A unifying framework for depression: Bridging the major biological and psychosocial theories through stress

Clinical and Investigative Medicine

Volumn 36, Issue 4, 2013, Pages

  Roy, Amrita ^a,c   Campbell, M Karen ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN ONTARIO   (Canada)

^b CHILDREN S HEALTH RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (Canada)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; DEPRESSION; FEMALE; HUMAN; MALE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; PSYCHOLOGY; SOCIOECONOMICS;

DEPRESSION; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; PSYCHOLOGY; SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS;

EID: 84884516322     PISSN: 0147958X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (182)

1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, fourth edition. 1994. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Association.
2. Kendler KS, Karkowski LM, Prescott CA: Causal relationship between stressful life events and the onset of major depression. Am J Psychiatry 1999, 156: 837-841.
3. Bowen A, Muhajarine N: Antenatal depression. Can Nurse 2006, 102: 26-30.
4. Patten SB, Juby H. A profile of clinical depression in Canada. Research Synthesis Series: #1. Research Data Centre Network. 2007. (https://dspace.ucalgary.ca/bitstream/1880/46327/6/Patten_RSS1.pdf ). Accessed 10 January 2010.
5. Kasper DL, Braunwald E, Fauci AS, Hauser SL, Longo DL, Jameson JL et al.: Harrison's principles of internal medicine (17th edition). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical Publishing Division; 2008.
6. Swaab DF, Bao AM, Lucassen PJ: The stress system in the human brain in depression and neurodegeneration. Ageing Res Rev 2005, 4: 141-194.
7. Pariante CM, Miller AH: Glucocorticoid receptors in major depression: relevance to pathophysiology and treatment. Biol Psychiatry 2001, 49: 391-404.
8. Arborelius L, Owens MJ, Plotsky PM, Nemeroff CB: The role of corticotropin-releasing factor in depression and anxiety disorders. J Endocrinol 1999, 160: 1-12.
9. Gillies GE, Linton EA, Lowry PJ: Corticotropin releasing activity of the new CRF is potentiated several times by vasopressin. Nature 1982, 299: 355-357.
10. Gold PW, Drevets WC, Charney DS: New insights into the role of cortisol and the glucocorticoid receptor in severe depression. Biol Psychiatry 2002, 52: 381-385.
11. Weber B, Lewicka S, Deuschle M, Colla M, Vecsei P, Heuser I: Increased diurnal plasma concentrations of cortisone in depressed patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000, 85: 1133-1136.
12. Modell S, Yassouridis A, Huber J, Holsboer F: Corticosteroid receptor function is decreased in depressed patients. Neuroendocrinology 1997, 65: 216-222.
13. Holsboer F: The corticosteroid receptor hypothesis of depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 2000, 23: 477-501.
14. O'Brien JT, Ames D, Schweitzer I, Colman P, Desmond P, Tress B: Clinical and magnetic resonance imaging correlates of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function in depression and Alzheimer's disease. Br J Psychiatry 1996, 168: 679-687.
15. Rubin RT, Phillips JJ, McCracken JT, Sadow TF: Adrenal gland volume in major depression: relationship to basal and stimulated pituitary-adrenal cortical axis function. Biol Psychiatry 1996, 40: 89-97.
16. Krishnan KR, Doraiswamy PM, Lurie SN, Figiel GS, Husain MM, Boyko OB et al.: Pituitary size in depression. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1991, 72: 256-259.
17. Weber B, Lewicka S, Deuschle M, Colla M, Heuser I: Testosterone, androstenedione and dihydrotestosterone concentrations are elevated in female patients with major depression. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2000, 25: 765-771.
18. Bodnar LM, Wisner KL: Nutrition and depression: implications for improving mental health among childbearing-aged women. Biol Psychiatry 2005, 58: 679-685.
19. Bourre JM: Effects of nutrients (in food) on the structure and function of the nervous system: update on dietary requirements for brain. Part 1: micronutrients. J Nutr Health Aging 2006, 10: 377-385.
20. Fraker PJ, King LE, Laakko T, Vollmer TL: The dynamic link between the integrity of the immune system and zinc status. J Nutr 2000, 130: 1399S-1406S.
21. Allen LH: Biological mechanisms that might underlie iron's effects on fetal growth and preterm birth. J Nutr 2001, 131: 581S-589S.
22. Whanger PD: Selenium and the brain: a review. Nutr Neurosci 2001, 4: 81-97.
23. Salem N, Jr., Litman B, Kim HY, Gawrisch K: Mechanisms of action of docosahexaenoic acid in the nervous system. Lipids 2001, 36: 945-959.
24. Logan AC: Neurobehavioral aspects of omega-3 fatty acids: possible mechanisms and therapeutic value in major depression. Altern Med Rev 2003, 8: 410-425.
25. Murck H: Magnesium and affective disorders. Nutr Neurosci 2002, 5: 375-389.
26. Peake JM, Suzuki K, Coombes JS: The infiuence of antioxidant supplementation on markers of infiammation and the relationship to oxidative stress after exercise. J Nutr Biochem 2007, 18: 357-371.
27. Gleeson M: Can nutrition limit exercise-induced immunodepression. Nutr Rev 2006, 64: 119-131.
28. Holsboer F, Ising M: Stress hormone regulation: biological role and translation into therapy. Annu Rev Psychol 2010, 81-109: C101-C111
29. Schulkin J: Evolutionary conservation of glucocorticoids and corticotropin releasing hormone: behavioral and physiological adaptations. Brain Res 2011, 1392: 27046.
30. Kloet ER, Joels M, Holsboer F: Stress and the brain: from adaptation to disease. Nat Rev Neurosci 2005, 6: 463-475.
31. Smith SM, Vale WW: The role of the hypothalamic-pituitaryadrenal axis in neuroendocrine responses to stress. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 2006, 8: 383-395.
32. Bale TL, Vale WW: CRF and CRF receptors: role in stress responsivity and other behaviors. Ann Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2004, 44: 525-557.
33. Korosi A, Baram TJ: The central corticotropin-releasing factorsystem during development and adulthood. Eur J Pharmacol 2008, 583: 204-214.
34. Steckler T, Holsboer F: Corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor subtypes and emotion. Biol Psychiatry 1999, 46: 1480-1508.
35. Herbert J. Cortisol and depression: three questions for psychiatry. Psychol Med. 2013 Mar;, 43(3): 449-69.
36. Grigoriadis DE: The corticotropin-releasing factor receptor: a novel target for the treatment of depression and anxietyrelated disorders. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2005, 9: 651-684.
37. Hauger RL, Risbrough V, Brauns O, Dautzenberg FM: Corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) receptor signaling in the central nervous system: new molecular targets. CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets 2006, 5: 453-479.
38. Holsboer F, Isling M: Central CRH system in depression and anxiety -evidence from clinical studies with CRH1 receptor antagonists. Eur J Pharmacol 2008, 583: 350-357.
39. Gallagher JP, Orozco-Cabal LF, Liu J, Shinnick-Gallgher P: Synaptic physiology of central CRH system. Eur J Pharmacol 2008, 583: 215-225.
40. Reul JM, Holsboer F: Corticotropin-releasing factor receptors 1 and 2 in anxiety and depression. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2002, 2: 23-33.
41. Holsboer F: The rationale for corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor (CHR-R) antagonists to treat depression and anxiety. J. Psychiatr Res 1999, 33: 181-214.
42. Smith GW, Aubry JM, Dellu F, Contarino A, Bilezikjian LM, Gold LH, Chen R, Marchuk Y, Hauserr C, Bentley CA, Sawchenko PE, Koob GF, Vale W, Lee KF: Corticotropin releasing factor receptor 1-deficient mice display decreased anxiety, impaired stress response, and aberrant neuroendocrine development. Neuron 1998, 20: 1093-1102.
43. Timpl P, Spanagel R, Sillaber I, Kresse A, Reul JM, Stalla GK, Banquet V, Steckler T, Holsboer F, Wurst W: Impaired stress response and reduced anxiety in mice lacking a functional corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1. Nat Genet 1998, 19: 162-166.
44. Muller MB, Zimmermann S, Sillaber I, Hagemeyer TP, Deussing JM, Timpl P, Kormann MS, Droste SK, Kuhn R, Reul JM, Holsboer F, Wurst W: Limbic corticotropin releasing hormone receptor 1 mediates anxiety-related behavior and hormonal adaptation to stress. Nat Neurosci 2003, 6: 1100-1107.
45. Bondy B: Common genetic factors for depression and cardiovascular disease. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 2007, 9: 19-28.
46. Dunn AJ, Swiergiel AH, De BR: Cytokines as mediators of depression: what can we learn from animal studies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2005, 29: 891-909.
47. Leonard BE: The immune system, depression and the action of antidepressants. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2001, 25: 767-780.
48. Maes M: Evidence for an immune response in major depression: a review and hypothesis. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1995, 19: 11-38.
49. Pucak ML, Kaplin AI: Unkind cytokines: current evidence for the potential role of cytokines in immune-mediated depression. Int Rev Psychiatry 2005, 17: 477-483.
50. Schiepers OJ, Wichers MC, Maes M: Cytokines and major depression. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2005, 29: 201-217.
51. Smith RS: The macrophage theory of depression. Med Hypotheses 1991, 35: 298-306.
52. Kronfol Z: Immune dysregulation in major depression: a critical review of existing evidence. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2002, 5: 333-343.
53. Rayman MP: The importance of selenium to human health. Lancet 2000, 356: 233-241.
54. Guyton A, Hall J: Textbook of medical physiology (10th edition). Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company; 2000.
55. Masson J, Sagné C, Hamon M, El Mestikawy S: Neurotransmitter transporters in the central nervous system. Pharmacol Rev. 1999 sep; 51(3): 439-64.
56. Llinás RR: Depolarization-release coupling systems in neurons. Neurosci Res Program Bull. 1977, 15(4): 555-687.
57. Vizi ES: Role of high-affinity receptors and membrane transporters in nonsynaptic communication and drug action in the central nervous system. Pharmacol Rev. 2000, 52(1): 63-89.
58. Starke K, Taube HD, Borowski E: Pre-and postsynaptic receptors in catecholaminergic transmission. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 1977, 297 Suppl 1: S43-4.
59. Lester HA, Cao Y, Mager S: Listening to neurotransmitter transporters. Neuron. 1996, Nov, 17(5): 807-10.
60. Sonders MS, Zhu SJ, Zahniser NR, Kavanaugh MP, Amara SG: Multiple ionic conductances of the human dopamine transporter: the actions of dopamine and psychostimulants. J Neurosci. 1997, Feb 1, 17(3): 960-74.
61. Elhwuegi AS: Central monoamines and their role in major depression. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2004, 28: 435-451.
62. Sadock BJ, Kaplan HI, Sadock VA: Kaplan and Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (8th edition). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2005.
63. Foote SL, Bloom FE, Aston-Jones G: Nucleus locus ceruleus: new evidence of anatomical and physiological specificity. Physiol Rev. 1983, Jul, 63(3):844-914.
64. Keltner NL, Hogan B, Knight T, Royals LA: Adrenergic, cholinergic, GABAergic, and glutaminergic receptor function in the CNS. Perspect Psychiatr Care. 2001 Oct-Dec, 37(4):140-6.
65. Schildkraut JJ: The catecholamine hypothesis of aThective disorders: a review of supporting evidence. Am J Psychiatry 1965, 122: 509-522.
66. Pineyro G, Blier P: Autoregulation of serotonin neurons: role in antidepressant drug action. Pharmacol Rev 1999, 51: 533-591.
67. Blier P, Ward NM: Is there a role for 5-HT1A agonists in the treatment of depression. Biol Psychiatry 2003, 53: 193-203.
68. Hensler JG: Regulation of 5-HT1A receptor function in brain following agonist or antidepressant administration. Life Sci 2003, 72: 1665-1682.
69. Gesztelyi G: Primary headache and depression. Orv Hetil 2004, 145: 2419-2424.
70. Schins A, Honig A, Crijns H, Baur L, Hamulyak K: Increased coronary events in depressed cardiovascular patients: 5-HT2A receptor as missing link? Psychosom Med 2003, 65: 729-737.
71. Nemeroff CB, Musselman DL: Are platelets the link between depression and ischemic heart disease. Am Heart J 2000, 140: 57-62.
72. Ni W, Watts SW: 5-hydroxytryptamine in the cardiovascular system: focus on the serotonin transporter (SERT). Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2006, 33: 575-583.
73. Hamon CG, Blair JA, Barford PA: The effect of tetrahydrofolate on tetrahydrobiopterin metabolism. J Ment Deftc Res 1986, 30 (Pt 2): 179-183.
74. Huang EP: Metal ions and synaptic transmission: think zinc. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1997, 94: 13386-13387.
75. Levenson CW: Zinc: the new antidepressant. Nutr Rev 2006, 64: 39-42.
76. Beard JL, Connor JR: Iron status and neural functioning. Annu Rev Nutr 2003, 23: 41-58.
77. Oski FA: The nonhematologic manifestations of iron defi-ciency. Am J Dis Child 1979, 133: 315-322.
78. Takeda E, Terao J, Nakaya Y, Miyamoto K, Baba Y, Chuman H et al: Stress control and human nutrition. J Med InThest 2004, 51: 139-145.
79. Dolan RJ: Emotion, cognition, and behavior. Science 2002, 298: 1191-1194.
80. McEwen BS: Effects of adverse experiences for brain structure and function. Biol Psychiatry 2000, 48: 721-731.
81. Videbech P, Ravnkilde B: Hippocampal volume and depression: a meta-analysis of MRI studies. Am J Psychiatry 2004, 161: 1957-1966.
82. Kloet ER: Stress in the brain. Eur J Pharmacol 2000, 405: 187-198.
83. Dranovsky A, Hen R: Hippocampal neurogenesis: regulation by stress and antidepressants. Biol Psychiatry 2006, 59: 1136-1143.
84. Joca SR, Ferreira FR, Guimaraes FS: Modulation of stress consequences by hippocampal monoaminergic, glutamatergic and nitrergic neurotransmitter systems. Stress 2007, 10: 227-249.
85. McEwen BS, Weiss JM, Schwartz LS: Selective retention of corticosterone by limbic structures in rat brain. Nature 1968, 220: 911-912.
86. Banasr M, Valentine GW, Li XY, Gourley SL, Taylor JR, Duman RS: Chronic unpredictable stress decreases cell proliferation in the cerebral cortex of the adult rat. Biol Psychiatry 2007, 62: 496-504.
87. Duman RS, Monteggia LM: A neurotrophic model for stressrelated mood disorders. Biol Psychiatry 2006, 59: 1116-1127.
88. Chao MV: Neurotrophins and their receptors: a convergence point for many signalling pathways. Nat Rev Neuro Sci. 2003, 4: 299-309.
89. Lee R, Kermani P, Teng KK, Hempstead BL: Regulation of cell survival by secreted proneurotrophins. Science 2001, 294: 1945-1948.
90. Nykjaer A, Lee R, Teng KK, Jansen P, Madsen P, Nielsen MS, Jacobsen C, Kliemannel M, Schwarz E, Willnow TE, Hempstead BL, Petersen CM: Sortilin is essential for proNGFinduced neuronal cell death. Nature 2004, 427: 843-848.
91. Huang EJ, Reichardt LF: Neurotrphins: roles in neural development and function. Annu Rev Neurosci 2001, 24: 677-736.
92. Levi-Montalcine R: Growth control of nerve cells by a protein factor and its antiserum: discovery of this factor may provide new leads to understanding of some neurogenetic processes. Science 1964, 143: 105-110.
93. Davies AM, Thoenen H, Barde YA: The response of chick sensory neurons to brain-derived neurotrophic factor. J Neurosci 1986, 6: 1897-1904.
94. Thanos S, Bahr M, Barde YA, Vanselow J: Survival and axonal elongation of adult rat retinal ganglion cells. Eur J Neurosci 1989, 1:19-26.
95. Cohen-Cory S, Kidane AH, Shirkey NJ, Marshak S: Brainderived neurotrophic factor and the development of structural neural connectivity. Dev Neurobiol 2010, 70(5):271-88.
96. Alberch J, Perez-Navarro E, Canals JM: Neurotrphic factors in Huntington's disease. Prog Brain Res 2004, 146: 195-229
97. Mattson MP, Maudsley S, Martin B: BDNF and 5-HT: a dynamic duo in age related neuronal plasticity and neurodegenerative disorders. Trends Neurosci 2004, 27: 598-594.
98. Arancio O, Chao MV: Neurotrophins, synaptic plasticity and dementia. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2007, 17: 325-330.
99. Mattson MP: Glutamate and neurotrophic factors in neuronal plasticity and disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2008, 1144: 97-112.
100. Sapolsky R: Glucocorticoids and atrophy of the human hippocampus. Science 1996, 273: 749-750
101. Sapolsky R: Depression, antidepressants, and the shrinking hippocampus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001, 98: 12320-12322.
102. McEwen B: Stress and hippocampal plasticity. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1999, 5: 205-216.
103. Duman R: Depression: a case of neuronal life or death? Biol Psychiatry 2004, 56: 140-145
104. Duman R: Role of neurotrophic factors in the etiology and treatment of mood disorders. Neuromolecular Med 2004, 5: 11-25.
105. Pinnock SB, Blake AM, Platt NJ, Herbert J: The role of BDNF, pCREB and Wnt3a in the latent period preceding activation of progenitor cell mitosis in the adult dentate gyrus by fiuoxetine. PloS ONE 2010, 5: e13652.
106. Schaaf MJ, Hoetelmans RW, de Kloet ER, Vreugdenhil E: Corticosterone regulates expression of BDNF and trkB but not NT-3 and trkC mRNA in the rat hippocampus. J Neurosci Res 1997, 48: 334-341.
107. Schaaf MJ, Jong J, Kloet ER, Vreugdenhil E: Downregulation of BDNF mRNA and protein in the rat hippocampus by corticosterone. Brain Res 1998, 813: 112-120.
108. Chen B, Dowlatshahi D, Macfiueen GM, Wang JF, Young LT: Increased hippocampal BDNF immunoreactivity in subjects treated with antidepressant medication. Biol Psychiatry 2001, 50: 260-265.
109. Dwivedi Y, Rizhavi HS, Roberts RC, Conley RC, Tamminga CA, Pandey GN: Reduced activation and expression of ERK 1/2 MAP Kinase in the postmortem brain of depressed suicide subjects. J Neurochem 2001, 77: 916-928.
110. Karege F, Vaudan G, Schwald M, Perroud N, La Harpe R: Neurotrophin levels in postmortem brains of suicide victims and the effects of antemortem diagnosis and psychotrophic drugs. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 2005, 136: 29-37.
111. Dwivedi Y, Rao JS, Hooriyah SR, Kotowski J, Conley RR, Roberts RC, et al: Abnormal expression and functional characteristics of cyclic adenosine monophosphate response element binding protein in postmortem brain of suicide subjects. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003, 60: 273-282.
112. Rafalowska U, Liu GJ, Floyd RA: Peroxidation induced changes in synaptosomal transport of dopamine and gammaaminobutyric acid. Free Radic Biol Med 1989, 6: 485-492.
113. Bottiglieri T: Homocysteine and folate metabolism in depression. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2005, 29: 1103-1112.
114. Reynolds EH, Carney MW, Toone BK: Methylation and mood. Lancet 1984, 2: 196-198.
115. Michel TM, Frangou S, Thiemeyer D, Camara S, Jecel J, Nara K et al: Evidence for oxidative stress in the frontal cortex in patients with recurrent depressive disorder--a postmortem study. Psychiatry Res 2007, 151: 145-150.
116. Sarandol A, Sarandol E, Eker SS, Erdinc S, Vatansever E, Kirli S: Major depressive disorder is accompanied with oxidative stress: short-term antidepressant treatment does not alter oxidative-antioxidative systems. Hum Psychopharmacol 2007, 22: 67-73.
117. McEwen BS, Magarinos AM, Reagan LP: Studies of hormone action in the hippocampal formation: possible relevance to depression and diabetes. J Psychosom Res 2002, 53: 883-890.
118. Nemeroff CB: The corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) hypothesis of depression: new findings and new directions. Mol Psychiatry 1996, 1: 336-342.
119. Yan HC, Cao X, Das M, Zhu XH, Gao TM: Behavioral animal models of depression. Neurosci Bull 2010, 26: 327-337.
120. Pryce CR, Azzinnari D, Spinelli S, Seifritz E, Tegethoff M, Meinlschmidt G: Helplessness: A systematic translational re-view of theory and evidence for its relevance to understanding and treating depression. Pharmacol ffer 2011, 132: 242-267.
121. Clark PM: Programming of the hypothalamo-pituitaryadrenal axis and the fetal origins of adult disease hypothesis. Eur J Pediatr 1998, 157 Suppl 1: S7-10.
122. Clark PM, Hindmarsh PC, Shiell AW, Law CM, Honour JW, Barker DJ: Size at birth and adrenocortical function in childhood. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1996, 45: 721-726.
123. Thompson C, Syddall H, Rodin I, Osmond C, Barker DJ: Birth weight and the risk of depressive disorder in late life. Br J Psychiatry 2001, 179: 450-455.
124. Seckl JR, Holmes MC: Mechanisms of disease: glucocorticoids, their placental metabolism and fetal 'programming' of adult pathophysiology. Nat Clinical Practice Endocrin & Metabol. 2006, 3(6):479-488.
125. Miller G: Epigenetics. The seductive allure of behavioral epigenetics. Science 2010, 329: 24-27.
126. Blatt SJ: Contributions of psychoanalysis to the understanding and treatment of depression. J Am Psychoanal Assoc 1998, 46: 722-752.
127. Brumariu LE, Kerns KA: Parent-child attachment and internalizing symptoms in childhood and adolescence: a review of empirical findings and future directions. Dev Psychopathol 2010, 22: 177-203.
128. Beatson J, Taryan S: Predisposition to depression: the role of attachment. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2003, 37: 219-225.
129. Croes S, Merz P, Netter P: Cortisol reaction in success and failure condition in endogenous depressed patients and controls. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1993, 18: 23-35.
130. Youngren MA, Lewinsohn PM: The functional relation between depression and problematic interpersonal behavior. Journal of abnormal psychology 1980, 89: 333-341.
131. Sweeney PD, Anderson K, Bailey S: Attributional style in depression: a meta-analytic review. J Pers Soc Psychol 1986, 50: 974-991.
132. Haaga DA, Beck AT: Perspectives on depressive realism: implications for cognitive theory of depression. Behav Res ffer 1995, 33: 41-48.
133. Scher CD, Ingram RE, Segal ZV: Cognitive reactivity and vulnerability: empirical evaluation of construct activation and cognitive diatheses in unipolar depression. Clin Psychol Rev 2005, 25: 487-510.
134. Nolen-Hoeksema S: The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal of abnormal psychology 2000, 109: 504-511.
135. Hankin BL, Oppenheimer C, Jenness J, Barrocas A, Shapero BG, Goldband J: Developmental origins of cognitive vulnerabilities to depression: review of processes contributing to stability and change across time. J Clin Psychol 2009, 65: 1327-1338.
136. Strauman TJ, Higgins ET: Self-discrepancies as predictors of vulnerability to distinct syndromes of chronic emotional distress. J Pers 1988, 56: 685-707.
137. Southwick SM, Vythilingam M, Charney DS: The psychobiology of depression and resilience to stress: implications for prevention and treatment. Annu Rev Clin Psychol 2005, 1: 255-291.
138. Ursin H, Eriksen HR: Cognitive activation theory of stress (CATS). Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2010, 34: 877-881.
139. Lesch KP, Bengel D, Heils A, Sabol SZ, Greenberg BD, Petri S, et al: Association of anxiety-related traits with a polymorphism in the serotonin transporter gene regulatory region. Science 1996, 274: 1527-1531.
140. Caspi A, Sugden K, Moffitt TE, Taylor A, Craig IW, Harrington H, et al: Infiuence of life stress on depression: moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science 2003, 301: 386-389.
141. Kendler KS, Kuhn JW, Vittum J, Prescott CA, Riley B: The interaction of stressful life events and a serotonin transporter polymorphism in the prediction of episodes of major depression: A replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005, 62: 529-535.
142. Egan MF, Kojima M, Callicott JH, Goldberg TE, Kolachana BS, Bertolino A, Zaitsev E, Gold B, Goldman D, Dean M, Lu B, Weinberger DR: The BDNF val66met polymorphism affects activity-dependent secretion of BDNF and human memory and hippocampal function. Cell 2003, 112: 257-269.
143. Bukh JD, Bock C, Vinberg M, Werge T, Gether U, Vedel Kissing L: Interaction between genetic polymorphisms and stressful life events in first episode depression. J Afiective Disorder 2009, 119: 107-115.
144. Verhagen M, Vander Meij A, Van Deurzen PA, Janzing JG, Arias-Vasquez A, Buitelaar JK, Franke B: Meta-analysis of the BDNF Val66Met polymorphism in major depressive disorder: effects of gender and ethnicity. Mol Mol Psychiatry 2010, 15: 260-271.
145. Binder EB, Salyakina D, Lichtner P, Wochnik GM, Ising M, et al: Polymorphisms in FKBP5 are associated with increased recurrence of depressive episodes and rapid response to antidepressant treatment. Nat Genet. 2004, 36: 1319-1325.
146. Binder EB, Bradley RG, Liu W, Epstein MP, Deveau TC, Mercer KB, et al: Association of FKBP5 polymorphisms and childhood abuse with risk of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in adults. JAMA 2008, 299: 1291-1305.
147. Ising M, Depping AM, Siebertz A, Lucae S, Unschuld PG,, Kloiber S, Horstmann S, Uhr M, Muller-Myhsok B, Holsboer F: Polymorphisms in the FKBP5 gene region modulate recovery from psychological stress in healthy controls. Eur J NeuroSci 2008, 28: 389-398.
148. Zimmermann P, Bruckl T, Nocon A, Pfister H, Binder E, Uhr M, Lieb R, Moffitt TE, Caspi A, Holsboer F, Ising M: Interaction of FKBP5 gene variants and adverse life events in predicting depression onset: Results from a 10-year prospective community study. Am J Psychiatry 2011, 168: 1107-1116.
149. Draguns JG, Tanaka-Matsumi J: Assessment of psychopathology across and within cultures: issues and findings. Behav Res ffer 2003, 41: 755-776.
150. CSDH. Closing the gap in a generation: health equity through action on the social determinants of health. Final Report of the Commission on Social Determinants of Health. 2008. Geneva, World Health Organization.
151. Garcia-Toro M, Aguirre I: Biopsychosocial model in Depression revisited. Med Hypotheses 2007, 68: 683-691.
152. Schotte CK, Van Den BB, De DD, Claes S, Cosyns P: A biopsychosocial model as a guide for psychoeducation and treatment of depression. Depress Anxiety 2006, 23: 312-324.
153. Johnson JL, Greaves L, Repta R. Better Science with Sex and Gender: A Primer for Health Research. 2007. Vancouver, BC, Women's Health Research Network.
154. Johansson EE, Bengs C, Danielsson U, Lehti A, Hammarstrom A: Gaps between patients, media, and academic medicine in discourses on gender and depression: a metasynthesis. ffiual Health Res 2009, 19: 633-644.
155. Tafet GE, Toister-Achituv M, Shinitzky M: Enhancement of serotonin uptake by cortisol: a possible link between stress and depression. Cogn Afiect Behav Neurosci 2001, 1: 96-104.
156. Capuron L, Dantzer R: Cytokines and depression: the need for a new paradigm. Brain Behav Immunol 2003, 17 (Suppl 1): S119-S124.
157. Clark JA, Flick RB, Pai LY, Szalayova I, Key S, Conley RK, Deutch AY, Hutson PH, Mezey E: Glucocorticoid modulation of tryptophan hydroxylase-2 protein in raphe nuclei and 5-hydroxytryptophan concentrations in frontal cortex of C57/ B16 mice. Mol Psychiatry 2008, 13: 498-506.
158. Flugge G: Dynamics of central nervous 5-HT1A-receptors under psychosocial stress. J Neurosci 1995, 15: 7132-7140.
159. Anisman H, Merali Z, Hayley S: Neurotransmitter, peptide, and cytokine processes in relation to depressive disorder: Comorbidity between depression and neurodegenerative disorders. Prog Neurobiol 2008, 85: 1-74.
160. Linthorst ACE, Flachskamm C, Hopkins SJ, Hoadley ME, Labeur MS,, Holsboer F, Reul JMHM: Long-term intracerebroventricular infusion of corticotropin-releasing hormone alters neuroendocrine, neurochemical, autonomic, behavioral, and cytokine responses to a systemic infiammatory challenge. J Neurosci 1997, 17: 4448-4460.
161. Peñalva RG, Flachskamm C, Zimmermann S, Wurst W, Holsboer F, Reul JMHM: Corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor type 1-deficiency enhances hippocampal serotonergic neurotransmission: an in vivo microdialysis study in mutant mice. Neurosci 2002, 109: 253-266.
162. Linthorst ACE, Peñalva RG, Flachskamm C, Holsboer F, Reul JMHM: Forced swim stress activates rat hippocampal serotonergic neurotransmission involving a corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor-dependent mechanism. Eur J Neurosci 2002, 16: 2441-2452.
163. Oshima A, Flachskamm C, Reul JMHM , Holsboer F, Linthorst ACE: Altered serotonergic neurotransmission but normal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis activity in mice chronically treated with corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor type 1 antagonist NBI 30775. Neuropsychopharm 2003, 28: 2148-2159.
164. Magalhaes AC, Holmes KD, Dale LB, Comps-Agrar L, Lee D, Yadav PN, Drysdale L, Poulter, MO, Roth BL, Pin J-P, Anisman H, Ferguson SSG: CRF receptor 1 regulates anxiety behaviour via sensitization of 5-HT2 receptor signaling. Nat Neurosci 2010, 13(5): 622-629.
165. Jorgensen H, Knigge U, Kjaer A, Moller M, Warberg J: Serotonergic stimulation of corticotropin-releasing hormone and pro-opiomelanocortin gene expression. J Neuroendocrinol 2002, 14: 788-795.
166. Bhatnagar S, Sun LM, Raber J, Maren S, Julius D, Dallman MF: Changes in anxiety-related behaviors and hypothalamicpituitary-adrenal activity in mice lacking the 5-HT-3A receptor. Physiol Behav. 2004 Jun, 81(4): 545-55.
167. Turnbull AV, Rivier C: Regulation of the HPA axis by cytokines. Brain Behav Immun 1995, 9: 253-275.
168. Besedovsky H, Del RA, Sorkin E, Dinarello CA: Immunoregulatory feedback between interleukin-1 and glucocorticoid hormones. Science 1986, 233: 652-654.
169. Chrousos GP: The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and immune-mediated infiammation. N Engl J Med 1995, 332: 1351-1362.
170. Sapolsky R, Rivier C, Yamamoto G, Plotsky P, Vale W: Interleukin-1 stimulates the secretion of hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing factor. Science 1987, 238: 522-524.
171. Ramamoorthy S, Ramamoorthy JD, Prasad PD, Bhat GK, Mahesh VB, Leibach FH et al.: Regulation of the human serotonin transporter by interleukin-1 beta. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1995, 216: 560-567.
172. Song C, Lin A, Bonaccorso S, Heide C, Verkerk R, Kenis G et al.: The infiammatory response system and the availability of plasma tryptophan in patients with primary sleep disorders and major depression. J Afiect Disord 1998, 49: 211-219.
173. Taylor MW, Feng GS: Relationship between interferongamma, indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase, and tryptophan catabolism. FASEB J 1991, 5: 2516-2522.
174. Sapolsky RM, Uno H, Rebert CS, Finch CE: Hippocampal damage associated with prolonged glucocorticoid exposure in primates. J Neurosci 1990, 10: 2897-2902.
175. Sapolsky RM: Glucocorticoids and hippocampal atrophy in neuropsychiatric disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000, 57: 925-935.
176. Lucassen PJ, Meerlo P, Naylor AS, van Dam AM, Dayer AG, Fuchs E et al.: Regulation of adult neurogenesis by stress, sleep disruption, exercise and infiammation: Implications for depression and antidepressant action. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2010, 20: 1-17.
177. Stone TW, Darlington LG: Endogenous kynurenines as targets for drug discovery and development. Nat Rev Drug DiscoTh 2002, 1: 609-620.
178. Wichers MC, Maes M: The role of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) in the pathophysiology of interferonalpha-induced depression. J Psychiatry Neurosci 2004, 29: 11-17.
179. Engel GL: The need for a new medical model: a challenge for biomedicine. Science 1977, 196: 129-136.
180. Szasz T: The myth of mental illness. ffe American Psychologist 1960, 15: 113-118.
181. Sapolsky RM, Krey LC, McEwen BS: The neuroendocrinology of stress and aging: the glucocorticoid cascade hypothesis. Endocr Rev 1986, 7: 284-301.
182. Patten SB, Williams JV, Lavorato DH, Modgill G, Jette N, Eliasziw M: Major depression as a risk factor for chronic disease incidence: longitudinal analyses in a general population cohort. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2008, 30: 407-413.