PKR activator and translation template. Nat. Chem. Biol. 2009, 5(12):896-903.
43. Cole J.L. Activation of PKR: an open and shut case?. Trends Biochem. Sci. 2007, 32(2):57-62.
44. Coleman J.R., Papamichail D., Skiena S., Futcher B., Wimmer E., Mueller S. Virus attenuation by genome-scale changes in codon pair bias. Science 2008, 320(5884):1784-1787.
45. Cosnefroy O., Jaspart A., Calmels C., Parissi V., Fleury H., Ventura M., Reigadas S., Andreola M.L. Activation of GCN2 upon HIV-1 infection and inhibition of translation. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 2013, 70(13):2411-2421.
46. Courtney S.C., Scherbik S.V., Stockman B.M., Brinton M.A. West nile virus infections suppress early viral RNA synthesis and avoid inducing the cell stress granule response. J. Virol. 2012, 86(7):3647-3657.
47. Dabo S., Meurs E.F. dsRNA-dependent protein kinase PKR and its role in stress, signaling and HCV infection. Viruses 2012, 4(11):2598-2635.
48. Daher A., Laraki G., Singh M., Melendez-Peña C.E., Bannwarth S., Peters A.H., Meurs E.F., Braun R.E., Patel R.C., Gatignol A. TRBP control of PACT-induced phosphorylation of PKR is reversed by stress. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2009, 29(1):254-265.
49. Daher A., Longuet M., Dorin D., Bois F., Segeral E., Bannwarth S., Battisti P.L., Purcell D.F., Benarous R., Vaquero C., Meurs E.F., Gatignol A. Two dimerization domains in the trans-activation response RNA-binding protein (TRBP) individually reverse the protein kinase R inhibition of HIV-1 long terminal repeat expression. J. Biol. Chem. 2001, 276(36):33899-33905.
50. Daniels S.M., Gatignol A. The multiple functions of TRBP, at the hub of cell responses to viruses, stress, and cancer. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 2012, 76(3):652-666.
51. Daniels S.M., Melendez-Peña C.E., Scarborough R.J., Daher A., Christensen H.S., El Far M., Purcell D.F., Lainé S., Gatignol A. Characterization of the TRBP domain required for dicer interaction and function in RNA interference. BMC Mol. Biol. 2009, 10:38.
52. Daviet L., Erard M., Dorin D., Duarte M., Vaquero C., Gatignol A. Analysis of a binding difference between the two dsRNA-binding domains in TRBP reveals the modular function of a KR-helix motif. Eur. J. Biochem. 2000, 267(8):2419-2431.
53. de Breyne S., Chamond N., Decimo D., Trabaud M.A., Andre P., Sargueil B., Ohlmann T. In vitro studies reveal that different modes of initiation on HIV-1 mRNA have different levels of requirement for eukaryotic initiation factor 4F. FEBS J. 2012, 279(17):3098-3111.
54. de Breyne S., Soto-Rifo R., Lopez-Lastra M., Ohlmann T. Translation initiation is driven by different mechanisms on the HIV-1 and HIV-2 genomic RNAs. Virus Res. 2013, 171(2):366-381.
55. Deffaud C., Darlix J.L. Rous sarcoma virus translation revisited: characterization of an internal ribosome entry segment in the 5' leader of the genomic RNA. J. Virol. 2000, 74(24):11581-11588.
56. del Pino J., Jimenez J.L., Ventoso I., Castello A., Munoz-Fernandez M.A., de Haro C., Berlanga J.J. GCN2 has inhibitory effect on human immunodeficiency virus-1 protein synthesis and is cleaved upon viral infection. PLoS ONE 2012, 7(10):e47272.
57. Dever T.E., Green R. The elongation, termination, and recycling phases of translation in eukaryotes. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol. 2012, 4(7):a013706.
58. Dey M., Cao C., Dar A.C., Tamura T., Ozato K., Sicheri F., Dever T.E. Mechanistic link between PKR dimerization, autophosphorylation, and eIF2alpha substrate recognition. Cell 2005, 122(6):901-913.
59. Dimitrova D.I., Yang X., Reichenbach N.L., Karakasidis S., Sutton R.E., Henderson E.E., Rogers T.J., Suhadolnik R.J. Lentivirus-mediated transduction of PKR into CD34(+) hematopoietic stem cells inhibits HIV-1 replication in differentiated T cell progeny. J. Interferon Cytokine Res. 2005, 25(6):345-360.
60. Doria M., Neri F., Gallo A., Farace M.G., Michienzi A. Editing of HIV-1 RNA by the double-stranded RNA deaminase ADAR1 stimulates viral infection. Nucleic Acids Res. 2009, 37(17):5848-5858.
61. Doria M., Tomaselli S., Neri F., Ciafrè S.A., Farace M.G., Michienzi A., Gallo A. ADAR2 editing enzyme is a novel human immunodeficiency virus-1 proviral factor. J. Gen. Virol. 2011, 92(Pt 5):1228-1232.
62. Dorin D., Bonnet M.C., Bannwarth S., Gatignol A., Meurs E.F., Vaquero C. The TAR RNA-binding protein, TRBP, stimulates the expression of TAR-containing RNAs in vitro and in vivo independently of its ability to inhibit the dsRNA-dependent kinase PKR. J. Biol. Chem. 2003, 278(7):4440-4448.
63. Dugré-Brisson S., Elvira G., Boulay K., Chatel-Chaix L., Mouland A.J., DesGroseillers L. Interaction of Staufen1 with the 5' end of mRNA facilitates translation of these RNAs. Nucleic Acids Res. 2005, 33(15):4797-4812.
64. Dulude D., Berchiche Y.A., Gendron K., Brakier-Gingras L., Heveker N. Decreasing the frameshift efficiency translates into an equivalent reduction of the replication of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Virology 2006, 345(1):127-136.
65. Eekels J.J., Geerts D., Jeeninga R.E., Berkhout B. Long-term inhibition of HIV-1 replication with RNA interference against cellular co-factors. Antiviral Res. 2011, 89(1):43-53.
66. Elde N.C., Child S.J., Eickbush M.T., Kitzman J.O., Rogers K.S., Shendure J., Geballe A.P., Malik H.S. Poxviruses deploy genomic accordions to adapt rapidly against host antiviral defenses. Cell 2012, 150(4):831-841.
67. Endo-Munoz L., Warby T., Harrich D., McMillan N.A. Phosphorylation of HIV Tat by PKR increases interaction with TAR RNA and enhances transcription. Virol. J. 2005, 2:17.
68. Erard M., Barker D.G., Amalric F., Jeang K.T., Gatignol A. An Arg/Lys-rich core peptide mimics TRBP binding to the HIV-1 TAR RNA upper-stem/loop. J. Mol. Biol. 1998, 279(5):1085-1099.
69. Farassati F., Yang A.D., Lee P.W. Oncogenes in Ras signalling pathway dictate host-cell permissiveness to herpes simplex virus 1. Nat. Cell Biol. 2001, 3(8):745-750.
70. Firth A.E., Brierley I. Non-canonical translation in RNA viruses. J. Gen. Virol. 2012, 93(Pt 7):1385-1409.
71. Fraser C.S. The molecular basis of translational control. Prog. Mol. Biol. Transl. Sci. 2009, 90:1-51.
72. Gale M., Tan S.L., Katze M.G. Translational control of viral gene expression in eukaryotes. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 2000, 64(2):239-280.
73. Galeano F., Tomaselli S., Locatelli F., Gallo A. A-to-I RNA editing: the ADAR side of human cancer. Sem. Cell Dev. Biol. 2012, 23(3):244-250.
74. Gallo A., Locatelli F. ADARs: allies or enemies? The importance of A-to-I RNA editing in human disease: from cancer to HIV-1. Biol. Rev. Camb. Philos. Soc. 2012, 87(1):95-110.
75. Garaigorta U., Chisari F.V. Hepatitis C virus blocks interferon effector function by inducing protein kinase R phosphorylation. Cell Host Microbe 2009, 6(6):513-522.
76. Garcia M.A., Gil J., Ventoso I., Guerra S., Domingo E., Rivas C., Esteban M. Impact of protein kinase PKR in cell biology: from antiviral to antiproliferative action. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 2006, 70(4):1032-1060.
77. Garcia M.A., Meurs E.F., Esteban M. The dsRNA protein kinase PKR: virus and cell control. Biochimie 2007, 89(6-7):799-811.
78. Gatignol A. Transcription of HIV: Tat and cellular chromatin. Adv. Pharmacol. 2007, 55:137-159.
79. Gatignol A., Buckler C., Jeang K.T. Relatedness of an RNA-binding motif in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 TAR RNA-binding protein TRBP to human P1/dsI kinase and Drosophila staufen. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1993, 13(4):2193-2202.
80. Gatignol A., Buckler-White A., Berkhout B., Jeang K.T. Characterization of a human TAR RNA-binding protein that activates the HIV-1 LTR. Science 1991, 251(5001):1597-1600.
81. Gélinas J.F., Clerzius G., Shaw E., Gatignol A. Enhancement of replication of RNA viruses by ADAR1 via RNA editing and inhibition of RNA-activated protein kinase. J. Virol. 2011, 85(17):8460-8466.
82. Geller R., Taguwa S., Frydman J. Broad action of Hsp90 as a host chaperone required for viral replication. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2012, 1823(3):698-706.
83. Gendron K., Charbonneau J., Dulude D., Heveker N., Ferbeyre G., Brakier-Gingras L. The presence of the TAR RNA structure alters the programmed -1 ribosomal frameshift efficiency of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) by modifying the rate of translation initiation. Nucleic Acids Res. 2008, 36(1):30-40.
84. Gendron K., Ferbeyre G., Heveker N., Brakier-Gingras L. The activity of the HIV-1 IRES is stimulated by oxidative stress and controlled by a negative regulatory element. Nucleic Acids Res. 2011, 39(3):902-912.
85. Gorry P.R., Howard J.L., Churchill M.J., Anderson J.L., Cunningham A., Adrian D., McPhee D.A., Purcell D.F. Diminished production of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in astrocytes results from inefficient translation of gag, env, and nef mRNAs despite efficient expression of Tat and Rev. J. Virol. 1999, 73(1):352-361.
86. Gredell J.A., Dittmer M.J., Wu M., Chan C., Walton S.P. Recognition of siRNA asymmetry by TAR RNA binding protein. Biochemistry 2010, 49(14):3148-3155.
87. Gupta V., Huang X., Patel R.C. The carboxy-terminal, M3 motifs of PACT and TRBP have opposite effects on PKR activity. Virology 2003, 315(2):283-291.
88. Haase A.D., Jaskiewicz L., Zhang H., Lainé S., Sack R., Gatignol A., Filipowicz W. TRBP, a regulator of cellular PKR and HIV-1 virus expression, interacts with Dicer and functions in RNA silencing. EMBO Rep. 2005, 6(10):961-967.
89. Habjan M., Pichlmair A., Elliott R.M., Overby A.K., Glatter T., Gstaiger M., Superti-Furga G., Unger H., Weber F. NSs protein of rift valley fever virus induces the specific degradation of the double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase. J. Virol. 2009, 83(9):4365-4375.
90. Heinicke L.A., Wong C.J., Lary J., Nallagatla S.R., Diegelman-Parente A., Zheng X., Cole J.L., Bevilacqua P.C. RNA dimerization promotes PKR dimerization and activation. J. Mol. Biol. 2009, 390(2):319-338.
91. Herbreteau C.H., Weill L., Decimo D., Prevot D., Darlix J.L., Sargueil B., Ohlmann T. HIV-2 genomic RNA contains a novel type of IRES located downstream of its initiation codon. Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 2005, 12(11):1001-1007.
92. Hinnebusch A.G., Lorsch J.R. The mechanism of eukaryotic translation initiation: new insights and challenges. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol. 2012, 4(10).
93. Hogg M., Paro S., Keegan L.P., O'Connell M.A. RNA editing by mammalian ADARs. Adv. Genet. 2011, 73:87-120.
94. Hosmalin A., Lebon P. Type I interferon production in HIV-infected patients. J. Leukoc. Biol. 2006, 80(5):984-993.
95. Hovanessian A.G. On the discovery of interferon-inducible, double-stranded RNA activated enzymes: the 2'-5'oligoadenylate synthetases and the protein kinase PKR. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2007, 18(5-6):351-361.
96. Huang X., Hutchins B., Patel R.C. The C-terminal, third conserved motif of the protein activator PACT plays an essential role in the activation of double-stranded-RNA-dependent protein kinase (PKR). Biochem. J. 2002, 366(Pt 1):175-186.
97. Hughes R., Towers G., Noursadeghi M. Innate immune interferon responses to Human immunodeficiency virus-1 infection. Rev. Med. Virol. 2012, 22(4):257-266.
98. Hundley H.A., Bass B.L. ADAR editing in double-stranded UTRs and other noncoding RNA sequences. Trends Biochem. Sci. 2010, 35(7):377-383.
99. Ikegami T., Narayanan K., Won S., Kamitani W., Peters C.J., Makino S. Dual functions of Rift Valley fever virus NSs protein: inhibition of host mRNA transcription and post-transcriptional downregulation of protein kinase PKR. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2009, 1171(Suppl. 1):E75-E85.
100. Ito T., Yang M., May W.S. RAX, a cellular activator for double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase during stress signaling. J. Biol. Chem. 1999, 274(22):15427-15432.
101. Jacks T., Power M.D., Masiarz F.R., Luciw P.A., Barr P.J., Varmus H.E. Characterization of ribosomal frameshifting in HIV-1 Gag-Pol expression. Nature 1988, 331(6153):280-283.
102. Jakobsen M.R., Mogensen T.H., Paludan S.R. Caught in translation: innate restriction of HIV mRNA translation by a schlafen family protein. Cell Res. 2013, 23(3):320-322.
103. Jeang K.T., Gatignol A. Comparison of regulatory features among primate lentiviruses. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 1994, 188:123-144.
104. Kajaste-Rudnitski A., Mashimo T., Frenkiel M.P., Guenet J.L., Lucas M., Despres P. The 2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetase 1b is a potent inhibitor of West Nile virus replication inside infected cells. J. Biol. Chem. 2006, 281(8):4624-4637.
105. Kalveram B., Ikegami T. Toscana virus NSs protein promotes degradation of double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase. J. Virol. 2013, 87(7):3710-3718.
106. Kalveram B., Lihoradova O., Indran S.V., Lokugamage N., Head J.A., Ikegami T. Rift Valley fever virus NSs inhibits host transcription independently of the degradation of dsRNA-dependent protein kinase PKR. Virology 2013, 435(2):415-424.
107. Kawagishi-Kobayashi M., Silverman J.B., Ung T.L., Dever T.E. Regulation of the protein kinase PKR by the vaccinia virus pseudosubstrate inhibitor K3L is dependent on residues conserved between the K3L protein and the PKR substrate eIF2alpha. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1997, 17(7):4146-4158.
108. Kawai T., Akira S. Toll-like receptors and their crosstalk with other innate receptors in infection and immunity. Immunity 2011, 34(5):637-650.
109. Kew C., Lui P.Y., Chan C.P., Liu X., Au S.W., Mohr I., Jin D.Y., Kok K.H. Suppression of PACT-induced type I interferon production by herpes simplex virus 1 Us11 protein. J. Virol. 2013, 87(24):13141-13149.
110. Kim J.H., Park S.M., Park J.H., Keum S.J., Jang S.K. eIF2A mediates translation of hepatitis C viral mRNA under stress conditions. EMBO J. 2011, 30(12):2454-2464.
111. Kobayashi Y., Zhuang J., Peltz S., Dougherty J. Identification of a cellular factor that modulates HIV-1 programmed ribosomal frameshifting. J. Biol. Chem. 2010, 285(26):19776-19784.
112. Kok K.H., Lui P.Y., Ng M.H., Siu K.L., Au S.W., Jin D.Y. The double-stranded RNA-binding protein PACT functions as a cellular activator of RIG-I to facilitate innate antiviral response. Cell Host Microbe 2011, 9(4):299-309.
113. Kok K.H., Ng M.H., Ching Y.P., Jin D.Y. Human TRBP and PACT directly interact with each other and associate with Dicer to facilitate the production of small interfering RNA. J. Biol. Chem. 2007, 282(24):17649-17657.
114. Komarova A.V., Haenni A.L., Ramirez B.C. Virus versus host cell translation love and hate stories. Adv. Virus Res. 2009, 73:99-170.
115. Kozak M. The scanning model for translation: an update. J. Cell Biol. 1989, 108(2):229-241.
116. Krummheuer J., Johnson A.T., Hauber I., Kammler S., Anderson J.L., Hauber J., Purcell D.F., Schaal H. A minimal uORF within the HIV-1 vpu leader allows efficient translation initiation at the downstream env AUG. Virology 2007, 363(2):261-271.
117. Kumar H., Kawai T., Akira S. Pathogen recognition by the innate immune system. Int. Rev. Immunol. 2011, 30(1):16-34.
118. Kwon Y.C., Kang J.I., Hwang S.B., Ahn B.Y. The ribonuclease L-dependent antiviral roles of human 2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetase family members against hepatitis C virus. FEBS Lett. 2013, 587(2):156-164.
119. Langland J.O., Cameron J.M., Heck M.C., Jancovich J.K., Jacobs B.L. Inhibition of PKR by RNA and DNA viruses. Virus Res. 2006, 119(1):100-110.
120. Laraki G., Clerzius G., Daher A., Melendez-Peña C., Daniels S., Gatignol A. Interactions between the double-stranded RNA-binding proteins TRBP and PACT define the Medipal domain that mediates protein-protein interactions. RNA Biol. 2008, 5(2):92-103.
121. Lee E.S., Yoon C.H., Kim Y.S., Bae Y.S. The double-strand RNA-dependent protein kinase PKR plays a significant role in a sustained ER stress-induced apoptosis. FEBS Lett. 2007, 581(22):4325-4332.
122. Lehmann C., Harper J.M., Taubert D., Hartmann P., Fatkenheuer G., Jung N., van Lunzen J., Stellbrink H.J., Gallo R.C., Romerio F. Increased interferon alpha expression in circulating plasmacytoid dendritic cells of HIV-1-infected patients. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 2008, 48(5):522-530.
123. Lemaire P.A., Anderson E., Lary J., Cole J.L. Mechanism of PKR Activation by dsRNA. J. Mol. Biol. 2008, 381(2):351-360.
124. Lepelley A., Louis S., Sourisseau M., Law H.K., Pothlichet J., Schilte C., Chaperot L., Plumas J., Randall R.E., Si-Tahar M., Mammano F., Albert M.L., Schwartz O. Innate sensing of HIV-infected cells. PLoS Pathogens 2011, 7(2):e1001284.
125. Li D., Wei T., Abbott C.M., Harrich D. The unexpected roles of eukaryotic translation elongation factors in RNA virus replication and pathogenesis. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 2013, 77(2):253-266.
126. Li M., Kao E., Gao X., Sandig H., Limmer K., Pavon-Eternod M., Jones T.E., Landry S., Pan T., Weitzman M.D., David M. Codon-usage-based inhibition of HIV protein synthesis by human schlafen 11. Nature 2012, 491(7422):125-128.
127. Li S., Sen G.C. PACT-mediated enhancement of reporter gene expression at the translational level. J. Interferon Cytokine Res. 2003, 23(12):689-697.
128. Li Z., Wolff K.C., Samuel C.E. RNA adenosine deaminase ADAR1 deficiency leads to increased activation of protein kinase PKR and reduced vesicular stomatitis virus growth following interferon treatment. Virology 2010, 396(2):316-322.
129. Lin R.J., Yu H.P., Chang B.L., Tang W.C., Liao C.L., Lin Y.L. Distinct antiviral roles for human 2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetase family members against dengue virus infection. J. Immunol. 2009, 183(12):8035-8043.
130. Lingappa J.R., Dooher J.E., Newman M.A., Kiser P.K., Klein K.C. Basic residues in the nucleocapsid domain of Gag are required for interaction of HIV-1 gag with ABCE1 (HP68), a cellular protein important for HIV-1 capsid assembly. J. Biol. Chem. 2006, 281(7):3773-3784.
131. Liu J., Henao-Mejia J., Liu H., Zhao Y., He J.J. Translational regulation of HIV-1 replication by HIV-1 Rev cellular cofactors Sam68, eIF5A, hRIP, and DDX3. J. Neuroimmune Pharmacol. 2011, 6(2):308-321.
132. Locker N., Chamond N., Sargueil B. A conserved structure within the HIV gag open reading frame that controls translation initiation directly recruits the 40S subunit and eIF3. Nucleic Acids Res. 2011, 39(6):2367-2377.
133. Lorgeoux R.P., Pan Q., Le Duff Y., Liang C. DDX17 promotes the production of infectious HIV-1 particles through modulating viral RNA packaging and translation frameshift. Virology 2013, 443(2):384-392.
134. Lu B., Nakamura T., Inouye K., Li J., Tang Y., Lundback P., Valdes-Ferrer S.I., Olofsson P.S., Kalb T., Roth J., Zou Y., Erlandsson-Harris H., Yang H., Ting J.P., Wang H., Andersson U., Antoine D.J., Chavan S.S., Hotamisligil G.S., Tracey K.J. Novel role of PKR in inflammasome activation and HMGB1 release. Nature 2012, 488(7413):670-674.
135. Luig C., Kother K., Dudek S.E., Gaestel M., Hiscott J., Wixler V., Ludwig S. MAP kinase-activated protein kinases 2 and 3 are required for influenza A virus propagation and act via inhibition of PKR. FASEB J. 2010, 24(10):4068-4077.
136. Lussignol M., Queval C., Bernet-Camard M.F., Cotte-Laffitte J., Beau I., Codogno P., Esclatine A. The herpes simplex virus 1 Us11 protein inhibits autophagy through its interaction with the protein kinase PKR. J. Virol. 2013, 87(2):859-871.
137. Ma E., MacRae I.J., Kirsch J.F., Doudna J.A. Autoinhibition of human dicer by its internal helicase domain. J. Mol. Biol. 2008, 380(1):237-243.
138. Ma Y., Jin H., Valyi-Nagy T., Cao Y., Yan Z., He B. Inhibition of TANK binding kinase 1 by herpes simplex virus 1 facilitates productive infection. J. Virol. 2012, 86(4):2188-2196.
139. MacRae I.J., Ma E., Zhou M., Robinson C.V., Doudna J.A. In vitro reconstitution of the human RISC-loading complex. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2008, 105(2):512-517.
140. Maitra R.K., McMillan N.A., Desai S., McSwiggen J., Hovanessian A.G., Sen G., Williams B.R., Silverman R.H. HIV-1 TAR RNA has an intrinsic ability to activate interferon-inducible enzymes. Virology 1994, 204(2):823-827.
141. Marcheschi R.J., Staple D.W., Butcher S.E. Programmed ribosomal frameshifting in SIV is induced by a highly structured RNA stem-loop. J. Mol. Biol. 2007, 373(3):652-663.
142. Martinand C., Montavon C., Salehzada T., Silhol M., Lebleu B., Bisbal C. RNase L inhibitor is induced during human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection and down regulates the 2-5A/RNase L pathway in human T cells. J. Virol. 1999, 73(1):290-296.
143. Mavrommatis E., Fish E.N., Platanias L.C. The schlafen family of proteins and their regulation by interferons. J. Interferon Cytokine Res. 2013, 33(4):206-210.
144. Mazauric M.H., Seol Y., Yoshizawa S., Visscher K., Fourmy D. Interaction of the HIV-1 frameshift signal with the ribosome. Nucleic Acids Res. 2009, 37(22):7654-7664.
145. Mbonye U., Karn J. Transcriptional control of HIV latency: cellular signaling pathways, epigenetics, happenstance and the hope for a cure. Virology 2014, 454C-455C:328-339.
146. McLaren M., Marsh K., Cochrane A. Modulating HIV-1 RNA processing and utilization. Front. Biosci. 2008, 13:5693-5707.
147. McMillan N.A., Chun R.F., Siderovski D.P., Galabru J., Toone W.M., Samuel C.E., Mak T.W., Hovanessian A.G., Jeang K.T., Williams B.R. HIV-1 Tat directly interacts with the interferon-induced, double-stranded RNA-dependent kinase, PKR. Virology 1995, 213(2):413-424.
148. Meintjes P.L., Rodrigo A.G. Evolution of relative synonymous codon usage in human immunodeficiency virus type-1. J. Bioinform. Comput. Biol. 2005, 3(1):157-168.
149. Melville M.W., Tan S.L., Wambach M., Song J., Morimoto R.I., Katze M.G. The cellular inhibitor of the PKR protein kinase, P58(IPK), is an influenza virus-activated co-chaperone that modulates heat shock protein 70 activity. J. Biol. Chem. 1999, 274(6):3797-3803.
150. Mertens E., Kajaste-Rudnitski A., Torres S., Funk A., Frenkiel M.P., Iteman I., Khromykh A.A., Despres P. Viral determinants in the NS3 helicase and 2K peptide that promote West Nile virus resistance to antiviral action of 2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetase 1b. Virology 2010, 399(1):176-185.
151. Meurs E., Chong K., Galabru J., Thomas N.S., Kerr I.M., Williams B.R., Hovanessian A.G. Molecular cloning and characterization of the human double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase induced by interferon. Cell 1990, 62(2):379-390.
152. Mohr I., Sonenberg N. Host translation at the nexus of infection and immunity. Cell Host Microbe 2012, 12(4):470-483.
153. Monette A., Valiente-Echeverria F., Rivero M., Cohen E.A., Lopez-Lastra M., Mouland A.J. Dual mechanisms of translation initiation of the full-length HIV-1 mRNA contribute to gag synthesis. PLOS ONE 2013, 8(7):e68108.
154. Mouton-Liger F., Paquet C., Dumurgier J., Bouras C., Pradier L., Gray F., Hugon J. Oxidative stress increases BACE1 protein levels through activation of the PKR-eIF2alpha pathway. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2012, 1822(6):885-896.
155. Munir M., Berg M. The multiple faces of protein kinase R in antiviral defense. Virulence 2013, 4(1):85-89.
156. Muto N.F., Martinand-Mari C., Adelson M.E., Suhadolnik R.J. Inhibition of replication of reactivated human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) in latently infected U1 cells transduced with an HIV-1 long terminal repeat-driven PKR cDNA construct. J. Virol. 1999, 73(11):9021-9028.
157. Myskiw C., Arsenio J., Hammett C., van Bruggen R., Deschambault Y., Beausoleil N., Babiuk S., Cao J. Comparative analysis of poxvirus orthologues of the vaccinia virus E3 protein: modulation of protein kinase R activity, cytokine responses, and virus pathogenicity. J. Virol. 2011, 85(23):12280-12291.
158. Nakamura T., Furuhashi M., Li P., Cao H., Tuncman G., Sonenberg N., Gorgun C.Z., Hotamisligil G.S. Double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase links pathogen sensing with stress and metabolic homeostasis. Cell 2010, 140(3):338-348.
159. Namy O., Moran S.J., Stuart D.I., Gilbert R.J., Brierley I. A mechanical explanation of RNA pseudoknot function in programmed ribosomal frameshifting. Nature 2006, 441(7090):244-247.
160. Nicholson M.G., Rue S.M., Clements J.E., Barber S.A. An internal ribosome entry site promotes translation of a novel SIV Pr55(Gag) isoform. Virology 2006, 349(2):325-334.
161. Nie Y., Hammond G.L., Yang J.H. Double-stranded RNA deaminase ADAR1 increases host susceptibility to virus infection. J. Virol. 2007, 81(2):917-923.
162. Nishikura K. Functions and regulation of RNA editing by ADAR deaminases. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 2010, 79:321-349.
163. Ohlmann T., Lopez-Lastra M., Darlix J.L. An internal ribosome entry segment promotes translation of the simian immunodeficiency virus genomic RNA. J. Biol. Chem. 2000, 275(16):11899-11906.
164. Ohlmann T., Prevot D., Decimo D., Roux F., Garin J., Morley S.J., Darlix J.L. In vitro cleavage of eIF4GI but not eIF4GII by HIV-1 protease and its effects on translation in the rabbit reticulocyte lysate system. J. Mol. Biol. 2002, 318(1):9-20.
165. Okonski K.M., Samuel C.E. Stress granule formation induced by measles virus is protein kinase PKR dependent and impaired by RNA adenosine deaminase ADAR1. J. Virol. 2013, 87(2):756-766.
166. Okumura F., Okumura A.J., Uematsu K., Hatakeyama S., Zhang D.E., Kamura T. Activation of double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase (PKR) by interferon-stimulated gene 15 (ISG15) modification down-regulates protein translation. J. Biol. Chem. 2013, 288(4):2839-2847.
167. Ong C.L., Thorpe J.C., Gorry P.R., Bannwarth S., Jaworowski A., Howard J.L., Chung S., Campbell S., Christensen H.S., Clerzius G., Mouland A.J., Gatignol A., Purcell D.F. Low TRBP levels support an innate human immunodeficiency virus type 1 resistance in astrocytes by enhancing the PKR antiviral response. J. Virol. 2005, 79(20):12763-12772.
168. Padwad Y.S., Mishra K.P., Jain M., Chanda S., Ganju L. Dengue virus infection activates cellular chaperone Hsp70 in THP-1 cells: downregulation of Hsp70 by siRNA revealed decreased viral replication. Viral Immunol. 2010, 23(6):557-565.
169. Park H., Davies M.V., Langland J.O., Chang H.W., Nam Y.S., Tartaglia J., Paoletti E., Jacobs B.L., Kaufman R.J., Venkatesan S. TAR RNA-binding protein is an inhibitor of the interferon-induced protein kinase PKR. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1994, 91(11):4713-4717.
170. Parker L.M., Fierro-Monti I., Mathews M.B. Nuclear factor 90 is a substrate and regulator of the eukaryotic initiation factor 2 kinase double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase. J. Biol. Chem. 2001, 276(35):32522-32530.
171. Pataer A., Vorburger S.A., Chada S., Balachandran S., Barber G.N., Roth J.A., Hunt K.K., Swisher S.G. Melanoma differentiation-associated gene-7 protein physically associates with the double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase PKR. Mol. Ther. 2005, 11(5):717-723.
172. Patel C.V., Handy I., Goldsmith T., Patel R.C. PACT, a stress-modulated cellular activator of interferon-induced double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase, PKR. J. Biol. Chem. 2000, 275(48):37993-37998.
173. Patel R.C., Sen G.C. PACT, a protein activator of the interferon-induced protein kinase, PKR. EMBO J. 1998, 17(15):4379-4390.
174. Perales C., Carrasco L., Ventoso I. Cleavage of eIF4G by HIV-1 protease: effects on translation. FEBS Lett. 2003, 533(1-3):89-94.
175. Peters G.A., Hartmann R., Qin J., Sen G.C. Modular structure of PACT: distinct domains for binding and activating PKR. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2001, 21(6):1908-1920.
176. Peters G.A., Khoo D., Mohr I., Sen G.C. Inhibition of PACT-mediated activation of PKR by the herpes simplex virus type 1 Us11 protein. J. Virol. 2002, 76(21):11054-11064.
177. Peters G.A., Li S., Sen G.C. Phosphorylation of specific serine residues in the PKR activation domain of PACT is essential for its ability to mediate apoptosis. J. Biol. Chem. 2006, 281(46):35129-35136.
178. Phuphuakrat A., Kraiwong R., Boonarkart C., Lauhakirti D., Lee T.H., Auewarakul P. Double-stranded RNA adenosine deaminases enhance expression of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 proteins. J. Virol. 2008, 82(21):10864-10872.
179. Plank T.D., Whitehurst J.T., Cencic R., Pelletier J., Kieft J.S. Internal translation initiation from HIV-1 transcripts is conferred by a common RNA structure. Translation 2014, 2:e27694.
180. Plank T.D., Whitehurst J.T., Kieft J.S. Cell type specificity and structural determinants of IRES activity from the 5' leaders of different HIV-1 transcripts. Nucleic Acids Res. 2013, 41(13):6698-6714.
181. Pollard V.W., Malim M.H. The HIV-1 Rev protein. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 1998, 52:491-532.
182. Purcell D.F., Martin M.A. Alternative splicing of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 mRNA modulates viral protein expression, replication, and infectivity. J. Virol. 1993, 67(11):6365-6378.
183. Randall R.E., Goodbourn S. Interferons and viruses: an interplay between induction, signalling, antiviral responses and virus countermeasures. J. Gen. Virol. 2008, 89(Pt 1):1-47.
184. Reil H., Kollmus H., Weidle U.H., Hauser H. A heptanucleotide sequence mediates ribosomal frameshifting in mammalian cells. J. Virol. 1993, 67(9):5579-5584.
185. Reineke L.C., Lloyd R.E. Animal virus schemes for translation dominance. Curr. Opin. Virol. 2011, 1(5):363-372.
186. Rice A.D., Turner P.C., Embury J.E., Moldawer L.L., Baker H.V., Moyer R.W. Roles of vaccinia virus genes E3L and K3L and host genes PKR and RNase L during intratracheal infection of C57BL/6 mice. J. Virol. 2011, 85(1):550-567.
187. Roberts L.O., Jopling C.L., Jackson R.J., Willis A.E. Viral strategies to subvert the mammalian translation machinery. Prog. Mol. Biol. Transl. Sci. 2009, 90:313-367.
188. Romano P.R., Zhang F., Tan S.L., Garcia-Barrio M.T., Katze M.G., Dever T.E., Hinnebusch A.G. Inhibition of double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase PKR by vaccinia virus E3: role of complex formation and the E3 N-terminal domain. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1998, 18(12):7304-7316.
189. Rustagi A., Gale M. Innate antiviral immune signaling, viral evasion and modulation by HIV-1. J. Mol. Biol. 2013, 426(6):1161-1177.
190. Ruvolo P.P., Gao F., Blalock W.L., Deng X., May W.S. Ceramide regulates protein synthesis by a novel mechanism involving the cellular PKR activator RAX. J. Biol. Chem. 2001, 276(15):11754-11758.
191. Ruvolo V.R., Kurinna S.M., Karanjeet K.B., Schuster T.F., Martelli A.M., McCubrey J.A., Ruvolo P.P. PKR regulates B56(alpha)-mediated BCL2 phosphatase activity in acute lymphoblastic leukemia-derived REH cells. J. Biol. Chem. 2008, 283(51):35474-35485.
192. Sadler A.J., Williams B.R. Structure and function of the protein kinase R. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 2007, 316:253-292.
193. Sadler A.J., Williams B.R. Interferon-inducible antiviral effectors. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2008, 8(7):559-568.
194. Samuel C.E. Adenosine deaminases acting on RNA (ADARs) are both antiviral and proviral. Virology 2011, 411(2):180-193.
195. Sanghvi V.R., Steel L.F. The cellular TAR RNA binding protein, TRBP, promotes HIV-1 replication primarily by inhibiting the activation of double-stranded RNA-dependent kinase PKR. J. Virol. 2011, 85(23):12614-12621.
196. Schmidt B., Ashlock B.M., Foster H., Fujimura S.H., Levy J.A. HIV-infected cells are major inducers of plasmacytoid dendritic cell interferon production, maturation, and migration. Virology 2005, 343(2):256-266.
197. Schoggins J.W., Rice C.M. Interferon-stimulated genes and their antiviral effector functions. Curr. Opin. Virol. 2011, 1(6):519-525.
198. Sciortino M.T., Parisi T., Siracusano G., Mastino A., Taddeo B., Roizman B. The virion host shutoff RNase plays a key role in blocking the activation of protein kinase R in cells infected with herpes simplex virus 1. J. Virol. 2013, 87(6):3271-3276.
199. Sharma A., Yilmaz A., Marsh K., Cochrane A., Boris-Lawrie K. Thriving under stress: selective translation of HIV-1 structural protein mRNA during Vpr-mediated impairment of eIF4E translation activity. PLoS Pathogens 2012, 8(3):e1002612.
200. Shisler J.L., Jin X.L. The vaccinia virus K1L gene product inhibits host NF-kappaB activation by preventing IkappaBalpha degradation. J. Virol. 2004, 78(7):3553-3560.
201. Silva A.M., Whitmore M., Xu Z., Jiang Z., Li X., Williams B.R. Protein kinase R (PKR) interacts with and activates mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 6 (MKK6) in response to double-stranded RNA stimulation. J. Biol. Chem. 2004, 279(36):37670-37676.
202. Silverman R.H. Viral encounters with 2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetase and RNase L during the interferon antiviral response. J. Virol. 2007, 81(23):12720-12729.
203. Simon-Chazottes D., Frenkiel M.P., Montagutelli X., Guenet J.L., Despres P., Panthier J.J. Transgenic expression of full-length 2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetase 1b confers to BALB/c mice resistance against West Nile virus-induced encephalitis. Virology 2011, 417(1):147-153.
204. Singh M., Castillo D., Patel C.V., Patel R.C. Stress-induced phosphorylation of PACT reduces its interaction with TRBP and leads to PKR activation. Biochemistry 2011, 50(21):4550-4560.
205. Singh M., Fowlkes V., Handy I., Patel C.V., Patel R.C. Essential role of PACT-mediated PKR activation in tunicamycin-induced apoptosis. J. Mol. Biol. 2009, 385(2):457-468.
206. Singh M., Patel R.C. Increased interaction between PACT molecules in response to stress signals is required for PKR activation. J. Cell. Biochem. 2012, 113(8):2754-2764.
207. Soto-Rifo R., Limousin T., Rubilar P.S., Ricci E.P., Decimo D., Moncorge O., Trabaud M.A., Andre P., Cimarelli A., Ohlmann T. Different effects of the TAR structure on HIV-1 and HIV-2 genomic RNA translation. Nucleic Acids Res. 2012, 40(6):2653-2667.
208. Soto-Rifo R., Rubilar P.S., Limousin T., de Breyne S., Decimo D., Ohlmann T. DEAD-box protein DDX3 associates with eIF4F to promote translation of selected mRNAs. EMBO J. 2012, 31(18):3745-3756.
209. Suhasini M., Reddy T.R. Cellular proteins and HIV-1 Rev function. Curr. HIV Res. 2009, 7(1):91-100.
210. Suk K., Choi J., Suzuki Y., Ozturk S.B., Mellor J.C., Wong K.H., MacKay J.L., Gregory R.I., Roth F.P. Reconstitution of human RNA interference in budding yeast. Nucleic Acids Res. 2011, 39(7):e43.
211. Svitkin Y.V., Pause A., Sonenberg N. La autoantigen alleviates translational repression by the 5' leader sequence of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 mRNA. J. Virol. 1994, 68(11):7001-7007.
212. Taddeo B., Zhang W., Roizman B. The herpes simplex virus host shutoff RNase degrades cellular and viral mRNAs made before infection but not viral mRNA made after infection. J. Virol. 2013, 87(8):4516-4522.
213. Takahashi T., Zenno S., Ishibashi O., Takizawa T., Saigo K., Ui-Tei K. Interactions between the non-seed region of siRNA and RNA-binding RLC/RISC proteins, Ago and TRBP, in mammalian cells. Nucleic Acids Res. 2014, 42(8):5256-5269.
214. Takeuchi K., Komatsu T., Kitagawa Y., Sada K., Gotoh B. Sendai virus C protein plays a role in restricting PKR activation by limiting the generation of intracellular double-stranded RNA. J. Virol. 2008, 82(20):10102-10110.
215. Talloczy Z., Jiang W., Virgin H.W.t., Leib D.A., Scheuner D., Kaufman R.J., Eskelinen E.L., Levine B. Regulation of starvation- and virus-induced autophagy by the eIF2alpha kinase signaling pathway. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2002, 99(1):190-195.
216. Tan J.C., Avdic S., Cao J.Z., Mocarski E.S., White K.L., Abendroth A., Slobedman B. Inhibition of 2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetase expression and function by the human cytomegalovirus ORF94 gene product. J. Virol. 2011, 85(11):5696-5700.
217. Teng Y., Gao M., Wang J., Kong Q., Hua H., Luo T., Jiang Y. Inhibition of eIF2alpha dephosphorylation enhances TRAIL-induced apoptosis in hepatoma cells. Cell Death Dis. 2014, 5:e1060.
218. Thakur M., Seo E.J., Dever T.E. Variola virus E3L Zalpha domain, but not its Z-DNA binding activity, is required for PKR inhibition. RNA 2014, 20(2):214-227.
219. Tian Y., Han X., Tian D.L. The biological regulation of ABCE1. IUBMB Life 2012, 64(10):795-800.
220. Toth A.M., Li Z., Cattaneo R., Samuel C.E. RNA-specific adenosine deaminase ADAR1 suppresses measles virus-induced apoptosis and activation of protein kinase PKR. J. Biol. Chem. 2009, 284(43):29350-29356.
221. Tu Y.C., Yu C.Y., Liang J.J., Lin E., Liao C.L., Lin Y.L. Blocking double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase PKR by Japanese encephalitis virus nonstructural protein 2A. J. Virol. 2012, 86(19):10347-10358.
222. Vallejos M., Carvajal F., Pino K., Navarrete C., Ferres M., Huidobro-Toro J.P., Sargueil B., Lopez-Lastra M. Functional and structural analysis of the internal ribosome entry site present in the mRNA of natural variants of the HIV-1. PLoS ONE 2012, 7(4):e35031.
223. Vallejos M., Deforges J., Plank T.D., Letelier A., Ramdohr P., Abraham C.G., Valiente-Echeverria F., Kieft J.S., Sargueil B., Lopez-Lastra M. Activity of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 cell cycle-dependent internal ribosomal entry site is modulated by IRES trans-acting factors. Nucleic Acids Res. 2011, 39(14):6186-6200.
224. Van Lint C., Bouchat S., Marcello A. HIV-1 transcription and latency: an update. Retrovirology 2013, 10:67.
225. von Sydow M., Sonnerborg A., Gaines H., Strannegard O. Interferon-alpha and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in serum of patients in various stages of HIV-1 infection. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 1991, 7(4):375-380.
226. Walsh D., Mathews M.B., Mohr I. Tinkering with translation: protein synthesis in virus-infected cells. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol. 2013, 5(1):a012351.
227. Wang Y., Samuel C.E. Adenosine deaminase ADAR1 increases gene expression at the translational level by decreasing protein kinase PKR-dependent eIF-2alpha phosphorylation. J. Mol. Biol. 2009, 393(4):777-787.
228. Weill L., James L., Ulryck N., Chamond N., Herbreteau C.H., Ohlmann T., Sargueil B. A new type of IRES within gag coding region recruits three initiation complexes on HIV-2 genomic RNA. Nucleic Acids Res. 2010, 38(4):1367-1381.
229. Wen X., Huang X., Mok B.W., Chen Y., Zheng M., Lau S.Y., Wang P., Song W., Jin D.Y., Yuen K.Y., Chen H. NF90 exerts antiviral activity through regulation of PKR phosphorylation and stress granules in infected cells. J. Immunol. 2014, 192(8):3753-3764.
230. Wilhelm E., Bell B. Selective recognition of viral promoters by host cell transcription complexes: challenges and opportunities to control latency. Curr. Opin. Virol. 2013, 3(4):380-386.
231. Williams B.R. PKR: a sentinel kinase for cellular stress. Oncogene 1999, 18(45):6112-6120.
232. Willis K.L., Langland J.O., Shisler J.L. Viral double-stranded RNAs from vaccinia virus early or intermediate gene transcripts possess PKR activating function, resulting in NF-kappaB activation, when the K1 protein is absent or mutated. J. Biol. Chem. 2011, 286(10):7765-7778.
233. Wilson W., Braddock M., Adams S.E., Rathjen P.D., Kingsman S.M., Kingsman A.J. HIV expression strategies: ribosomal frameshifting is directed by a short sequence in both mammalian and yeast systems. Cell 1988, 55(6):1159-1169.
234. Yang M., Ito T., May W.S. A novel role for RAX, the cellular activator of PKR, in synergistically stimulating SV40 large T antigen-dependent gene expression. J. Biol. Chem. 2003, 278(40):38325-38332.
235. Zhao L., Jha B.K., Wu A., Elliott R., Ziebuhr J., Gorbalenya A.E., Silverman R.H., Weiss S.R. Antagonism of the interferon-induced OAS-RNase L pathway by murine coronavirus ns2 protein is required for virus replication and liver pathology. Cell Host Microbe 2012, 11(6):607-616.