Antidiabetic agents: Past, present and future

Future Medicinal Chemistry

Volumn 5, Issue 4, 2013, Pages 411-430

  Mehanna, Ahmed ^a  

^a MASSACHUSETTS COLLEGE OF PHARMACY AND HEALTH SCIENCES   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALOGLIPTIN; ALPHA GLUCOSIDASE INHIBITOR; ANTIDIABETIC AGENT; BIGUANIDE DERIVATIVE; CHLORPROPAMIDE; DEMYLOR; EXENDIN 4; FOXIGA; GLIBENCLAMIDE; GLIMEPIRIDE; GLIPIZIDE; GLUCOSE; HEMOGLOBIN A1C; INSULIN; INSULIN SENSITIZING AGENT; INVOKANA; LINAGLIPTIN; LIRAGLUTIDE; LOPERAMIDE; METFORMIN; METIGLINIDE; MIGLITOL; NATEGLINIDE; PIOGLITAZONE; PRAMLINTIDE; PRELOSE; REPAGLINIDE; ROSIGLITAZONE; SAXAGLIPTIN; SITAGLIPTIN; SULFONYLUREA; TOLAMIDE; TOLAZAMIDE; TOLBUTAMIDE; TROGLITAZONE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VILDAGLIPTIN; VOGLIP;

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIET; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG SAFETY; EPIDEMIC; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; HUMAN; INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; INSULIN RELEASE; INSULIN RESISTANCE; INSULIN TREATMENT; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; NONHUMAN; ORAL GLUCOSE TOLERANCE TEST; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

AMINO ACID SEQUENCE; ANIMALS; DIABETES MELLITUS; DRUG DISCOVERY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 21ST CENTURY; HUMANS; HYPOGLYCEMIC AGENTS; MOLECULAR SEQUENCE DATA; MOLECULAR TARGETED THERAPY;

EID: 84875126739     PISSN: 17568919     EISSN: 17568927     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.4155/fmc.13.13     Document Type: Review

References (139)

1. American Diabetes Association. Diagnosis and classifcation of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 35(Suppl. 1), S64-S71 (2010).
2. Potenza MA, Nacci C, Gagliardi S, Montagnani M. Cardiovascular complications in diabetes: lessons from animal models. Curr. Med. Chem. 18 (12), 1806-1819 (2011).
3. Kakadiya JL, Shah NJ. Cardiovascular complications of diabetes review. Pharmacologyonline 1, 1-10 (2010).
4. Bogdanov V Y, Osterud B. Cardiovascular complications of diabetes mellitus: the tissue factor perspective. Thromb. Res. 125(2), 112-118 (2010).
5. Gregoratos G. Leung G. Diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease in the elderly. In: Cardiovascular Disease In The Elderly (4th Edition) Aronow WS, Flag JL, Rich MW (Eds). Informa Health Care, NY, USA, 190-220 (2008).
6. Ceriello AD, Jamie H, Markolf L et al. Postprandial hyperglycemia and cardiovascular complications of diabetes: an update. The International Prandial Glucose Regulation PGR Study Group. Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis. 16 (7), 453-456 (2006).
7. Fox, CS, Coady S, Sorlie P D et al. Tre nd s i n cardiovascular complications of diabetes. JAMA 292(20), 2495-2499 (2004).
8. Przewlocka KM, Kosmala W, Mazurek W. Cardiovascular complications in diabetic patients-pathogenesis, management and prevention. In: Focus On Diabetes Mellitus Research. Ford AM (Ed.). Nova Science Publishers, NY, USA, 6(1) 33-53 (2006).
9. Sheetz MJ, King GL. Molecular understanding of hyperglycemia's adverse effects for diabetic complications. JAMA 288, 2579-2588 (2002).
10. Francia P, Cosentino F, Schiavoni M et al. p66Shc protein, oxidative stress, and cardiovascular complications of diabetes: the missing link. J. Mol. Med. 87(9), 885-891 (2009).
11. Desai KM, Chang T, Wang H et al. Oxidative stress and aging: is methylglyoxal the hidden enemy? Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 88(3), 273-284 (2010).
12. Schnell O, Stalleicken D, Daiber A, Marx N. Endothelial function and oxidative stress in diabetes: active profle of the long-Acting nitrate pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN). Clin. Res. Cardiol. Suppl. 5(1), 35-41 (2010).
13. Watanabe K, Thandavarayan RA, Gurusamy N et al. Role of 14-13-3 protein and oxidative stress in diabetic cardiomyopathy. Acta Physiol. Hung. 96(3), 277-287 (2009).
14. Nwose EU, Jelinek H, Richards RS, Kerr PG. Erythrocyte oxidative stress in clinical management of diabetes and its cardiovascular complications. Br. J. Biomed. Sci. 64(1), 35-43 (2007).
15. Haidara MA, Yassin HZ, Rateb M, Ammar H, Zorkani M.A. Role of oxidative stress in development of cardiovascular complications in diabetes mellitus. Curr. Vasc. Pharmacol. 4(3), 215-227 (2006).
16. Ceriello A, Esposito K, Piconi L et al. Oscillating glucose is more deleterious to endothelial function and oxidative stress than mean glucose in normal and Type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes 57(5), 1349-1354 (2008).
17. Fujisawa T, Ikegami H, Kawaguchi Y et al. Meta-Analysis of association of insertion/deletion polymorphism of angiotensin I-converting enzyme gene with diabetic nephropathy and retinopathy. Diabetologia 41(1), 47-53 (1998).
18. Odawara M, Matsunuma A, Yamashita K. Avoidance of mistyping of angiotensin-converting enzyme gene polymorphism and its association with diabetic complications. Nucleic Acids Symp. Ser. 23, 261-262 (1996).
19. American Diabetes Association. Nutrition recommendations and interventions for diabetes: a position statement of the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care 31(Suppl. 1), S61-S78 (2008).
20. Dehghan M, Mente A, Teo KK et al. Relationship between healthy diet and risk of cardiovascular disease among patients on drug therapies for secondary prevention: a prospective cohort study of 31, 546 high-risk individuals from 40 countries. Circulation 126(23), 2705-2712 (2012).
21. Lopes SD, Paes de Miranda M. Physical exercise on glycemic control in Type 1 diabetes mellitus. Nutr. Hosp. 26(3), 425-429 (2011).
22. Balducci S, Zanuso S, Pugliese G, Church T, Sigal RJ. Diet or diet plus physical activity in patients with early Type 2 diabetes. Lancet 378(9809), 2066-2067 (2011).
23. Andrews RC, Cooper AR, Montgomery AA et al. Diet or diet plus physical activity versus usual care in patients with newly diagnosed Type 2 diabetes: the Early ACTID randomized controlled trial. Lancet 378(9786), 129-139 (2011).
24. Mekary RA, Rimm EB, Giovannucci E, et al. Eating patterns and Type 2 diabetes risk in men: breakfast omission, eating frequency, and snacking1-4. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 94, 1525-1532 (2011).
25. Ovalle F. Cardiovascular implications of antihyperglycemic therapies for Type 2 diabetes. Clin. Ther. 33(4), 393-407 (2011).
26. Marcinak JF, Viswanathan P, Arora V, Roebel LE, Strack TR, Leifke E. Shift from surrogate end point to outcome trials: implications for cardiovascular safety assessment in development programs for antidiabetic drugs. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 91(3), 514-520 (2012).
27. Sheetz MJ, King GL. Molecular understanding of hyperglycemia's adverse effects for diabetic complications. JAMA 288, 2579-2588 (2002).
28. Atkinson MA, Eisenbarth GS. Type 1 diabetes; new perspective on disease pathogenesis and treatment. Lancet 358, 221-229 (2000).
29. American Diabetes Association. Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes. Diabetes Care 35(1), S11-S63 (2012).
30. Giaccari A, Giorda C B, Riccardi G, et al. Evaluation of guidelines on diabetes medication. Ann. Intern. Med. 156(10), 752-753 (2012).
31. Willett LR. Meta-Analysis: self-monitoring in non-insulin-treated Type 2 diabetes improved HbA1c by 0.25%. Ann. Intern. Med. 156(12), JC6-JC12 (2012).
32. Mehanna AS. Insulin and oral antidiabetic agents. Am. J. Pharm. Educ. 69 (5), 1-119 (2005).
33. Barnett AH, Bellary S. Inhaled human insulin (Exubera): clinical profle and patient considerations. Vasc. Health Risk Manag. 3(1), 83-91 (2007).
34. Zhou G, Sebhat IK, Zhang BB. Metformin and phenformin activate AMP-Activated protein kinase in the heart by increasing cytosolic AMP concentration. Acta Physiol. 196(1), 175-190 (2009).
35. Matschinsky FMN, Itzhak H, Oksana N. et al. Effects of a glucokinase activator on hepatic intermediary metabolism: study with 13C-isotopomer-based metabolomics. Biochem. J. 444(3), 537-551 (2012).
36. Derosa G, Maffoli P. Peroxisome proliferator-Activated receptor agonists on glycemic control, lipid profle and cardiovascular risk. Curr. Mol. Pharmacol. 5, 272-281 (2012).
37. Ernest A, Abdu A, Mohamed YH, Kornelia T, Huba K. Medicinal chemistry and actions of dual and pan PPAR modulators. Open Med. Chem. J. 5(Suppl. 2), 93-98 (2011).
38. Jain AK, Vaidya A, Ravichandran V, Kashaw SK, Agrawal RK. Recent developments and biological activities of thiazolidinone derivatives: a review. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 20(11), 3378-3395 (2012).
39. Holst JJ, Orskov C, Nielson OV et al. Truncated glucagon-like peptide I, an insulin releasing hormone from the distal gut. FEBS Lett. 211, 169-174 (1987).
40. Perley MJ, Kipnis DM. Plasma insulin responses to oral and intravenous glucose studies in normal and diabetic subjects. J. Clin. Invest. 46, 1954-1962 (1967).
41. Dupre J, Ross S, Watson D et al. Stimulation of insulin secretion by gastric inhibitory polypeptide in man. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 37, 826-828 (1973).
42. Zettl H, Schubert-Zsilavecz M, Steinhhilber D. Medicinal chemistry of incretin mimetics and DPP-4 inhibitors. ChemMedChem. 5, 179-185 (2010).
43. Hui H, Zhao X, Perfetti R. Structure and function studies of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1): the designing of a novel pharmacological agent for the treatment of diabetes. Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev. 21, 313-331 (2005).
44. Deacon C, Knudsen LB, Madsen K, Wiberg FC, Jacobsen O, Holst JJ. Dipeptidyl peptidase IV resistant analogs of glucagon-like peptide-1which have extended metabolic stability and improved biological activity. Diabetologia 41(3), 271-278 (1998).
45. Furman BL. The development of Byetta (exenatide) from the venom of the Gila monster as an antidiabetic agent. Toxicon. 59(4), 464-471 (2012).
46. Buse JB, Henr R, Han J et al. Effects of exenatide (exendin-4) on glycemic control over 30 weeks in sulfonylurea-treated patients with Type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 27, 2628-2635 (2004).
47. Faludi P, Brodows R, Burger J, Ivanyi T, Braun DK. The effect of exenatide re-exposure on safety and effcacy. Peptides 30 (9), 1771-1774 (2009).
48. Arulmozhi DK. Portha B. GLP-I based therapy for Type 2 diabetes. Eur. J. Pharm. Sci. 28, 96-108 (2006).
49. Lotfy M, Singh J, Kalasz H, Tekes K, Adeghate E. Medicinal chemistry and applications of incretins and DPP-4 inhibitors in the treatment of Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Open Med. Chem. J. 5, 82-92 (2011).
50. Barnett AH. The role of GLP-1 mimetics and basal insulin analogues in Type 2 diabetes mellitus: guidance from studies of liraglutide. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 14 (4), 304-314 (2012).
51. Gough SC. Liraglutide: from clinical trials to clinical practice. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 14(2), 33-40 (2012).
52. Manash PB, Kalra S. The novel use of GLP-1 analogue and insulin combination in Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Recent Pat. Endocr. Metab. Immune Drug Discov. 6(2), 129-135 (2012).
53. Ahren B. Inhibition of dipeptidy peptidase-4 (DPP-4): a target to treat Type 2 diabetes. Curr. Enzym. Inhib. 7, 205-217 (2011).
54. Havale SH, Pal M. Medicinal chemistry approaches to the inhibition of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 for the treatment of Type 2 diabetes. Bioorg. Med Chem. 17(5), 1783-1802 (2009).
55. Gwaltney S L. Medicinal chemistry approaches to the inhibition of dipeptidyl peptidase IV. Curr. Top. Med. Chem. 8 (17), 1545-1552 (2008).
56. Bhapkar R, Ganu G, Garud A, Kshirsagar A. Novel approach of management of diabetes mellitus with DPP-IV inhibitors and incretins. Pharma. Science Monitor 3, 48-58 (2012).
57. Thornberry NA, Weber AE. Discovery of Januvia (sitagliptin), a selective dipeptidyl peptidase IV inhibitor for the treatment of Type 2 diabetes. Curr. Top. Med. Chem. 7(6), 557-568 (2007).
58. Engel SS, Williams-Herman DE, Golm GT et al. Sitagliptin: review of preclinical and clinical data regarding incidence of pancreatitis. Int. J. Clin. Pract. 64(7), 984-990 (2010).
59. Augeri D, Robl J, Betebenner D et al. Discovery and preclinical profle of saxagliptin (BMS-477118): a highly potent, long-Acting, orally active dipeptidyl peptidase IV inhibitor for the treatment of Type 2 diabetes. J. Med. Chem. 48, 5025-5037 (2005).
60. Waugh N, Cummins E, Royle P et al. Newer agents for blood glucose control in Type 2 diabetes: systematic review and economic evaluation. Health Technol. Assess. 14(36), 1-248 (2010).
61. Yang L P. Saxagliptin: a review of its use as combination therapy in the management of Type 2 diabetes mellitus in the EU. Drugs 72(2), 229-248 (2012).
62. Haiyan Li, Li Y, Conrad K P, Tou GP, June ZS. Pharmacokinetic study of saxagliptin in healthy Chinese subjects. Clin. Drug Investig. 32(7), 465-473 (2012).
63. Eckhardt M, Langkopf E, Mark M et al. 8-(3-(R)-Aminopiperidin-1-yl)-7- but-2-ynyl-3-methyl-1-(4-methyl-quinazolin-2-ylmethyl)-3, 7-dihydropurine-2, 6-dione (BI 1356), a highly potent, selective, long-Acting, and orally bioavailable DPP-4 inhibitor for the treatment of Type 2 diabetes. J. Med. Chem. 50(26), 6450-6453 (2007).
64. Blech S, Ludwig-Schwellinger E, Crafe-Mody EU et al. The metabolism and disposition of the oral dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor, Linagliptin, in humans. Drug Metab. Dispos. 38, 667-678 (2010).
65. Neumiller J. Pharmacolgy, effcacy, and safety of Linagliptin for the treatment of Type 2 diabetes. Ann. Pharmacother. 46(3), 358-367 (2012).
66. Neumiller JJ, Setter SM. Review of Linagliptin for the treatment of Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Clin. Ther. 34(5), 993-1005 (2012).
67. Tahrani AA, Piya M, Barnett AH. Drug evaluation. Vildagliptin-metformin single-tablet combination. Advances Therapeutics 26(2), 138-154 (2009).
68. Feng J, Zhang Z, Wallace MB et al. Discovery of alogliptin; a potent, selective, bioavailable, and effcacious inhibitor of dipeptidyl peptidase. J. Med. Chem. 50(10), 2297-2300 (2007).
69. Russell-Jones D, Gough S. Recent advances in incretin-based therapies. Clin. Endocrinol. 77(4), 489-499 (2012).
70. Cooper GJ, Willis AC, Clark A, Turner RC, Sim RB, Reid KB. Purifcation and characterization of a peptide from amyloid-rich pancreases of Type 2 diabetic patients. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 8(23), 8628-8632 (1987).
71. Ryan GJ, Jobe LJ, Martin R. Pramlintide in the treatment of Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Clin. Ther. 27, 1500-1512 (2005).
72. Sasahara K, Hall D, Hamada D. Effect of lipid type on the binding of lipid vesicles to IAPP amyloid fbrils. Biochemistry 49, 3040-3048 (2010).
73. Nilsson MR, Nguyen LL, Raleigh DP. Synthesis and purifcation of amyloidogenic peptides. Anal. Biochem. 288(1), 76-82 (2001).
74. Adeghate E, Kalasz H. Amylin analogues in the treatment of diabetes mellitus: medicinal chemistry and structural basis of its function. Open Med. Chem. J. 5, 78-81 (2011).
75. Nanga R P, Brender JR, Xu J, Veglia G. Structures of rat and human islet amyloid polypeptide IAPP(I-19) in micelles by NMR spectroscopy. Biochemistry 47(48), 12689-12697 (2008).
76. Ryan GJ, Jobe LJ, Martin R. Pramlintide in the treatment of Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Clin. Ther. 27 (10), 1500-1512 (2005).
77. Steve MH, Wilhelm K. Pramlintide in the treatment of diabetes mellitus. BioDrugs 22(6), 375-386 (2008).
78. Riddle M, Frias J, Zhang B, et al. Pramlintide improved glycemic control and reduced weight in patients with Type 2 diabetes using basal insulin. Diabetes Care 30(11), 2794-2799 (2007).
79. Younk LM, Mikeladze M, Davis SN. Pramlintide and the treatment of diabetes: a review of the data since its introduction. Expert Opin. Pharmacother. 12(9), 1439-1451 (2011).
80. Nain S, Bansal N. Antidiabetic drugs for the treatment of diabetes: a review. Asian J. Biochem Pharm. Res. 2(2), 148-153 (2012).
81. Chao EC, Henry RR. SGLT2 inhibition: a novel strategy for diabetes treatment. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 9 (7), 551-559 (2010).
82. Ghosh RK, Ghosh SM, Chawla SC, Jasdanwala SA. SGLT2 inhibitors: a new emerging therapeutic class in the treatment of Type 2 diabetes mellitus. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 52(4), 457-461 (2012).
83. Anderson SL, Marrs JC. Dapaglifozin for the treatment of Type 2 diabetes Ann. Pharmacother. 46(4), 590-598 (2012).
84. Komala MG, Panchapakesan U, Pollock C, Mather A. Sodium glucose co-transporter 2 and the diabetic kidney. Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens. 22(1), 113-119 (2013).
85. Paisley AJ, Yadav R, Younis N, Rao-Balakrishna P, Soran H.Dapaglifozin: a review on effcacy, clinical effectiveness and safety. Expert Opin. Investig. Drugs 22(1), 131-140 (2013).
86. Kanwal A, Banerjee SK. SGLT inhibitors: a novel target for diabetes. Pharm. Pat. Analyst 2(1), 77-91 (2013).
87. Yao CH, Song JS, Chen CT et al. Synthesis and biological evaluation of novel C-indolylxylosides as sodium-dependent glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors. Eur. J. Med. Chem. 55, 32-38 (2012).
88. Ling A, Plewe M, Gonzalez J et al. Human glucagon receptor antagonists based on alkylidene hydrazides. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 12, 663-666 (2002).
89. Chang LL, Sidler K, Cascieri M et al. Substituted imidazoles as glucagon receptor antagonists. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 11, 2549-2553 (2001).
90. de Laszlo SE, Hacker C, Li B et al. Potent, orally absorbed glucagon receptor antagonists. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 9, 641-646 (1999).
91. Duffy JL, Kirk BA, Konteatis Z et a1. Discovery and investigation of a novel class of thiophene-derived antagonists of the human glucagon receptor. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 15, 1401-1405 (2005).
92. Kurukulasuriya R, Sorensen B, Link J et al. Biaryl amide glucagon receptor antagonists. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 14, 2047-2050 (2004).
93. Ladouceur GH, Cook J, Hertzog D et al. Integration of optimized substituent patterns to produce highly potent 4-Aryl-pyridine glucagon receptor antagonists. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 12, 3421-3424 (2002).
94. Liang R, Abrardo L, Brady E et al. Design and synthesis of conformationally constrained tri-substituted ureas as potent antagonists of the human glucagon receptor. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 17, 587-592 (2007).
95. Ling A, Hong Y, Gonzalez J et al. Identifcation of alkylidene hydrazides as glucagon receptor antagonists. J. Med. Chem. 44, 3141-3149 (2001).
96. Pal M. Protein-tyrosine-phosphatase 1B inhibitors (PTB1BI). Curr. Med. Chem. 16(29), 3858-3874 (2009).
97. Montalibet J, Kennedy BP. Therapeutic strategies for targeting PTBIB in diabetes. Drug Discov. Today 2, 129-135 (2005).
98. Rotella DP. Novel second-generation approaches for the control of Type 2 diabetes. J. Med. Chem. 47, 4111-4112 (2004).
99. Hooft van Huijduijnen R, Bombrun A, Swinnen D. Selecting protein tyrosine phosphatases as drug targets. Drug Discov. To d a y 7, 1013-1019 (2002).
100. Chen ZH, Sun LP, Zhang W et al. Synthesis and biological evaluation of heterocyclic ring-substituted chalcone derivatives as novel inhibitors of protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B. Bull. Korean Chem. Soc. 33 (5), 1505-1508 (2012).
101. Navarrete-Vazquez G, Ramirez-Martinez M, Estrada-Soto S et al. Synthesis, in vitro and in silico screening of ethyl 2-(6-substituted benzo[D]thiazol-2- ylamino)-2-oxoacetates as protein-tyrosine phosphatase 1B inhibitors. Eur. J. Med. Chem. 53, 346-355 (2012).
102. Zhang S, Liu S, Tao R et al. A highly selective and potent PTP-MEG2 inhibitor with therapeutic potential for Type 2 diabetes. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 134 (43), 18116-18124 (2012).
103. Li WL, Jian C, Luo MH et al. Glycogen phosphorylase inhibitors. Curr. Enzym. Inhib. 7(4), 259-267 (2011).
104. Pereira LL, Pereira CA, de Souza SP, Santos CD. Therapeutic action of white beans by changing the digestion of carbohydrates. J. Nat. Pharm. 3, 9-16 (2012).
105. Etxeberria U, de la Garza AL, Campion J, Martinez JA, Milagro FI. Antidiabetic effects of natural plant extracts via inhibition of carbohydrate hydrolysis enzymes with emphasis on pancreatic alpha amylase. Expert Opin. Ther. Targets 16(3), 269-297 (2012).
106. Yoshikawa Y, Yasui H. Zinc complexes developed as metallo-pharmaceutics for treating diabetes mellitus based on the bio-medicinal inorganic chemistry. Curr. Top. Med. Chem. 12 (3), 210-218 (2012).
107. Thompson KH, Lichter J, LeBel C, Scaife MC, McNeill JH, Orvig C. Vanadium treatment of Type 2 diabetes: a view to the future. J. Inorg. Biochem. 103 (4), 554-558 (2009).
108. Coppari R, Bjorbaek C. Leptin revisited: its mechanism of action and potential for treating diabetes. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 11(9), 692-708 (2012).
109. Kawasaki N, Tanimoto T, Tanaka A. Characterization of aldose reductase and aldehyde reductase from rat testis. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 996(1-2), 30-36 (1989).
110. Stribling D, Perkins C M. Aldose reductase inhibitors. Rec. Adv. Diabetes 2, 169-176 (1986).
111. Jaiswal N, Bhatia V, Srivastava SP, Srivastava AK, Tamrakar A. Antidiabetic effect of Eclipta alba associated with the inhibition of alpha-glucosidase and aldose reductase. Nat. Prod. Res. 26(24), 2363-2367 (2012).
112. Ali S, Saeed A, Abbas N, Shahid M, Bolte M, Iqbal J. Design, synthesis and molecular modeling of novel methyl[4-oxo-2-(aroylimino)-3-(substituted phenyl) thiazolidin-5-ylidene]acetates as potent and selective aldose reductase inhibitors. Med. Chem. Comm. 3(11), 1428-1434 (2012).
113. Pegklidou K, Koukoulitsa C, Nicolaou I, Demopoulos V J. Design and synthesis of novel series of pyrrole based chemotypes and their evaluation as selective aldose reductase inhibitors. A case of bioisosterism between a carboxylic acid moiety and that of a tetrazole. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 18 (6), 2107-2114 (2010).
114. Vo T, Marcus KB. Ranirestat: a selective aldose reductase inhibitor for diabetic sensorimotor polyneuropathy. J. Pharm Technol. 24(6), 340-344 (2008).
115. Pal M. Medicinal chemistry approaches for glucokinase activation to treat Type 2 diabetes. Curr. Med. Chem. 16(29), 3858-3874 (2009).
116. Sayed S, Matschinsky FM, Stanley CA. Hyperinsulinism due to activating mutations of glucokinase. Front. Diabetes 21, 146-157 (2012).
117. Doliba NM, Qin W, Najaf H et al. Glucokinase activation repairs defective bioenergetics of islets of Langerhans isolated from Type 2 diabetics. Am J. Physiol. 302(1), E87-E102 (2012).
118. Matschinsky FM. Research and development of glucokinase activators for diabetes therapy: theoretical and practical aspects. Handb. Exp. Pharmacol. 203, 357-401 (2011).
119. Matschinsky FM, Zelent B, Doliba N et al. Glucokinase activators for diabetes therapy. Diabetes Care 34(2), S236-S243 (2011).
120. Papazafropoulou AK, Kardara MS, Pappas SI. Challenges for the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Recent Pat. Endocr. Metab. Immune Drug Discov. 5(3), 203-209 (2011).
121. Sarabu R, Bizzarro FT, Corbett WL et al. Discovery of piragliatin-frst glucokinase activator studied in Type 2 diabetic patients. J. Med. Chem. 55 (16), 7021-7036 (2012).
122. Hung HY, Qian K, Morris-N, SL, Hsu CS, Lee KH. Recent discovery of plant-derived antidiabetic natural products. Nat. Prod. Rep. 9(5), 580-606 (2012).
123. Brahmachari G. Promising antidiabetic agents of natural origin: an overview. Indian J. Nat. Prod. Resour. 1(1-2), 17-22 (2005).
124. Calway T, Du GJ, Wang C Z, et al. Chemical and pharmacological studies of Oplopanax horridus, a North American botanical. J. Nat. Med. 66(2), 249-256. 126 (2012).
125. Singh J, Cumming E, Manoharan G, Kalasz H, Adeghate E. Medicinal chemistry of the antidiabetic effects of momordica charantia: active constituents and modes of actions. Open Med. Chem. J. 5, 70-77 (2011).
126. Parle M, Singh K. Musk melon is eat-must melon. Int. Res. J. Pharm. 2(8), 52-57 (2011).
127. Baliga MS, Pai RJ, Bhat HP, Palatty PL, Boloor R. Chemistry and medicinal properties of the Bakul (Mimusops elengi Linn). Food Res. Int. 44(7), 1823-1829 (2011).
128. Kumar T, Chandrashekar KS, Bauhinia PL. A review of its ethnobotany, phytochemical and pharmacological profle. J. Med. Plant Res. 5(4), 420-431 (2011).
129. Madhava NM, Srinivas P. Edited by Awaad AS, Singh VK, Govil JN, Butea ML. Chemistry, medicinal properties and technological aspects. Recent Prog. Med. Plants 28, 363-385 (2010).
130. Tooley JE, Waldron-Lynch F, Herold KC. New and future immunomodulatory therapy in Type 1 diabetes. Trends Mol. Med. 18 (3), 173-181 (2012).
131. Karadimos MJ, Kapoor A, El Khattabi I, Sharma A. b-cell preservation and regeneration for diabetes treatment: where are we now? Diabetes Manag. 2(3), 213-222 (2012).
132. Ruan Q, Wang T, Kameswaran V et al. The microRNA-21-PDCD4 axis prevents Type 1 diabetes by blocking pancreatic b cell death. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 108(29), 12030-12035 (2012).
133. Sivakumar R, Pradeepchandran R, Jayaveera K N, Kumarnallasivan P, Vijaianand P R, Venkatnarayanan R. Benzimidazole: an attractive pharmacophore in medicinal chemistry. Int. J. Pharm. Res. 3(3), 19-31 (2011).
134. Walia R, Hedaitullah MD, Naaz S F, Iqbal K, Lamba H S. Benzimidazole derivatives an overvie w. Int. J. Res. Pharm. Chem. 1(3), 565-574 (2011).
135. Shaaban MR, Mayhoub AS, Farag AM. Recent advances in the therapeutic applications of pyrazolines. Expert Opin. Ther. Pat. 22(3), 253-291 (2012).
136. Singh, AK, Sahu VK, Yadav D. Biological activities of 2, 5-di-substituted-1, 3, 4-oxadiazoles. Int. J. Pharma. Sci. Res. 2(6), 135-147 (2011).
137. McCoull W, Addie MS, Birch AM et al. Identifcation, optimization and in vivo evaluation of oxadiazole DGAT-1 inhibitors for the treatment of obesity and diabetes. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 22(12), 3873-3878 (2012).
138. Birendra B, Rakesh Bachwani, Mukesh K, Rakhi A, Jyoti S, Vandana S. Exploring potential of 1, 2, 4-triazole: a brief review. Pharmacol. Online Newslett. 1192-1222 (2011).
139. Roy A, Bhanwase AS, Patil TD. Synthesis and evaluation of some novel 5-[4-(substituted) benzylidene]-2, 4 thiazolidinediones as oral antihyperglycemic agents. Res. J. Pharm. Biol. Chem. Sci. 3(3), 452-464 (2012).