Masked mycotoxins: A review

Molecular Nutrition and Food Research

Volumn 57, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 165-186

  Berthiller, Franz ^a   Crews, Colin ^b   Dall'Asta, Chiara ^c   Saeger, Sarah De ^d   Haesaert, Geert ^e   Karlovsky, Petr ^f   Oswald, Isabelle P ^g   Seefelder, Walburga ^h   Speijers, Gerrit ⁱ   Stroka, Joerg ^j  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND LIFE SCIENCES   (Austria)

^b FOOD AND ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH AGENCY   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY OF PARMA   (Italy)

^d GHENT UNIVERSITY   (Belgium)

^e University College of Ghent   (Belgium)

^f UNIVERSITY OF GÖTTINGEN   (Germany)

^g TOXALIM RESEARCH CENTRE IN FOOD TOXICOLOGY   (France)

^h NESTLÉ RESEARCH CENTER   (Switzerland)

ⁱ General Health Effects Toxicology Safety Food (GETS)   (Netherlands)

^j JOINT RESEARCH CENTRE   (Italy)

more..

Author keywords

Bound Mycotoxins; Conjugated Mycotoxins; Masked Mycotoxins; Plant Metabolism

Indexed keywords

ANIMALIA; FUNGI; FUSARIUM; MAMMALIA;

EID: 84872161219     PISSN: 16134125     EISSN: 16134133     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.201100764     Document Type: Review

References (159)

1. Lawley, L., Curtis, L., Davis, J., The Food Safety Hazard Guidebook. Royal Society of Chemistry, RSC Publishing, Cambridge, UK 2008.
2. Riemann, H. P., Cliver, D. O., Foodborne Infections and Intoxications. Elsevier Academic Press, Amsterdam, NL 2006.
3. Murphy, P. A., Hendrich, S., Landgren, C., Bryant, C. M., Food mycotoxins: an update. J. Food Sci. 2006, 71, 51-65.
4. Mattsson, J. L., Mixtures in the real world: the importance of plant self-defense toxicants, mycotoxins, and the human diet. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2007, 223, 125-132.
5. Van Egmond, H. P., Speijers, G. J. A., in: van der Heijden, K., Younes, M., Fishbein, L., Miller S. (Eds.), International Food Safety Handbook, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1999, pp. 341-356.
6. Bhat, R., Rai, R. V., Karim, A. A., Mycotoxins in food and feed: present status and future concerns. Com. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2010, 9, 57-81.
7. Gareis, M., Bauer, J., Thiem, J., Plank, G. et al., Cleavage of zearalenone-glycoside, a masked mycotoxin, during digestion in swine. J. Vet. Med. B 1990, 37, 236-240.
8. Berthiller F., Schuhmacher, R., Adam, G., Krska, R., Formation, determination and significance of masked and other conjugated mycotoxins. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2009, 395, 1243-1252.
9. Coleman, J., Blake-Kalff, M., Davies, E., Detoxification of xenobiotics by plants; chemical modification and vacuolar compartmentation. Trends Plant Sci. 1997, 2, 144-1251.
10. Cole, D. J., Edwards, R., in: Roberts T. (Ed.): Metabolism of Agrochemicals in Plants, Wiley, New York 2000, pp. 107-154.
11. Bowles, D., Lim, E. K., Poppenberger, B., Vaistij, F., Glycosyltransfereases of lipopholic small molecules. Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 2006, 57, 567-597.
12. Bartholomew, D., Van Dyk, D., Lau, S. M., O'Keefe, D. et al., Alternate energy-dependent pathways for the vacuolar uptake of glucose and glutathione conjugates. Plant Physiol. 2002, 130, 1562-1572.
13. Brazier, M., Cole, D. J., Edwards, R., O-glucosyltransferase activities towards phenolic natural products and xenobiotics in wheat and herbicide-resistant and herbicide-susceptible black-grass (Alopecurus myosuroides). Phytochemistry 2002, 59, 149-156.
14. Brazier, M., Cole, D. J., Edwards, R., Partial purification and characterization of a 2, 4, 5-trichlorophenol detoxifying O-glucosylferase from wheat. Phytochemistry 2003, 64, 419-424.
15. Pflugmacher, S., Sandermann, H., Taxonomic distribution of plant glucosyltransferases acting on xenobiotics. Phytochemistry 1998, 49, 507-511.
16. Poppenberger, B., Berthiller, F., Bachmann, H., Lucyshyn, D. et al., Heterologous expression of Arabidopsis UDP-glucosyltransferases in Saccharomyces cerevisiae for production of zearalenone-4-O-glucoside. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2006, 72, 4404-4410.
17. Jones, P., Messner, B., Nakajima, J. I., Schaffner, A. R., Saito, K., UGT73C6 and UGT78D1 glycosyltransferases involved in flavonol glycoside biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana. J. Biol. Chem. 2003, 278, 43910-43918.
18. Dixon, D. P., Cummins, L., Cole, D. J., Edwards, R., Glutathione-mediated detoxification systems in plants. Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. 1998, 1, 258-266.
19. Cummins, I., Dixon, D. P., Freitag-Pohl, S., Skipsey, M. et al., Multiple roles for plant glutathione transferases in xenobiotic detoxification. Drug Metab. Rev. 2011, 43, 266-280.
20. Lyubenova, L., Götz, C., Golan-Goldhirsh, A., Schröder, P., Direct effect of Cd on glutathione S-transferase and Glutathione reductase from Calystegia sepium. Int. J. Phytoremediation 2007, 9, 465-473.
21. Holt, D. C., Lay, V. J., Clarke, E. D., Dinsmore, A. et al., Characterization of the safener-induced glutathione S-transferase isoform II from maize. Planta 1995, 196, 295-302.
22. 1. Pharmacol. Ther. 1991, 50, 443-472.
23. Foster, P. M. D., Slater, T. F., Patterson, D. S. P., A possible enzymic assay for trichothecene mycotoxins in animal feedstuffs. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 1975, 3, 875-878.
24. Subramanian, V., DNA shuffling to produce nucleic acids for mycotoxin detoxification. U.S. Patent 6.500.639, 2002.
25. Gardiner, S. A., Boddu, J., Berthiller, F., Hametner, C. et al., Transcriptome analysis of the barley-deoxynivalenol interaction: evidence for a role of glutathione in deoxynivalenol detoxification. Mol. Plant Microbe Interact. 2010, 23, 962-976.
26. He, J., Zhou, T., Young, J. C., Bolland, G. J. et al., Chemical and biological transformations of trichothecene mycotoxins in human and animal food chains: a review. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2010, 21, 67-76.
27. Zinedine, A., Soriano, J. M., Molto, J. C., Mañes, J., Review on the toxicity, occurrence, metabolism, detoxification, regulations and intake of zearalenone: an oestrogenic mycotoxin. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2007, 45, 1-8.
28. Schröder, P., Scheer, C. E., Diekmann, F., Stampfl, A., How plants cope with foreign compounds. translocation of xenobiotic glutathione conjugates in roots of barley (Hordeum vulgare). Environ. Sci. Pollution Res. 2007, 14, 114-122.
29. Wolf, A. E., Dietz, K. J., Schröder, P., A carboxypeptidase degrades glutathione conjugates in the vacuoles of higher plants. FEBS Lett. 1996, 384, 31-34.
30. Lamoureux, G. L., Rusness, D. G., Schröder, P., 1993, Metabolism of a diphenyl-ether herbicide to a volatile thioanisole and a polar sulfonic acid metabolite in spruce (Picea). Pesticide Biochem. Physiol. 1993, 47, 8-20.
31. Lemmens, M., Scholtz, U., Berthiller, F., Dall'Asta, C. et al., The ability to detoxify the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol colocalizes with a major QTL for Fusarium head blight resistance in wheat. Mol. Plant Microbe Interact. 2005, 18, 1318-1324.
32. Lemmens, M., Fusarium head blight in wheat: breeding for resistance and the consequences for the (masked) mycotoxin content in the grain. Proceedings of 4th International symposium on mycotoxins: challenges and Perspectives, Ghent University Association, Ghent, Belgium, 2011, 73-83.
33. Schweiger, W., Boddu, J., Shin, S., Poppenberger, B. et al., Validation of a candidate deoxynivalenol-inactivating UDP-glucosyltransferase from barley by heterologous expression in yeast. Mol. Plant Microbe. Interact. 2010, 7, 977-986.
34. Boddu, J., Cho, S., Kruger, W. M., Muehlbauer, G. J., Transcriptome analysis of the barley-Fusarium graminearum interaction. Mol. Plant Microbe. Interact. 2006, 19, 407-417.
35. Boddu, J., Cho, S. H., Muehlbauer, G. J., Transcriptome analysis of trichothecene- induced gene expression in barley. Mol. Plant Microbe. Interact. 2007, 20, 1364-1375.
36. Sewald, N., Lepschy von Gleissenthall, J., Schuster, M., Müller, G. et al., Structure elucidation of a plant metabolite of 4-desoxynivalenol. Tetrahedron Asymmetry 1992, 3, 953-960.
37. Berthiller, F., Dall'Asta, C., Schuhmacher, R., Lemmens, M. et al., Masked mycotoxins: determination of a deoxynivalenol glucoside in artificially and naturally contaminated wheat by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2005, 53, 3421-3425.
38. Poppenberger, B., Berthiller, F., Lucyshyn, D., Sieberer, T. et al., Detoxification of the Fusarium mycotoxin deoxynivalenol by a UDP-glycosyl transferase from Arabidopsis thaliana. J. Biol. Chem. 2003, 278, 47905-47914.
39. Miller, J., Greenhalgh, R., in: Hedin, P., Menn, J., Hollingworth, R. (Eds.), Biotechnology for Crop protection. Am. Soc. Ser. 1988, 379, pp. 117-129.
40. Boutigny, A.-L., Richard-Forget, F., Barreau, C., Natural mechanisms for cereal resistance to the accumulation of Fusarium trichothecenes. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 2008, 121, 411-423.
41. Karlovsky, P., Biological detoxification of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol and its use in genetically engineered crops and feed additives. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2011, 91, 491-504.
42. Sasanya, J. J., Hall, C., Wolf-Hall, C., Analysis of deoxynivalenol, masked deoxynivalenol, and Fusarium graminearum pigment in wheat samples, using liquid chromatography-UV-mass spectrometry. J. Food Prot. 2008, 71, 1205-1213.
43. Berthiller, F., Dall'Asta, C., Corradini, R., Marchelli, R. et al., Occurrence of deoxynivalenol and its 3-β-D-glucoside in wheat and maize. Food Addit. Contam. A 2009. 26, 507-511.
44. Desmarchelier, A., Seefelder, W., Survey of deoxynivalenol and deoxynivalenol-3- glucoside in cereal-based products by liquid chromatography electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry. W. Mycotox. J. 2011, 4, 29-35.
45. Lancova, K., Hajšlová, J., Poustka, J., Krplova, A. et al., Transfer of Fusarium mycotoxins and 'masked' deoxynivalenol (deoxynivalenol-3- glucoside) from field barley through malt to beer. Food Addit. Contam. A 2008, 25, 732-744.
46. Kostelanska, M., Hajšlová, J., Zachariasova, M., Malachova, A. et al., Occurrence of deoxynivalenol and its major conjugate, deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside, in beer and some brewing intermediates. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2009, 57, 3187-3194.
47. De Boevre, M., Di Mavungu, J. D., Maene, P., Audenaert, K. et al., Development and validation of an LC-MS/MS method for the simultaneous determination of deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, T-2-toxin and some masked metabolites in different cereals and cereal-derived food. Food Addit. Contam. 2012, 23, 819-835.
48. Vendl, O., Crews, C., MacDonald, S., Krska, R. et al., Occurrence of free and conjugated Fusarium mycotoxins in cereal-based food. Food Addit. Contam. A 2010, 27, 1148-1152.
49. Malachova, A., Dzuman, Z., Veprikova, Z., Vaclavikova, M. et al., Deoxynivalenol, deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside, and enniatins: the major mycotoxins found in cereal-based products on the Czech market. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2011, 59, 12990-12997.
50. Li, F.-A., Yu, C.-C., Shao, B., Wang, W., Yu, H.-X., Natural occurrence of masked deoxynivalenol and multi-mycotoxins in cereals from China harvested in 2007 and 2008. Chin. J. Prev. Med. 2011, 45, 57-63.
51. Zachariasova, M., Cajka, T., Godula, M., Kostelanska, M. et al., The benefits of Orbitrap high resolution mass spectrometry for free and masked mycotoxins in malt and beer. Fourth International Symposium on Recent Advances in Food Analysis, ICT Prague, CZ, November 4th-6th, 2009.
52. Zhou, B., He, G. Q., Schwarz, P. B., Occurrence of bound deoxynivalenol in Fusarium head blight-infected barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and malt as determined by solvo-lysis with trifluoroacetic acid. J. Food Prot. 2008, 71, 1266-1269.
53. Tran, S. T., Smith, T. K., Determination of optimal conditions for hydrolysis of conjugated deoxynivalenol in corn and wheat with trifluoromethanesulfonic acid. Ani. Feed Sci. Technol. 2011, 163, 84-92.
54. Tran, S. T., Smith, T. K., Girgis, G. N., A survey of free and conjugated deoxynivalenol in the 2008 corn crop in Ontario, Canada. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2011, 92, 37-41.
55. Nakagawa, H., Ohmichi, K., Sakamoto, S., Sago, Y. et al., Detection of a new Fusarium masked mycotoxin in wheat grain by high-resolution LC-Orbitrap MS. Food Addit. Contam. A 2011, 28, 1447-1456.
56. Busman, M., Poling, S. M., Maragos, C. M., Observation of T-2 Toxin and HT-2 Toxin glucosides from Fusarium sporotrichioides by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Toxins 2011, 3, 1554-1568.
57. Jarvis, B. B., Mokhtarirejali, N., Schenkel, E. P., Barros, C. S. et al., Trichothecene mycotoxins from Brazilian Baccharis species. Phytochemistry 1991, 30, 789-797.
58. Rosso, L., Maier, M. S., Bertoni, M. D., Trichothecenes production by the Hypocrealean epibiont of Baccharis coridifolia. Plant Biol. 2000, 2, 684-686.
59. Chakrabarti, D. K., Ghosal, S., Occurrence of free and conjugated 12, 13- epoxytrichothecenes and zearalenone in banana fruits infected with Fusarium moniliforme. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1986, 51, 217-219.
60. Mirocha, C. J., Abbas, H. K., Vesonder, R. F., Absence of trichothecenes in toxigenic isolates of Fusarium moniliforme. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1990, 56, 520-525.
61. Ghosal, S., Chakrabarti, D. K., Srivastava, A. K., Srivastava, R. S., Toxic 12, 13- epoxytrichothecenes from anise fruits infected with Trichothecium roseum. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1982, 30, 106-109.
62. Engelhardt, G., Zill, G., Wohner, B., Wallnoefer, P. R., Transformation of the Fusarium mycotoxin zearalenone in maize cell suspension cultures. Naturwissenschaften 1988, 75, 309-310.
63. Berthiller, F., Werner, U., Sulyok, M., Krska, R. et al., Liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) determination of phase II metabolites of the mycotoxin zearalenone in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Food Addit. Contam. 2006, 23, 1194-1200.
64. Schneweis, I., Meyer, K., Engelhardt, G., Bauer, J., Occurrence of zearalenone-4- beta-D-glucopyranoside in wheat. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2002, 50, 1736-1738.
65. Kim, E. K., Scott, P. M., Lau, B. P., Hidden fumonisin in corn flakes. Food Addit. Contam. 2003, 20, 161-169.
66. Park, J. W., Scott, P. M., Lau, B. P., Lewis, D. A., Analysis of heat processed corn foods for fumonisins and bound fumonisins. Food Addit. Contam. 2004, 21, 1168-1178.
67. Dall'Asta, C., Galaverna, G., Aureli, G., Dossena, A. et al., A LC-MS/MS method for the simultaneous quantification of free and masked fumonisins in maize and maize-based products. W. Mycotox. J. 2008, 1, 237-246.
68. Dall'Asta, C., Galaverna, G., Mangia, M., Sforza, S. et al., Free and bound fumonisins in gluten-free food products. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2009, 53, 492-499.
69. Dall'Asta, C., Mangia, M., Berthiller, F., Molinelli, A. et al., Difficulties in fumonisin determination: the issue of hidden fumonisins. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2009, 395, 1335-1345.
70. 1: implications for food safety. J. Nat. Tox. 1997, 6, 225-242.
71. Shier, W. T., Abbas, H. K., Current issues in research on fumonisins, mycotoxins which may cause nephropathy. J. Toxicol. 1999, 18, 323-335.
72. Resch, P., Shier, W. T., The fate of fumonisin during thermal food processing. Lebensmittelchemie 2000, 54, 31-44.
73. 1, a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium moniliforme. J. Toxicol. 2000, 19, 161-187.
74. 1 glyco and amino acid conjugates by liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2003, 51, 5567-5573.
75. Humpf, H.-U., Voss, K. A., Effects of food processing on the chemical structure and toxicity of fumonisin mycotoxins. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2004, 48, 255-269.
76. 2 from white rice flour and their stability in white rice flour, cornstarch, cornmeal, and glucose. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2002, 50, 3614-3620.
77. Dall'Asta, C., Falavigna, C., Galaverna, G., Dossena, A., Marchelli, R., In vitro digestion assay for determination of hidden fumonisins in maize. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010, 58, 12042-12047.
78. 1 in corn flakes. Mycotox. Res. 2007, 23, 166-172.
79. Motta, E. L., Scott, P. M., Bioaccessibility of total bound fumonisin from corn flakes. Mycotox. Res. 2009, 25, 229-232.
80. 1 fumonisin isomers from a solid culture of Fusarium verticillioides. Food Addit. Contam. A 2010, 27, 1714-1723.
81. Dall'Asta, C., Falavigna, C., Galaverna, G., Battilani, P., Role of maize hybrids and their chemical composition in Fusarium infection and Fumonisin production. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2012, 60, 3800-3808.
82. Ruhland, M., Engelhardt, G., Schaefer, W., Wallnoefer, P. R., Transformation of the mycotoxin ochratoxin A in plants: 1. Isolation and identification of metabolites formed in cell suspension cultures of wheat and maize. Nat. Tox. 1996, 4, 254-260.
83. Ruhland, M., Engelhardt, G., Wallnoefer, P. R., Transformation of the mycotoxin ochratoxin A in plants. 2. Time course and rates of degradation and metabolite production in cell-suspension cultures of different crop plants. Mycopathol. 1996, 134, 97-102.
84. Ruhland, M., Engelhardt, G., Wallnoefer, P. R., Transformation of the mycotoxin ochratoxin A in artificially contaminated vegetables and cereals. Mycotox. Res. 1997, 13, 54-60.
85. Baert, K., De Meulenaer, B., Kasase, C., Huyghebaert, A. et al., Free and bound patulin in cloudy apple juice. Food Chem. 2007, 100, 1278-1282.
86. Bissessur, J., Permaul, K., Odhav, B., Reduction of patulin during apple juice clarification. J. Food Prot. 2001, 64, 1216-1219.
87. Fliege, R., Metzler, M., Electrophilic properties of patulin. N-acetylcysteine and glutathione adducts. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 2000, 13, 373-381.
88. Pedras, M. S. C., Zaharia, L. I., Ward, D. E., The destruxins: synthesis, biosynthesis, biotransformation, and biological activity. Phytochemistry 2002, 59, 579-596.
89. Porter, J. K., Bacon, C. W., Wray, E. M., Hagler, W.M. et al., Fusaric acid in Fusarium moniliforme cultures, corn, and feeds toxic to livestock and the neurochemical effects in the brain and pineal gland of rats. Natural Toxins 1995, 3, 91-100.
90. Wang, N. G., Ng, T. B., Pharmacological activities of fusaric acid (5-butylpicolinic acid). Life Sci. 1999, 65, 849-856.
91. Karlovsky, P., biological detoxification of fungal toxins and its use in plant breeding, feed and food production. Nat. Toxins 1999, 7, 1-23.
92. Ruprich, J., Ostry, V., Immunochemical methods in health risk assessment: cross-reactivity of antibodies against mycotoxin deoxynivalenol with deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside. Cent. Eur. J. Pub. Health 2008, 16, 34-37.
93. Hoogenboom, R., Bovee, T., Traag, W., Hoogerbrugge, R. et al., The use of the DR CALUX bioassay and indicator polychlorinated biphenyls for screening of elevated levels of dioxins and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls in eel. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2006, 50, 945-957.
94. Bowens, P., Lancova, K., Dip, R., Povilaityte, V. et al., A new PCR-based bioassay strategy for the detection of type A trichothecenes in food. Analyst 2009, 134, 939-944.
95. Royal Society of Chemistry, RSC Food Analysis Monographs - Extraction of Organic Analytes from Foods - A Manual of Methods, RSC publishing, Cambridge, UK 2005.
96. Kos, G., Lohninger, H., Krska, R., Fourier transform mid-infrared spectroscopy with attenuated total reflection (FT-IR/ATR) as a tool for the detection of Fusarium fungi on maize. Vib. Spectrosc. 2002, 29, 115-119.
97. Sewram, V., Shephard, G. S., Marasas, W. F. O., Penteado, M., de Castro, M. F., Improving extraction of Fumonisin mycotoxins from Brazilian corn-based infant foods. J. Food Prot. 2003, 66, 854-859.
98. Bretz, M., Beyer, B., Cramer, B., Knecht, A., Humpf, H.-U., Thermal degradation of Fusarium mycotoxin deoxynivalenol. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2006, 54, 6445-6451.
99. Kempf, M., Beuerle, T., Bühringer, M., Denner, M. et al., 2008, Pyrrolizidine alkaloids in honey: risk analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2008, 52, 1193-1200.
100. Sulyok, M., Berthiller, F., Krska, R., Schumacher, R., Development and validation of a liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometric method for the determination of 39 mycotoxins in wheat and maize. Rap. Commun. Mass Spectrom. 2006, 20, 2649-2659.
101. Vendl, O., Berthiller, F., Crews, C., Krska, R., Simultaneous determination of deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and their major masked metabolites in cereal-based food by LC-MS/MS. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2009, 395, 1347-1354.
102. Meister, U., Investigations on the change of fumonisin content of maize during hydrothermal treatment of maize. Analysis by means of HPLC methods and ELISA. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 2001, 213, 187-193.
103. Zhou, B., Schwarz, P., He, G. Q., Gillespie, J. et al., Effect of enzyme pretreatments on the determination of deoxynivalenol in barley. J. Am. Soc. Brewing Chem. 2008, 66, 103-108.
104. Liu, Y., Walker, F., Hoeglinger, B., Buchenauer, H., Solvolysis procedures for the determination of bound residues of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol in Fusarium species infected grain of two winter wheat cultivars preinfected with barley yellow dwarf virus. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2005, 53, 6864-6869.
105. Lin, L., Zhang, J., Wang, P., Wang, Y., Chen, J., Thin-layer chromatography of mycotoxins and comparison with other chromatographic methods. J. Chromatogr. A 1998, 815, 3-20.
106. Krska, R., Baumgartner, S., Josephs, R., The state-of-the-art in the analysis of type-A and -B trichothecene mycotoxins in cereals. Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 2001, 371, 285-299.
107. Krska, R., Josephs, R., The state-of-the-art in the analysis of estrogenic mycotoxins in cereals. Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 2001, 369, 469-476.
108. Turner, N. W., Subrahmanyam, S., Piletsky, S. A., Analytical methods for determination of mycotoxins: a review. Anal. Chim. Acta 2009, 632, 168-180.
109. 1 by Fusarium moniliforme NRRL 13616 in submerged culture. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1990, 56, 2296-2298.
110. Sano, A., Matsutani, S., High-performance liquid chromatographic method for determining trichothecene mycotoxins by post-column fluorescence derivatization. J. Chromatogr. 1987, 410, 427-436.
111. Cirlini, M., Dall'Asta, C., Galaverna, G., Hyphenated chromatographic techniques for structural characterization and determination of masked mycotoxins. J. Chromatogr. A 2012, 1255, 145-152.
112. Shephard, G. S., Berthiller, F., Burdaspal, P., Crews, C. et al., Developments in mycotoxin analysis: an update for 2009-2010. W. Mycotox. J. 2011, 4, 3-28.
113. Goryacheva, I. Y., De Saeger, S., in: De Saeger, S. (Ed.), Determining Mycotoxins and Mycotoxigenic Fungi in Food and Feed. Woodhead Publishing Limited, Cambridge 2011, pp. 135-167.
114. Köppen, R., Koch, M., Siegel, D., Merkel, S. et al., Determination of mycotoxins in foods: current state of analytical methods and limitations. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2010, 86, 1595-1612.
115. Lupo, A., Roebuck, C., Settimo, K., Quain, A. et al., Validation study of a rapid ELISA for detection of deoxynivalenol in wheat, barley, malted barley, corn, oats, and rice. J. AOAC Int. 2010, 93, 600-610.
116. Maragos, C. M., McCormick, S. P., Monoclonal antibodies for the mycotoxins deoxynivalenol and 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol. Food Agric. Immunol. 2000, 12, 181-192.
117. Burmistrova, N. A., Goryacheva, I. Y., Basova, E. Y., Franki, A.-S. et al., Application of a new anti-zearalenone monoclonal antibody in different immunoassay formats. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2009, 395, 1301-1307.
118. Visconti, A., De Girolamo, A., Fitness for purpose - ochratoxin A analytical developments. Food Addit. Contam. 2005, 22, Suppl. 1, 37-44.
119. 1 in cereals. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2000, 48, 2821-2825.
120. Baumgartner, S., Führer, M., Krska, R., Comparison of monoclonal antibody performance characteristics for the detection of two representatives of A- and B-trichothecenes: T-2 toxin and deoxynivalenol. W. Mycotox. J. 2010, 3, 233-238.
121. Li, P., Zhang, Q., Zhang, W., Zhang, J. et al., Development of a class-specific monoclonal antibody-based ELISA for aflatoxins in peanut. Food Chem. 2009, 115, 313-317.
122. Goryacheva, I. Y., Karagusheva, M. A., Van Peteghem, C., Sibanda, L. et al., Gel-based immunoassay for non-instrumental screening of aflatoxin M1 in milk. Food Control 2009, 20, 802-806.
123. Kadota, T., Takezawa, Y., Hirano, S., Tajima, O. et al., Rapid detection of nivalenol and deoxynivalenol in wheat using surface plasmon resonance immunoassay. Anal. Chim. Acta 2010, 673, 173-178.
124. Tangni, E. K., Motte, J. C., Callebaut, A., Pussemier, L., Cross-reactivity of antibodies in some commercial deoxynivalenol test kits against some fusariotoxins. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010, 58, 12625-12633.
125. Veršilovskis, A., Huybrecht, B., Tangni, E. K., Pussemier, L. et al., Crossreactivity of some commercially available deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) immunoaffinity columns to DON- and ZEN-conjugated forms and metabolites. Food Addit. Contam. A 2011, 28, 1687-1693.
126. Zachariasova, M., Hajšlová, J., Kostelanska, M., Poustka, J. et al., Deoxynivalenol and its conjugates in beer: a critical assessment of data obtained by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. Anal. Chim. Acta 2008, 625, 77-86.
127. Kolosova, A. Y., Sibanda, L., Dumoulin, F., Lewis, J. et al., Lateral-flow colloidal gold-based immunoassay for the rapid detection of deoxynivalenol with two indicator ranges. Anal. Chim. Acta 2008, 616, 235-244.
128. Grabley, S., Gareis, M., Bockers, W., Thiem, J., Glycosylation of mycotoxins. Synthesis 1992, 11, 1078-1080.
129. Berthiller, F., Hametner, C., Krenn, P., Schweiger, W. et al., Preparation and characterization of the conjugated Fusarium mycotoxins zearalenone-4O-beta-D-glucopyranoside, alpha-zearalenol-4O-beta-D-glucopyranoside and beta-zearalenol-4O-beta-D-glucopyranoside by MS/MS and two-dimensional NMR. Food Addit. Contam. A 2009, 26, 207-213.
130. JECFA, in: Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committeee on Food Additives (Ed.), Safety Evaluation of Certain Food Additives and Contaminants, WHO/FAO Food Additives Series 44, WHO, Geneva 2000.
131. Berthiller, F., Krska, R., Domig, K. J., Kneifel, W. et al., Hydrolytic fate of deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside during digestion. Toxicol. Lett. 2011, 206, 264-267.
132. Berthiller, F., Adam, G., Schuhmacher, R., Krska, R., in: Häubl, G., Berthiller, F., Hörmann, R. (Eds.), Book of Abstracts: Worldwide Mycotoxin Reduction in Food and Feed Chains, ISM Conference, BOKU, Vienna, Austria 2009, pp. 82.
133. Chatterlee, K., Pavlovsky, R. J., Treeful, L., Mirocha, C. J., Metabolism of different trichothecenes in mammals. J. Food Saf. 2007, 8, 25-34.
134. Pestka, J. J., Toxicological mechanisms and potential health effects of deoxynivalenol and nivalenol. W. Mycotox. J. 2010, 3, 323-347.
135. JECFA, in: Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committeee on Food Additives (Ed.), Safety Evaluation of Certain Food Additives and Contaminants. WHO/FAO Food additives Series, 47, WHO, Geneva 2001.
136. Enongene, E. N., Sharma, R. P., Voss, K. A., Riley, R. T., Subcutaneous fumonisin sphingolipid metabolism in mouse digestive epithelium, liver and kidney. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2000, 38, 793-799.
137. JECFA, in: Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committeee on Food Additives (Ed.), Safety Evaluation of Certain Food Additives and Contaminants. WHO/FAO Food additives Series, 47, WHO, Geneva 2001, pp. 281-415.
138. Ringot, D., Changa, A., Schneider, V. C., Larondelle, Y., Toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of ochratoxin A: an update. Chem. Biol. Interact. 2006, 159, 18-46.
139. Hagelberg, S., Hult, K., Fuchs, R., Toxicokinetics of ochratoxin A in several species and its plasma-binding properties. J. Appl. Toxicol. 1989, 9, 91-96.
140. Stanbury, P. F., Whitaker, A., Hall, S. J., Principles of Fermentation Technology, 2nd Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK 1999.
141. Wiebe, M. G., Myco-protein from Fusarium venenatum: a well-established product for human consumption. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2002, 58, 421-427.
142. Hui, Y. H., in: Francis, F.-J. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Food Science and Technology, 2nd Edition, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, USA 1999.
143. Kostelanska, M., Dzuman, Z., Malachova, A., Capouchova, I. et al., Effects of milling and baking technologies on levels of deoxynivalenol and its masked form deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2011, 59, 9303-9312.
144. Simsek, S., Burgess, K., Whitney, K. L., Gu, Y., Qian, S. Y., Analysis of deoxynivalenol and deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside in wheat. Food Control 2012, 26, 287-292.
145. Belitz, H.-D., Grosch, W., Schieberle, P., Lehrbuch der Lebensmittelchemie, 6th Edition, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg 2008.
146. Young, J., Fulcher, R., Hayhoe, J., Scott, P. M., Dexter, J., Effect of milling and baking on deoxynivalenol (vomitoxin) content of eastern Canadian wheats. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1984, 32, 659-664.
147. Bigelis, R., in: Nagodawithana, T., Reed, G. (Eds.), Enzymes in Food Processing, 3rd Edition, Academic Press Inc., San Diego, CA 1993.
148. Hebeda, R.-E., in: Nagodawithana, T., Reed, G. (Eds.), Enzymes in Food Processing, 3rd Edition, Academic Press Inc., San Diego, CA 1993.
149. Law, B. A., in: Whitehurst, R.-J., Law, B.-A. (Eds.), Enzymes in Food Technology, Sheffield Academic Press Ltd, Sheffield, UK 2002.
150. Mounjouenpou, P., Gueule, D., Fontana-Tachon, A., Guyot, B. et al., Filamentous fungi producing ochratoxin a during cocoa processing in Cameroon. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2008, 121, 234-241.
151. Suarez-Quiroz, M., Gonzalez-Rios, O., Barel, M., Guyot, B. et al., Study of ochratoxin A-producing strains in coffee processing. Int. J. Food Sci. Tech. 2004, 39, 501-507.
152. Abrunhosa, L., Paterson, R. R. M., Venâncio, A., Biodegradation of ochratoxin a for food and feed decontamination. Toxins 2010, 2, 1078-1099.
153. European Commission, European Union Register of Feed Additives pursuant to Regulation (EC) No 1831/2003, Appendixes 3b & 4: List of additives (released 26 October 2011) http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/animalnutrition/feedadditives/registeradditives_en.htm
154. JECFA, in: Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committeee on Food Additives (Ed.), WHO Technical Report Series 2011, 959 http://whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/WHO_TRS_959_eng.pdf
155. Codex Alimenatrius Commission, Report of the Fifth Session of the Codex Committee on Contaminants in Foods, The Hague, The Netherlands 2011. Available from http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/report/758/REP11_CFe.pdf
156. Codex Alimenatrius Commission, Agenda Item on Proposed draft maximum levels for deoxynivalenol and its acetylated derivatives in cereals and cereal-based products. 2011, Document identifier CX/CF 11/5/6. ftp://ftp.fao.org/codex/cccf5/cf05_06e.pdf
157. EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM), Scientific opinion on the risks for animal and public health related to the presence of Alternaria toxins in feed and food. EFSA J. 2011, 9, 2407. DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2407
158. European Commission, Regulation (EC) No 178/2002 of the European parliament and of the council of 28 January 2002 laying down the general principles and requirements of food law, establishing the European Food Safety Authority and laying down procedures in matters of food safety. Off. J. Eur. Union, L 31, p. 1-24.
159. European Commission, Regulation (EC) No 401/2006 of 23 February 2006 laying down the methods of sampling and analysis for the official control of the levels of mycotoxins in foodstuffs. Off. J. Eur. Union, L 70, p. 12-34.