Update on cardiovascular safety of PPARgamma agonists and relevance to medicinal chemistry and clinical pharmacology

Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry

Volumn 12, Issue 6, 2012, Pages 585-604

  Ciudin, Andreea ^a   Hernández, Cristina ^a   Simó, Rafael ^a  

^a HOSPITAL UNIVERSITARI VALL D HEBRON   (Spain)

Author keywords

Cardiovascular outcome; Pioglitazone; PPAR ; Rosiglitazone; Thiazolidindiones

Indexed keywords

ANGIOTENSIN II; ANTIDIABETIC AGENT; BETA CATENIN; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; CD31 ANTIGEN; CIGLITAZONE; GLIBENCLAMIDE; GLIMEPIRIDE; GLIPIZIDE; HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; INSULIN; INTERCELLULAR ADHESION MOLECULE 1; INTERLEUKIN 6; LIPID; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; METFORMIN; MONOCYTE CHEMOTACTIC PROTEIN 1; PEROXISOME PROLIFERATOR ACTIVATED RECEPTOR; PEROXISOME PROLIFERATOR ACTIVATED RECEPTOR ALPHA; PEROXISOME PROLIFERATOR ACTIVATED RECEPTOR ALPHA AGONIST; PEROXISOME PROLIFERATOR ACTIVATED RECEPTOR GAMMA; PEROXISOME PROLIFERATOR ACTIVATED RECEPTOR GAMMA AGONIST; PIOGLITAZONE; PLACEBO; ROSIGLITAZONE; TRIACYLGLYCEROL; TROGLITAZONE; UNINDEXED DRUG; VASCULAR CELL ADHESION MOLECULE 1; WNT PROTEIN;

ADIPOCYTE; ADIPOSE TISSUE; ANTIDIABETIC ACTIVITY; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BLOOD PRESSURE; BLOOD SAMPLING; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CELL ADHESION; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL PROLIFERATION; CHOLESTEROL BLOOD LEVEL; CLINICAL EVALUATION; CLINICAL PHARMACOLOGY; CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); CORONARY ARTERY ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; DIABETIC RETINOPATHY; DISEASE SEVERITY; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; DYSLIPIDEMIA; ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION; GENE EXPRESSION; GENE OVEREXPRESSION; GLYCEMIC CONTROL; HEART INFARCTION; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; INFLAMMATION; INSULIN BLOOD LEVEL; INSULIN RESISTANCE; LIPID METABOLISM; LIVER TOXICITY; MACROPHAGE; META ANALYSIS; MICROALBUMINURIA; NITRATIVE STRESS; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; NONHUMAN; OBESITY; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PERCUTANEOUS CORONARY INTERVENTION; PROTEIN PHOSPHORYLATION; PROTEIN PROTEIN INTERACTION; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; RISK BENEFIT ANALYSIS; RISK REDUCTION; SECONDARY PREVENTION; SMOOTH MUSCLE FIBER; STABLE ANGINA PECTORIS; TREATMENT OUTCOME; TRIACYLGLYCEROL BLOOD LEVEL; VASCULAR SMOOTH MUSCLE; VASCULAR SMOOTH MUSCLE CELL; VASODILATATION;

ANIMALS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; CHEMISTRY, PHARMACEUTICAL; DRUG TOXICITY; HUMANS; LIGANDS; PPAR GAMMA; STRUCTURE-ACTIVITY RELATIONSHIP; THIAZOLIDINEDIONES;

EID: 84857719360     PISSN: 15680266     EISSN: 18734294     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/156802612799436632     Document Type: Review

References (226)

1. Sugden, M. C.; Caton, P. W.; Holness, M. J. PPAR control: it's SIRTainly as easy as PGC. J. Endocrinol., 2010, 204 (2), 93-104.
2. Lalwani, N. D.; Alvares, K.; Reddy, M. K.; Reddy, M. N.; Parikh, I.; Reddy, J. K. Peroxisome proliferator-binding protein: identification and partial characterization of nafenopin-, clofibric acid-, and ciprofibrate-binding proteins from rat liver. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1987, 84 (15), 5242-5246.
3. Lalwani, N. D.; Fahl, W. E.; Reddy, J. K. Detection of a nafenopinbinding protein in rat liver cytosol associated with the induction of peroxisome proliferation by hypolipidemic compounds. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 1983, 116 (2), 388-393.
4. Vamecq, J.; Latruffe, N. Medical significance of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. Lancet, 1999, 354 (9173), 141-148.
5. Evans, R. M. The steroid and thyroid hormone receptor superfamily. Science, 1988, 240 (4854), 889-895.
6. Issemann, I.; Green, S. Activation of a member of the steroid hormone receptor superfamily by peroxisome proliferators. Nature, 1990, 347 (6294), 645-650.
7. el Azzouzi H.; Leptidis, S.; Bourajjaj, M.; Armand, A. S.; van der Nagel, R.; van, B. M.; Da Costa Martins, P. A.; De Windt, L. J. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) gene profiling uncovers insulin-like growth factor-1 as a PPARalpha target gene in cardioprotection. J. Biol. Chem., 2011, 286 (16), 14598-14607.
8. Hamblin, M.; Chang, L.; Fan, Y.; Zhang, J.; Chen, E Y. PPARs and the Cardiovascular System. Antioxid.Redox Signal., 2009, 11 (6), 1415-1452.
9. Zhou, J.; Wilson, K. M.; Medh, J. D. Genetic analysis of four novel peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-gamma splice variants in monkey macrophages. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 2002, 293 (1), 274-283.
10. Ding, G.; Fu, M.; Qin, Q.; Lewis, W.; Kim, H. W.; Fukai, T.; Bacanamwo, M.; Chen, Y. E.; Schneider, M. D.; Mangelsdorf, D. J.; Evans, R. M.; Yang, Q. Cardiac peroxisome proliferatoractivated receptor gamma is essential in protecting cardiomyocytes from oxidative damage. Cardiovasc. Res., 2007, 76 (2), 269-279.
11. Fajas, L.; Auboeuf, D.; Raspe, E.; Schoonjans, K.; Lefebvre, A. M.; Saladin, R.; Najib, J.; Laville, M.; Fruchart, J. C.; Deeb, S.; Vidal-Puig, A.; Flier, J.; Briggs, M. R.; Staels, B.; Vidal, H.; Auwerx, J. The organization, promoter analysis, and expression of the human PPARgamma gene. J. Biol. Chem., 1997, 272 (30), 18779-18789.
12. Norris, A. W.; Chen, L.; Fisher, S. J.; Szanto, I.; Ristow, M.; Jozsi, A. C.; Hirshman, M. F.; Rosen, E. D.; Goodyear, L. J.; Gonzalez, F. J.; Spiegelman, B. M.; Kahn, C. R. Muscle-specific PPARgamma-deficient mice develop increased adiposity and insulin resistance but respond to thiazolidinediones. J. Clin. Invest., 2003, 112 (4), 608-618.
13. Willson, T. M.; Lambert, M. H.; Kliewer, S. A. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma and metabolic disease. Annu. Rev. Biochem., 2001, 70, 341-367.
14. Dubois, M.; Pattou, F.; Kerr-Conte, J.; Gmyr, V.; Vandewalle, B.; Desreumaux, P.; Auwerx, J.; Schoonjans, K.; Lefebvre, J. Expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma) in normal human pancreatic islet cells. Diabetologia, 2000, 43 (9), 1165-1169.
15. Desvergne, B.; Wahli, W. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors: nuclear control of metabolism. Endocr. Rev., 1999, 20 (5), 649-688.
16. Semple, R. K.; Meirhaeghe, A.; Vidal-Puig, A. J.; Schwabe, J. W.; Wiggins, D.; Gibbons, G. F.; Gurnell, M.; Chatterjee, V. K.; O'Rahilly, S. A dominant negative human peroxisome proliferatoractivated receptor (PPAR){alpha} is a constitutive transcriptional corepressor and inhibits signaling through all PPAR isoforms. Endocrinology, 2005, 146 (4), 1871-1882.
17. Forman, B. M.; Tontonoz, P.; Chen, J.; Brun, R. P.; Spiegelman, B. M.; Evans, R. M. 15-Deoxy-delta 12, 14-prostaglandin J2 is a ligand for the adipocyte determination factor PPAR gamma. Cell, 1995, 83 (5), 803-812.
18. Kliewer, S. A.; Lenhard, J. M.; Willson, T. M.; Patel, I.; Morris, D. C.; Lehmann, J. M. A prostaglandin J2 metabolite binds peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma and promotes adipocyte differentiation. Cell, 1995, 83 (5), 813-819.
19. Davies, S. S.; Pontsler, A. V.; Marathe, G. K.; Harrison, K. A.; Murphy, R. C.; Hinshaw, J. C.; Prestwich, G. D.; Hilaire, A. S.; Prescott, S. M.; Zimmerman, G. A.; McIntyre, T. M. Oxidized alkyl phospholipids are specific, high affinity peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma ligands and agonists. J. Biol. Chem., 2001, 276 (19), 16015-16023.
20. Schopfer, F. J.; Lin, Y.; Baker, P. R.; Cui, T.; Garcia-Barrio, M.; Zhang, J.; Chen, K.; Chen, Y. E.; Freeman, B. A. Nitrolinoleic acid: an endogenous peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma ligand. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2005, 102 (7), 2340-2345.
21. Lehmann, J. M.; Moore, L. B.; Smith-Oliver, T. A.; Wilkison, W. O.; Willson, T. M.; Kliewer, S. A. An antidiabetic thiazolidinedione is a high affinity ligand for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR gamma). J. Biol. Chem., 1995, 270 (22), 12953-12956.
22. Guan, H. P.; Ishizuka, T.; Chui, P. C.; Lehrke, M.; Lazar, M. A. Corepressors selectively control the transcriptional activity of PPARgamma in adipocytes. Genes Dev., 2005, 19 (4), 453-461.
23. Kendall, D. M.; Rubin, C. J.; Mohideen, P.; Ledeine, J. M.; Belder, R.; Gross, J.; Norwood, P.; O'Mahony, M.; Sall, K.; Sloan, G.; Roberts, A.; Fiedorek, F. T.; DeFronzo, R. A. Improvement of glycemic control, triglycerides, and HDL cholesterol levels with muraglitazar, a dual (alpha/gamma) peroxisome proliferatoractivated receptor activator, in patients with type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled with metformin monotherapy: A doubleblind, randomized, pioglitazone-comparative study. Diabetes Care, 2006, 29 (5), 1016-1023.
24. Rizos, C. V.; Liberopoulos, E. N.; Mikhailidis, D. P.; Elisaf, M. S. Pleiotropic effects of thiazolidinediones. Expert. Opin. Pharmacother., 2008, 9 (7), 1087-1108.
25. Rizos, C. V.; Elisaf, M. S.; Mikhailidis, D. P.; Liberopoulos, E. N. How safe is the use of thiazolidinediones in clinical practice? Exp. Opin. Drug Saf., 2009, 8 (1), 15-32.
26. FDA Drug Safety Podcast for Healthcare Professionals: Updated Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy (REMS) to Restrict Access to Rosiglitazone-containing Medicines including Avandia, Avandamet, and Avandaryl. 30-8-2011.Ref Type: Online Source. (Accesed Agust 28, 2011).
27. Prestwich, T. C.; Macdougald, O. A. Wnt/beta-catenin signaling in adipogenesis and metabolism. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol., 2007, 19 (6), 612-617.
28. Chawla, A.; Schwarz, E. J.; Dimaculangan, D. D.; Lazar, M. A. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) gamma: adipose-predominant expression and induction early in adipocyte differentiation. Endocrinology, 1994, 135 (2), 798-800.
29. Reue, K.; Zhang, P. The lipin protein family: dual roles in lipid biosynthesis and gene expression. FEBS Lett., 2008, 582 (1), 90-96.
30. Bou, K. M.; Sundaram, M.; Zhang, H. Y.; Links, P. H.; Raven, J. F.; Manmontri, B.; Sariahmetoglu, M.; Tran, K.; Reue, K.; Brindley, D. N.; Yao, Z. The level and compartmentalization of phosphatidate phosphatase-1 (lipin-1) control the assembly and secretion of hepatic VLDL. J. Lipid Res., 2009, 50 (1), 47-58.
31. Puigserver, P.; Rhee, J.; Donovan, J.; Walkey, C. J.; Yoon, J. C.; Oriente, F.; Kitamura, Y.; Altomonte, J.; Dong, H.; Accili, D.; Spiegelman, B. M. Insulin-regulated hepatic gluconeogenesis through FOXO1-PGC-1alpha interaction. Nature, 2003, 423 (6939), 550-555.
32. Tiraby, C.; Tavernier, G.; Lefort, C.; Larrouy, D.; Bouillaud, F.; Ricquier, D.; Langin, D. Acquirement of brown fat cell features by human white adipocytes. J. Biol. Chem., 2003, 278 (35), 33370-33376.
33. Picard, F.; Kurtev, M.; Chung, N.; Topark-Ngarm, A.; Senawong, T.; Machado De, O. R.; Leid, M.; McBurney, M. W.; Guarente, L. Sirt1 promotes fat mobilization in white adipocytes by repressing PPAR-gamma. Nature, 2004, 429 (6993), 771-776.
34. Phan, J.; Reue, K. Lipin, a lipodystrophy and obesity gene. Cell Metab., 2005, 1 (1), 73-83.
35. Yao-Borengasser, A.; Rasouli, N.; Varma, V.; Miles, L. M.; Phanavanh, B.; Starks, T. N.; Phan, J.; Spencer, H. J., III; McGehee, R. E. Jr.; Reue, K.; Kern, P. A. Lipin expression is attenuated in adipose tissue of insulin-resistant human subjects and increases with peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma activation. Diabetes, 2006, 55 (10), 2811-2818.
36. Miranda, M.; Chacon, M. R.; Gomez, J.; Megia, A.; Ceperuelo-Mallafre, V.; Veloso, S.; Saumoy, M.; Gallart, L.; Richart, C.; Fernandez-Real, J. M.; Vendrell, J. Human subcutaneous adipose tissue LPIN1 expression in obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and human immunodeficiency virus--associated lipodystrophy syndrome. Metabolism, 2007, 56 (11), 1518-1526.
37. Donkor, J.; Sparks, L. M.; Xie, H.; Smith, S. R.; Reue, K. Adipose tissue lipin-1 expression is correlated with peroxisome proliferatoractivated receptor alpha gene expression and insulin sensitivity in healthy young men. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 2008, 93 (1), 233-239.
38. Ristow, M.; Muller-Wieland, D.; Pfeiffer, A.; Krone, W.; Kahn, C. R. Obesity associated with a mutation in a genetic regulator of adipocyte differentiation. N. Engl. J. Med., 1998, 339 (14), 953-959.
39. Schernthaner, G.; Matthews, D. R.; Charbonnel, B.; Hanefeld, M.; Brunetti, P. Efficacy and safety of pioglitazone versus metformin inpatients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a double-blind, randomized trial. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 2004, 89 (12), 6068-6076.
40. Raskin, P.; Rendell, M.; Riddle, M. C.; Dole, J. F.; Freed, M. I.; Rosenstock, J. A randomized trial of rosiglitazone therapy in patients with inadequately controlled insulin-treated type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care, 2001, 24 (7), 1226-1232.
41. Goldberg, R. B.; Kendall, D. M.; Deeg, M. A.; Buse, J. B.; Zagar, A. J.; Pinaire, J. A.; Tan, M. H.; Khan, M. A.; Perez, A. T.; Jacober, S. J. A comparison of lipid and glycemic effects of pioglitazone and rosiglitazone in patients with type 2 diabetes and dyslipidemia. Diabetes Care, 2005, 28 (7), 1547-1554.
42. Standards of medical care in diabetes--2011. Diabetes Care, 2011, 34 (Suppl 1), S11-S61.
43. Aronoff, S.; Rosenblatt, S.; Braithwaite, S.; Egan, J. W.; Mathisen, A. L.; Schneider, R. L. Pioglitazone hydrochloride monotherapy improves glycemic control in the treatment of patients with type 2 diabetes: a 6-month randomized placebo-controlled dose-response study. The Pioglitazone 001 Study Group. Diabetes Care, 2000, 23 (11), 1605-1611.
44. Tan, M.; Johns, D.; Gonzalez, G. G.; Antunez, O.; Fabian, G.; Flores-Lozano, F.; Zuniga, G. S.; Garza, E.; Morales, H.; Konkoy, C.; Herz, M. Effects of pioglitazone and glimepiride on glycemic control and insulin sensitivity in Mexican patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A multicenter, randomized, double-blind, parallel-group trial. Clin. Ther., 2004, 26 (5), 680-693.
45. Dormandy, J. A.; Charbonnel, B.; Eckland, D. J.; Erdmann, E.; Massi-Benedetti, M.; Moules, I. K.; Skene, A. M.; Tan, M. H.; Lefebvre, P. J.; Murray, G. D.; Standl, E.; Wilcox, R. G.; Wilhelmsen, L.; Betteridge, J.; Birkeland, K.; Golay, A.; Heine, R. J.; Koranyi, L.; Laakso, M.; Mokan, M.; Norkus, A.; Pirags, V.; Podar, T.; Scheen, A.; Scherbaum, W.; Schernthaner, G.; Schmitz, O.; Skrha, J.; Smith, U.; Taton, J. Secondary prevention of macrovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes in the PROactive Study (PROspective pioglitAzone Clinical Trial In macroVascular Events): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet, 2005, 366 (9493), 1279-1289.
46. Charbonnel, B. H.; Matthews, D. R.; Schernthaner, G.; Hanefeld, M.; Brunetti, P. A long-term comparison of pioglitazone and gliclazide in patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus: a randomized, double-blind, parallel-group comparison trial. Diabet. Med., 2005, 22 (4), 399-405.
47. Mattoo, V.; Eckland, D.; Widel, M.; Duran, S.; Fajardo, C.; Strand, J.; Knight, D.; Grossman, L.; Oakley, D.; Tan, M. Metabolic effects of pioglitazone in combination with insulin in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus whose disease is not adequately controlled with insulin therapy: results of a six-month, randomized, doubleblind, prospective, multicenter, parallel-group study. Clin. Ther., 2005, 27 (5), 554-567.
48. Nissen, S. E.; Nicholls, S. J.; Wolski, K.; Nesto, R.; Kupfer, S.; Perez, A.; Jure, H.; De, L. R.; Staniloae, C. S.; Mavromatis, K.; Saw, J.; Hu, B.; Lincoff, A. M.; Tuzcu, E. M. Comparison of pioglitazone vs glimepiride on progression of coronary atherosclerosis in patients with type 2 diabetes: the PERISCOPE randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 2008, 299 (13), 1561-1573.
49. Lebovitz, H. E.; Dole, J. F.; Patwardhan, R.; Rappaport, E. B.; Freed, M. I. Rosiglitazone monotherapy is effective in patients with type 2 diabetes. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 2001, 86 (1), 280-288.
50. Phillips, L. S.; Grunberger, G.; Miller, E.; Patwardhan, R.; Rappaport, E. B.; Salzman, A. Once- and twice-daily dosing with rosiglitazone improves glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care, 2001, 24 (2), 308-315.
51. Kahn, S. E.; Haffner, S. M.; Heise, M. A.; Herman, W. H.; Holman, R. R.; Jones, N. P.; Kravitz, B. G.; Lachin, J. M.; O'Neill, M. C.; Zinman, B.; Viberti, G. Glycemic durability of rosiglitazone, metformin, or glyburide monotherapy. N. Engl. J. Med., 2006, 355 (23), 2427-2443.
52. Rosenstock, J.; Rood, J.; Cobitz, A.; Biswas, N.; Chou, H.; Garber, A. Initial treatment with rosiglitazone/metformin fixed-dose combination therapy compared with monotherapy with either rosiglitazone or metformin in patients with uncontrolled type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes. Metab., 2006, 8 (6), 650-660.
53. Yu, D.; Murdoch, S. J.; Parikh, S. J.; Marcovina, S. M.; Cobitz, A.; Chen, H.; Brunzell, J. D. Rosiglitazone increases LDL particle size and buoyancy and decreases C-reactive protein in patients with type 2 diabetes on statin therapy. Diab. Vasc. Dis. Res., 2006, 3 (3), 189-196.
54. Malmendier, C. L.; Delcroix, C. Effects of fenofibrate on high and low density lipoprotein metabolism in heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. Atherosclerosis, 1985, 55 (2), 161-169.
55. Staels, B.; Auwerx, J. Regulation of apo A-I gene expression by fibrates. Atherosclerosis, 1998, 137 Suppl, S19-S23.
56. Berthou, L.; Duverger, N.; Emmanuel, F.; Langouet, S.; Auwerx, J.; Guillouzo, A.; Fruchart, J. C.; Rubin, E.; Denefle, P.; Staels, B.; Branellec, D. Opposite regulation of human versus mouse apolipoprotein A-I by fibrates in human apolipoprotein A-I transgenic mice. J. Clin. Invest., 1996, 97 (11), 2408-2416.
57. Jiang, C.; Ting, A. T.; Seed, B. PPAR-gamma agonists inhibit production of monocyte inflammatory cytokines. Nature, 1998, 391 (6662), 82-86.
58. Ricote, M.; Li, A. C.; Willson, T. M.; Kelly, C. J.; Glass, C. K. The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma is a negative regulator of macrophage activation. Nature, 1998, 391 (6662), 79-82.
59. Chinetti, G.; Griglio, S.; Antonucci, M.; Torra, I. P.; Delerive, P.; Majd, Z.; Fruchart, J. C.; Chapman, J.; Najib, J.; Staels, B. Activation of proliferator-activated receptors alpha and gamma induces apoptosis of human monocyte-derived macrophages. J. Biol. Chem., 1998, 273 (40), 25573-25580.
60. Tontonoz, P.; Nagy, L.; Alvarez, J. G.; Thomazy, V. A.; Evans, R. M. PPARgamma promotes monocyte/macrophage differentiation and uptake of oxidized LDL. Cell, 1998, 93 (2), 241-252.
61. Chinetti, G.; Gbaguidi, F. G.; Griglio, S.; Mallat, Z.; Antonucci, M.; Poulain, P.; Chapman, J.; Fruchart, J. C.; Tedgui, A.; Najib-Fruchart, J.; Staels, B. CLA-1/SR-BI is expressed in atherosclerotic lesion macrophages and regulated by activators of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. Circulation, 2000, 101 (20), 2411-2417.
62. Brooks-Wilson, A.; Marcil, M.; Clee, S. M.; Zhang, L. H.; Roomp, K.; van, D. M.; Yu, L.; Brewer, C.; Collins, J. A.; Molhuizen, H. O.; Loubser, O.; Ouelette, B. F.; Fichter, K.; Ashbourne-Excoffon, K. J.; Sensen, C. W.; Scherer, S.; Mott, S.; Denis, M.; Martindale, D.; Frohlich, J.; Morgan, K.; Koop, B.; Pimstone, S.; Kastelein, J. J.; Genest, J. Jr.; Hayden, M. R. Mutations in ABC1 in Tangier disease and familial high-density lipoprotein deficiency. Nat. Genet., 1999, 22 (4), 336-345.
63. Lawn, R. M.; Wade, D. P.; Garvin, M. R.; Wang, X.; Schwartz, K.; Porter, J. G.; Seilhamer, J. J.; Vaughan, A. M.; Oram, J. F. The Tangier disease gene product ABC1 controls the cellular apolipoprotein-mediated lipid removal pathway. J. Clin. Invest., 1999, 104 (8), R25-R31.
64. Chinetti, G.; Lestavel, S.; Bocher, V.; Remaley, A. T.; Neve, B.; Torra, I. P.; Teissier, E.; Minnich, A.; Jaye, M.; Duverger, N.; Brewer, H. B.; Fruchart, J. C.; Clavey, V.; Staels, B. PPAR-alpha and PPAR-gamma activators induce cholesterol removal from human macrophage foam cells through stimulation of the ABCA1 pathway. Nat. Med., 2001, 7 (1), 53-58.
65. Orasanu, G.; Ziouzenkova, O.; Devchand, P. R.; Nehra, V.; Hamdy, O.; Horton, E. S.; Plutzky, J. The peroxisome proliferatoractivated receptor-gamma agonist pioglitazone represses inflammation in a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alphadependent manner in vitro and in vivo in mice. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2008, 52 (10), 869-881.
66. Hsiao, A.; Worrall, D. S.; Olefsky, J. M.; Subramaniam, S. Variance-modeled posterior inference of microarray data: detecting gene-expression changes in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Bioinformatics, 2004, 20 (17), 3108-3127.
67. Wolkart, G.; Schrammel, A.; Dorffel, K.; Haemmerle, G.; Zechner, R.; Mayer, B. Cardiac dysfunction in adipose triglyceride lipase deficiency: Treatment with a PPARalpha agonist. Br. J. Pharmacol., 2011,165(2),380-389.
68. Kannel, W. B.; McGee, D. L. Diabetes and cardiovascular risk factors: the Framingham study. Circulation, 1979, 59 (1), 8-13.
69. Marx, N.; Sukhova, G.; Murphy, C.; Libby, P.; Plutzky, J. Macrophages in human atheroma contain PPARgamma: differentiation-dependent peroxisomal proliferator-activated receptor gamma(PPARgamma) expression and reduction of MMP-9 activity through PPARgamma activation in mononuclear phagocytes in vitro. Am. J. Pathol., 1998, 153 (1), 17-23.
70. Ricote, M.; Huang, J.; Fajas, L.; Li, A.; Welch, J.; Najib, J.; Witztum, J. L.; Auwerx, J.; Palinski, W.; Glass, C. K. Expression of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma) in human atherosclerosis and regulation in macrophages by colonystimulating factors and oxidized low density lipoprotein. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1998, 95 (13), 7614-7619.
71. Ross, R. Atherosclerosis--an inflammatory disease. N. Engl. J. Med., 1999, 340 (2), 115-126.
72. Collins, T.; Read, M. A.; Neish, A. S.; Whitley, M. Z.; Thanos, D.; Maniatis, T. Transcriptional regulation of endothelial cell adhesion molecules: NF-kappa B and cytokine-inducible enhancers. FASEB J., 1995, 9 (10), 899-909.
73. Endemann, G.; Stanton, L. W.; Madden, K. S.; Bryant, C. M.; White, R. T.; Protter, A. A. CD36 is a receptor for oxidized low density lipoprotein. J. Biol. Chem., 1993, 268 (16), 11811-11816.
74. Liang, C. P.; Han, S.; Okamoto, H.; Carnemolla, R.; Tabas, I.; Accili, D.; Tall, A. R. Increased CD36 protein as a response to defective insulin signaling in macrophages. J. Clin. Invest., 2004, 113 (5), 764-773.
75. Ricote, M.; Glass, C. K. PPARs and molecular mechanisms of transrepression. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 2007, 1771 (8), 926-935.
76. Marx, N.; Kehrle, B.; Kohlhammer, K.; Grub, M.; Koenig, W.; Hombach, V.; Libby, P.; Plutzky, J. PPAR activators as antiinflammatory mediators in human T lymphocytes: implications for atherosclerosis and transplantation-associated arteriosclerosis. Circ. Res., 2002, 90 (6), 703-710.
77. Akiyama, T. E.; Sakai, S.; Lambert, G.; Nicol, C. J.; Matsusue, K.; Pimprale, S.; Lee, Y. H.; Ricote, M.; Glass, C. K.; Brewer, H. B., Jr.; Gonzalez, F. J. Conditional disruption of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma gene in mice results in lowered expression of ABCA1, ABCG1, and apoE in macrophages and reduced cholesterol efflux. Mol. Cell Biol., 2002, 22 (8), 2607-2619.
78. Geldenhuys, W. J.; Funk, M. O.; Awale, P. S.; Lin, L.; Carroll, R. T. A novel binding assay identifies high affinity ligands to the rosiglitazone binding site of mitoNEET. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett., 2011, 21 (18), 5498-5501.
79. von Birgelen, C.; Hartmann, M.; Mintz, G. S.; van Houwelingen, K. G.; Deppermann, N.; Schmermund, A.; Bose, D.; Eggebrecht, H.; Neumann, T.; Gossl, M.; Wieneke, H.; Erbel, R. Relationship between cardiovascular risk as predicted by established risk scores versus plaque progression as measured by serial intravascular ultrasound in left main coronary arteries. Circulation, 2004, 110 (12), 1579-1585.
80. Nakayama, T.; Komiyama, N.; Yokoyama, M.; Namikawa, S.; Kuroda, N.; Kobayashi, Y.; Komuro, I. Pioglitazone induces regression of coronary atherosclerotic plaques in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus or impaired glucose tolerance: a randomized prospective study using intravascular ultrasound. Int. J. Cardiol., 2010, 138 (2), 157-165.
81. Ogasawara, D.; Shite, J.; Shinke, T.; Watanabe, S.; Otake, H.; Tanino, Y.; Sawada, T.; Kawamori, H.; Kato, H.; Miyoshi, N.; Hirata, K. Pioglitazone reduces the necrotic-core component in coronary plaque in association with enhanced plasma adiponectin in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Circ. J., 2009, 73 (2), 343-351.
82. Mazzone, T.; Meyer, P. M.; Feinstein, S. B.; Davidson, M. H.; Kondos, G. T.; D'Agostino, R. B., Sr.; P erez, A.; Provost, J. C.; Haffner, S. M. Effect of pioglitazone compared with glimepiride on carotid intima-media thickness in type 2 diabetes: a randomized trial. JAMA, 2006, 296 (21), 2572-2581.
83. Hodis, H. N.; Mack, W. J.; LaBree, L.; Selzer, R. H.; Liu, C. R.; Liu, C. H.; Azen, S. P. The role of carotid arterial intima-media thickness in predicting clinical coronary events. Ann. Intern. Med., 1998, 128 (4), 262-269.
84. Hetzel, J.; Balletshofer, B.; Rittig, K.; Walcher, D.; Kratzer, W.; Hombach, V.; Haring, H. U.; Koenig, W.; Marx, N. Rapid effects of rosiglitazone treatment on endothelial function and inflammatory biomarkers. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., 2005, 25 (9), 1804-1809.
85. Hwang, J.; Kleinhenz, D. J.; Lassegue, B.; Griendling, K. K.; Dikalov, S.; Hart, C. M. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma ligands regulate endothelial membrane superoxide production. Am. J. Physiol Cell Physiol., 2005, 288 (4), C899-C905.
86. Mehta, J. L.; Hu, B.; Chen, J.; Li, D. Pioglitazone inhibits LOX-1 expression in human coronary artery endothelial cells by reducing intracellular superoxide radical generation. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., 2003, 23 (12), 2203-2208.
87. Beyer, A. M.; Baumbach, G. L.; Halabi, C. M.; Modrick, M. L.; Lynch, C. M.; Gerhold, T. D.; Ghoneim, S. M.; de Lange, W. J.; Keen, H. L.; Tsai, Y. S.; Maeda, N.; Sigmund, C. D.; Faraci, F. M. Interference with PPARgamma signaling causes cerebral vascular dysfunction, hypertrophy, and remodeling. Hypertension, 2008, 51 (4), 867-871.
88. Kwak, B. R.; Myit, S.; Mulhaupt, F.; Veillard, N.; Rufer, N.; Roosnek, E.; Mach, F. PPARgamma but not PPARalpha ligands are potent repressors of major histocompatibility complex class II induction in atheroma-associated cells. Circ. Res., 2002, 90 (3), 356-362.
89. Kronke, G.; Kadl, A.; Ikonomu, E.; Bluml, S.; Furnkranz, A.; Sarembock, I. J.; Bochkov, V. N.; Exner, M.; Binder, B. R.; Leitinger, N. Expression of heme oxygenase-1 in human vascular cells is regulated by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., 2007, 27 (6), 1276-1282.
90. Figaro, M. K.; Kritchevsky, S. B.; Resnick, H. E.; Shorr, R. I.; Butler, J.; Shintani, A.; Penninx, B. W.; Simonsick, E. M.; Goodpaster, B. H.; Newman, A. B.; Schwartz, A. V.; Harris, T. B. Diabetes, inflammation, and functional decline in older adults: findings from the Health, Aging and Body Composition (ABC) study. Diabetes Care, 2006, 29 (9), 2039-2045.
91. Pradhan, A. D.; Manson, J. E.; Rifai, N.; Buring, J. E.; Ridker, P. M. C-reactive protein, interleukin 6, and risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus. JAMA, 2001, 286 (3), 327-334.
92. Fernandez-Real, J. M.; Ricart, W. Insulin resistance and chronic cardiovascular inflammatory syndrome. Endocr. Rev., 2003, 24 (3), 278-301.
93. Piemonti, L.; Calori, G.; Mercalli, A.; Lattuada, G.; Monti, P.; Garancini, M. P.; Costantino, F.; Ruotolo, G.; Luzi, L.; Perseghin, G. Fasting plasma leptin, tumor necrosis factor-alpha receptor 2, and monocyte chemoattracting protein 1 concentration in a population of glucose-tolerant and glucose-intolerant women: impact on cardiovascular mortality. Diabetes Care, 2003, 26 (10), 2883-2889.
94. Pfutzner, A.; Marx, N.; Lubben, G.; Langenfeld, M.; Walcher, D.; Konrad, T.; Forst, T. Improvement of cardiovascular risk markers by pioglitazone is independent from glycemic control: results from the pioneer study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2005, 45 (12), 1925-1931.
95. Loftus, I. M.; Naylor, A. R.; Bell, P. R.; Thompson, M. M. Plasma MMP-9 - a marker of carotid plaque instability. Eur. J. Vasc. Endovasc. Surg., 2001, 21 (1), 17-21.
96. Satoh, N.; Ogawa, Y.; Usui, T.; Tagami, T.; Kono, S.; Uesugi, H.; Sugiyama, H.; Sugawara, A.; Yamada, K.; Shimatsu, A.; Kuzuya, H.; Nakao, K. Antiatherogenic effect of pioglitazone in type 2 diabetic patients irrespective of the responsiveness to its antidiabetic effect. Diabetes Care, 2003, 26 (9), 2493-2499.
97. Forst, T.; Karagiannis, E.; Lubben, G.; Hohberg, C.; Schondorf, T.; Dikta, G.; Drexler, M.; Morcos, M.; Danschel, W.; Borchert, M.; Pfutzner, A. Pleiotrophic and anti-inflammatory effects of pioglitazone precede the metabolic activity in type 2 diabetic patients with coronary artery disease. Atherosclerosis, 2008, 197 (1), 311-317.
98. Karagiannis, E.; Pfutzner, A.; Forst, T.; Lubben, G.; Roth, W.; Grabellus, M.; Flannery, M.; Schondorf, T. The IRIS V study: pioglitazone improves systemic chronic inflammation in patients with type 2 diabetes under daily routine conditions. Diabetes Technol. Ther., 2008, 10 (3), 206-212.
99. Haffner, S. M.; Greenberg, A. S.; Weston, W. M.; Chen, H.; Williams, K.; Freed, M. I. Effect of rosiglitazone treatment on nontraditional markers of cardiovascular disease in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Circulation, 2002, 106 (6), 679-684.
100. Kelly, A. S.; Thelen, A. M.; Kaiser, D. R.; Gonzalez-Campoy, J. M.; Bank, A. J. Rosiglitazone improves endothelial function and inflammation but not asymmetric dimethylarginine or oxidative stress in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Vasc. Med., 2007, 12 (4), 311-318.
101. Albertini, J. P.; McMorn, S. O.; Chen, H.; Mather, R. A.; Valensi, P. Effect of rosiglitazone on factors related to endothelial dysfunction in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Atherosclerosis, 2007, 195 (1), e159-e166.
102. Rosmarakis, E. S.; Falagas, M. E. Effect of thiazolidinedione therapy on restenosis after coronary stent implantation: a metaanalysis of randomized controlled trials. Am. Heart J., 2007, 154 (1), 144-150.
103. Fang, C. C.; Ng Jao, Y. T.; Yi, C.; Yu, C. L.; Chen, C. L.; Wang, S. P. Angiographic and clinical outcomes of rosiglitazone in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus after percutaneous coronary interventions: a single center experience. Angiology, 2007, 58 (5), 523-534.
104. Marx, N.; Schonbeck, U.; Lazar, M. A.; Libby, P.; Plutzky, J. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma activators inhibit gene expression and migration in human vascular smooth muscle cells. Circ. Res., 1998, 83 (11), 1097-1103.
105. Benson, S.; Wu, J.; Padmanabhan, S.; Kurtz, T. W.; Pershadsingh, H. A. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-gamma expression in human vascular smooth muscle cells: inhibition of growth, migration, and c-fos expression by the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-gamma activator troglitazone. Am. J. Hypertens., 2000, 13 (1 Pt 1), 74-82.
106. Law, R. E.; Goetze, S.; Xi, X. P.; Jackson, S.; Kawano, Y.; Demer, L.; Fishbein, M. C.; Meehan, W. P.; Hsueh, W. A. Expression and function of PPARgamma in rat and human vascular smooth muscle cells. Circulation, 2000, 101 (11), 1311-1318.
107. Piatti, P.; Di, M. C.; Monti, L. D.; Fragasso, G.; Sgura, F.; Caumo, A.; Setola, E.; Lucotti, P.; Galluccio, E.; Ronchi, C.; Origgi, A.; Zavaroni, I.; Margonato, A.; Colombo, A. Association of insulin resistance, hyperleptinemia, and impaired nitric oxide release with in-stent restenosis in patients undergoing coronary stenting. Circulation, 2003, 108 (17), 2074-2081.
108. Goetze, S.; Kim, S.; Xi, X. P.; Graf, K.; Yang, D. C.; Fleck, E.; Meehan, W. P.; Hsueh, W. A.; Law, R. E. Troglitazone inhibits mitogenic signaling by insulin in vascular smooth muscle cells. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol., 2000, 35 (5), 749-757.
109. Law, R. E.; Meehan, W. P.; Xi, X. P.; Graf, K.; Wuthrich, D. A.; Coats, W.; Faxon, D.; Hsueh, W. A. Troglitazone inhibits vascular smooth muscle cell growth and intimal hyperplasia. J. Clin. Invest., 1996, 98 (8), 1897-1905.
110. Panigrahy, D.; Singer, S.; Shen, L. Q.; Butterfield, C. E.; Freedman, D. A.; Chen, E. J.; Moses, M. A.; Kilroy, S.; Duensing, S.; Fletcher, C.; Fletcher, J. A.; Hlatky, L.; Hahnfeldt, P.; Folkman, J.; Kaipainen, A. PPARgamma ligands inhibit primary tumor growth and metastasis by inhibiting angiogenesis. J. Clin. Invest., 2002, 110 (7), 923-932.
111. Kim, K. Y.; Cheon, H. G. Antiangiogenic effect of rosiglitazone is mediated via peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gammaactivated maxi-K channel opening in human umbilical vein endothelial cells. J. Biol. Chem., 2006, 281 (19), 13503-13512.
112. Xin, X.; Yang, S.; Kowalski, J.; Gerritsen, M. E. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma ligands are potent inhibitors of angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo. J. Biol. Chem., 1999, 274 (13), 9116-9121.
113. Bruemmer, D.; Yin, F.; Liu, J.; Berger, J. P.; Sakai, T.; Blaschke, F.; Fleck, E.; Van Herle, A. J.; Forman, B. M.; Law, R. E. Regulation of the growth arrest and DNA damage-inducible gene 45 (GADD45) by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma in vascular smooth muscle cells. Circ. Res., 2003, 93 (4), e38-e47.
114. Harkin, D. P.; Bean, J. M.; Miklos, D.; Song, Y. H.; Truong, V. B.; Englert, C.; Christians, F. C.; Ellisen, L. W.; Maheswaran, S.; Oliner, J. D.; Haber, D. A. Induction of GADD45 and JNK/SAPKdependent apoptosis following inducible expression of BRCA1. Cell, 1999, 97 (5), 575-586.
115. Redondo, S.; Ruiz, E.; Santos-Gallego, C. G.; Padilla, E.; Tejerina, T. Pioglitazone induces vascular smooth muscle cell apoptosis through a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma, transforming growth factor-beta1, and a Smad2-dependent mechanism. Diabetes, 2005, 54 (3), 811-817.
116. Ruiz, E.; Redondo, S.; Gordillo-Moscoso, A.; Tejerina, T. Pioglitazone induces apoptosis in human vascular smooth muscle cells from diabetic patients involving the transforming growth factor-beta/activin receptor-like kinase-4/5/7/Smad2 signaling pathway. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 2007, 321 (2), 431-438.
117. Bishop-Bailey, D.; Hla, T.; Warner, T. D. Intimal smooth muscle cells as a target for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptorgamma ligand therapy. Circ. Res., 2002, 91 (3), 210-217.
118. Fujishima, S.; Ohya, Y.; Nakamura, Y.; Onaka, U.; Abe, I.; Fujishima, M. Troglitazone, an insulin sensitizer, increases forearm blood flow in humans. Am. J. Hypertens., 1998, 11 (9), 1134-1137.
119. de Rivas B.; Luque, M.; Martell, N.; Fernandez, C.; Fernandez-Cruz, A. Pioglitazone decreases ambulatory blood pressure in type 2 diabetics with difficult-to-control hypertension. J. Clin. Hypertens. (Greenwich), 2007, 9 (7), 530-537.
120. Gerber, P.; Lubben, G.; Heusler, S.; Dodo, A. Effects of pioglitazone on metabolic control and blood pressure: a randomized study in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Curr. Med. Res. Opin., 2003, 19 (6), 532-539.
121. Schondorf, T.; Forst, T.; Hohberg, C.; Pahler, S.; Link, C.; Roth, W.; Pfutzner, A.; Lubben, G.; Link, C.; Pfutzner, A. The IRIS III study: pioglitazone improves metabolic control and blood pressure in patients with type 2 diabetes without increasing body weight. Diabetes Obes. Metab., 2007, 9 (1), 132-133.
122. Bakris, G. L.; Ruilope, L. M.; McMorn, S. O.; Weston, W. M.; Heise, M. A.; Freed, M. I.; Porter, L. E. Rosiglitazone reduces microalbuminuria and blood pressure independently of glycemia in type 2 diabetes patients with microalbuminuria. J. Hypertens., 2006, 24 (10), 2047-2055.
123. Garcia-Garcia, H. M.; Garg, S.; Brugaletta, S.; Morocutti, G.; Ratner, R. E.; Kolatkar, N. S.; Kravitz, B. G.; Miller, D. M.; Huang, C.; Nesto, R. W.; Serruys, P. W. Evaluation of in-stent restenosis in the APPROACH trial (assessment on the prevention of progression by Rosiglitazone on atherosclerosis in diabetes patients with cardiovascular history). Int. J. Cardiovasc. Imaging, 2011.
124. Yosefy, C.; Magen, E.; Kiselevich, A.; Priluk, R.; London, D.; Volchek, L.; Viskoper, R. J., Jr. Rosiglitazone improves, while Glibenclamide worsens blood pressure control in treated hypertensive diabetic and dyslipidemic subjects via modulation of insulin resistance and sympathetic activity. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol., 2004, 44 (2), 215-222.
125. Barroso, I.; Gurnell, M.; Crowley, V. E.; Agostini, M.; Schwabe, J. W.; Soos, M. A.; Maslen, G. L.; Williams, T. D.; Lewis, H.; Schafer, A. J.; Chatterjee, V. K.; O'Rahilly, S. Dominant negative mutations in human PPARgamma associated with severe insulin resistance, diabetes mellitus and hypertension. Nature, 1999, 402 (6764), 880-883.
126. Khanderia, U.; Pop-Busui, R.; Eagle, K. A. Thiazolidinediones in type 2 diabetes: a cardiology perspective. Ann. Pharmacother., 2008, 42 (10), 1466-1474.
127. Delerive, P.; Martin-Nizard, F.; Chinetti, G.; Trottein, F.; Fruchart, J. C.; Najib, J.; Duriez, P.; Staels, B. Peroxisome proliferatoractivated receptor activators inhibit thrombin-induced endothelin-1 production in human vascular endothelial cells by inhibiting the activator protein-1 signaling pathway. Circ. Res., 1999, 85 (5), 394-402.
128. Fukunaga, Y.; Itoh, H.; Doi, K.; Tanaka, T.; Yamashita, J.; Chun, T. H.; Inoue, M.; Masatsugu, K.; Sawada, N.; Saito, T.; Hosoda, K.; Kook, H.; Ueda, M.; Nakao, K. Thiazolidinediones, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma agonists, regulate endothelial cell growth and secretion of vasoactive peptides. Atherosclerosis, 2001, 158 (1), 113-119.
129. Iglarz, M.; Touyz, R. M.; Amiri, F.; Lavoie, M. F.; Diep, Q. N.; Schiffrin, E. L. Effect of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha and -gamma activators on vascular remodeling in endothelin-dependent hypertension. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., 2003, 23 (1), 45-51.
130. Martin-Nizard, F.; Furman, C.; Delerive, P.; Kandoussi, A.; Fruchart, J. C.; Staels, B.; Duriez, P. Peroxisome proliferatoractivated receptor activators inhibit oxidized low-density lipoprotein-induced endothelin-1 secretion in endothelial cells. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol., 2002, 40 (6), 822-831.
131. Watanabe, K.; Fujii, H.; Takahashi, T.; Kodama, M.; Aizawa, Y.; Ohta, Y.; Ono, T.; Hasegawa, G.; Naito, M.; Nakajima, T.; Kamijo, Y.; Gonzalez, F. J.; Aoyama, T. Constitutive regulation of cardiac fatty acid metabolism through peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha associated with age-dependent cardiac toxicity. J. Biol. Chem., 2000, 275 (29), 22293-22299.
132. Diep, Q. N.; El, M. M.; Cohn, J. S.; Endemann, D.; Amiri, F.; Virdis, A.; Neves, M. F.; Schiffrin, E. L. Structure, endothelial function, cell growth, and inflammation in blood vessels of angiotensin II-infused rats: role of peroxisome proliferatoractivated receptor-gamma. Circulation, 2002, 105 (19), 2296-2302.
133. Sugawara, A.; Takeuchi, K.; Uruno, A.; Ikeda, Y.; Arima, S.; Kudo, M.; Sato, K.; Taniyama, Y.; Ito, S. Transcriptional suppression of type 1 angiotensin II receptor gene expression by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma in vascular smooth muscle cells. Endocrinology, 2001, 142 (7), 3125-3134.
134. Imayama, I.; Ichiki, T.; Inanaga, K.; Ohtsubo, H.; Fukuyama, K.; Ono, H.; Hashiguchi, Y.; Sunagawa, K. Telmisartan downregulates angiotensin II type 1 receptor through activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma. Cardiovasc. Res., 2006, 72 (1), 184-190.
135. Tao, L.; Liu, H. R.; Gao, E.; Teng, Z. P.; Lopez, B. L.; Christopher, T. A.; Ma, X. L.; Batinic-Haberle, I.; Willette, R. N.; Ohlstein, E. H.; Yue, T. L. Antioxidative, antinitrative, and vasculoprotective effects of a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma agonist in hypercholesterolemia. Circulation, 2003, 108 (22), 2805-2811.
136. Gross, J. L.; de Azevedo, M. J.; Silveiro, S. P.; Canani, L. H.; Caramori, M. L.; Zelmanovitz, T. Diabetic nephropathy: diagnosis, prevention, and treatment. Diabetes Care, 2005, 28 (1), 164-176.
137. Pistrosch, F.; Herbrig, K.; Kindel, B.; Passauer, J.; Fischer, S.; Gross, P. Rosiglitazone improves glomerular hyperfiltration, renal endothelial dysfunction, and microalbuminuria of incipient diabetic nephropathy in patients. Diabetes, 2005, 54 (7), 2206-2211.
138. Miyazaki, Y.; Cersosimo, E.; Triplitt, C.; DeFronzo, R. A. Rosiglitazone decreases albuminuria in type 2 diabetic patients. Kidney Int., 2007, 72 (11), 1367-1373.
139. Nakamura, T.; Sugaya, T.; Kawagoe, Y.; Ueda, Y.; Koide, H. Effect of pioglitazone on urinary liver-type fatty acid-binding protein concentrations in diabetes patients with microalbuminuria. Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev., 2006, 22 (5), 385-389.
140. Nakamura, T.; Ushiyama, C.; Shimada, N.; Hayashi, K.; Ebihara, I.; Koide, H. Comparative effects of pioglitazone, glibenclamide, and voglibose on urinary endothelin-1 and albumin excretion in diabetes patients. J. Diabetes Complications, 2000, 14 (5), 250-254.
141. Bakris, G.; Viberti, G.; Weston, W. M.; Heise, M.; Porter, L. E.; Freed, M. I. Rosiglitazone reduces urinary albumin excretion in type II diabetes. J. Hum. Hypertens., 2003, 17 (1), 7-12.
142. Cheung, N.; Wang, J. J.; Klein, R.; Couper, D. J.; Sharrett, A. R.; Wong, T. Y. Diabetic retinopathy and the risk of coronary heart disease: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Diabetes Care, 2007, 30 (7), 1742-1746.
143. Cheung, N.; Wong, T. Y. Diabetic retinopathy and systemic vascular complications. Prog. Retin. Eye Res., 2008, 27 (2), 161-176.
144. Cheung, N.; Mitchell, P.; Wong, T. Y. Diabetic retinopathy. Lancet, 2010, 376 (9735), 124-136.
145. Juutilainen, A.; Lehto, S.; Ronnemaa, T.; Pyorala, K.; Laakso, M. Retinopathy predicts cardiovascular mortality in type 2 diabetic men and women. Diabetes Care, 2007, 30 (2), 292-299.
146. Liew, G.; Wong, T. Y.; Mitchell, P.; Cheung, N.; Wang, J. J. Retinopathy predicts coronary heart disease mortality. Heart, 2009, 95 (5), 391-394.
147. Rema, M.; Mohan, V.; Deepa, R.; Ravikumar, R. Association of carotid intima-media thickness and arterial stiffness with diabetic retinopathy: the Chennai Urban Rural Epidemiology Study (CURES-2). Diabetes Care, 2004, 27 (8), 1962-1967.
148. Colucciello, M. Vision loss due to macular edema induced by rosiglitazone treatment of diabetes mellitus. Arch. Ophthalmol., 2005, 123 (9), 1273-1275.
149. Ryan, E. H., Jr.; Han, D. P.; Ramsay, R. C.; Cantrill, H. L.; Bennett, S. R.; Dev, S.; Williams, D. F. Diabetic macular edema associated with glitazone use. Retina, 2006, 26 (5), 562-570.
150. Niemeyer, N. V.; Janney, L. M. Thiazolidinedione-induced edema. Pharmacotherapy, 2002, 22 (7), 924-929.
151. Fong, D. S.; Contreras, R. Glitazone use associated with diabetic macular edema. Am. J. Ophthalmol., 2009, 147 (4), 583-586.
152. Ambrosius, W. T.; Danis, R. P.; Goff, D. C., Jr.; Greven, C. M.; Gerstein, H. C.; Cohen, R. M.; Riddle, M. C.; Miller, M. E.; Buse, J. B.; Bonds, D. E.; Peterson, K. A.; Rosenberg, Y. D.; Perdue, L. H.; Esser, B. A.; Seaquist, L. A.; Felicetta, J. V.; Chew, E. Y. Lack of association between thiazolidinediones and macular edema in type 2 diabetes: the ACCORD eye substudy. Arch. Ophthalmol., 2010, 128 (3), 312-318.
153. Colucciello, M.; Ryan, E. Macular edema and thiazolidinediones. Arch. Ophthalmol., 2010, 128 (12), 1630-1631.
154. Chew, E. Y.; Ambrosius, W. T.; Davis, M. D.; Danis, R. P.; Gangaputra, S.; Greven, C. M.; Hubbard, L.; Esser, B. A.; Lovato, J. F.; Perdue, L. H.; Goff, D. C., Jr.; Cushman, W. C.; Ginsberg, H. N.; Elam, M. B.; Genuth, S.; Gerstein, H. C.; Schubart, U.; Fine, L. J. Effects of medical therapies on retinopathy progression in type 2 diabetes. N. Engl. J. Med., 2010, 363 (3), 233-244.
155. Keech, A. C.; Mitchell, P.; Summanen, P. A.; O'Day, J.; Davis, T. M.; Moffitt, M. S.; Taskinen, M. R.; Simes, R. J.; Tse, D.; Williamson, E.; Merrifield, A.; Laatikainen, L. T.; D'Emden, M. C.; Crimet, D. C.; O'Connell, R. L.; Colman, P. G. Effect of fenofibrate on the need for laser treatment for diabetic retinopathy (FIELD study): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet, 2007, 370 (9600), 1687-1697.
156. Miranda, S.; Gonzalez-Rodriguez, A.; Garcia-Ramirez, M.; Revuelta-Cervantes, J.; Hernandez, C.; Simo, R.; Valverde, A. M. Beneficial effects of fenofibrate in retinal pigment epithelium by the modulation of stress and survival signaling under diabetic conditions. J. Cell Physiol., 2011.
157. Villarroel, M.; Garcia-Ramirez, M.; Corraliza, L.; Hernandez, C.; Simo, R. Fenofibric acid prevents retinal pigment epithelium disruption induced by interleukin-1beta by suppressing MPactivated protein kinase (AMPK) activation. Diabetologia, 2011, 54 (6), 1543-1553.
158. Trudeau, K.; Roy, S.; Guo, W.; Hernandez, C.; Villarroel, M.; Simo, R.; Roy, S. Fenofibric Acid reduces fibronectin and collagen type IV overexpression in human retinal pigment epithelial cells grown in conditions mimicking the diabetic milieu: functional implications in retinal permeability. Invest Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci., 2011, 52 (9), 6348-6354.
159. Hou, X.; Shen, Y. H.; Li, C.; Wang, F.; Zhang, C.; Bu, P.; Zhang, Y. PPARalpha agonist fenofibrate protects the kidney from hypertensive injury in spontaneously hypertensive rats via inhibition of oxidative stress and MAPK activity. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 2010, 394 (3), 653-659.
160. Duhaney, T. A.; Cui, L.; Rude, M. K.; Lebrasseur, N. K.; Ngoy, S.; De Silva, D. S.; Siwik, D. A.; Liao, R.; Sam, F. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha-independent actions of fenofibrate exacerbates left ventricular dilation and fibrosis in chronic pressure overload. Hypertension, 2007, 49 (5), 1084-1094.
161. Chen, L. L.; Zhang, J. Y.; Wang, B. P. Renoprotective effects of fenofibrate in diabetic rats are achieved by suppressing kidney plasminogen activator inhibitor-1. Vascul. Pharmacol., 2006, 44 (5), 309-315.
162. Charbonnel, B.; Dormandy, J.; Erdmann, E.; Massi-Benedetti, M.; Skene, A. The prospective pioglitazone clinical trial in macrovascular events (PROactive): can pioglitazone reduce cardiovascular events in diabetes? Study design and baseline characteristics of 5238 patients. Diabetes Care, 2004, 27 (7), 1647-1653.
163. Erdmann, E.; Charbonnel, B.; Wilcox, R. G.; Skene, A. M.; Massi- Benedetti, M.; Yates, J.; Tan, M.; Spanheimer, R.; Standl, E.; Dormandy, J. A. Pioglitazone use and heart failure in patients with type 2 diabetes and preexisting cardiovascular disease: data from the PROactive study (PROactive 08). Diabetes Care, 2007, 30 (11), 2773-2778.
164. Erdmann, E.; Dormandy, J. A.; Charbonnel, B.; Massi-Benedetti, M.; Moules, I. K.; Skene, A. M. The effect of pioglitazone on recurrent myocardial infarction in 2,445 patients with type 2 diabetes and previous myocardial infarction: results from the PROactive (PROactive 05) Study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2007, 49 (17), 1772-1780.
165. Wilcox, R.; Kupfer, S.; Erdmann, E. Effects of pioglitazone on major adverse cardiovascular events in high-risk patients with type 2 diabetes: results from PROspective pioglitAzone Clinical Trial In macro Vascular Events (PROactive 10). Am. Heart J., 2008, 155 (4), 712-717.
166. Home, P. D.; Pocock, S. J.; Beck-Nielsen, H.; Curtis, P. S.; Gomis, R.; Hanefeld, M.; Jones, N. P.; Komajda, M.; McMurray, J. J. Rosiglitazone evaluated for cardiovascular outcomes in oral agent combination therapy for type 2 diabetes (RECORD): a multicentre, randomised, open-label trial. Lancet 2009, 373 (9681), 2125-2135.
167. Lipscombe, L. L.; Gomes, T.; Levesque, L. E.; Hux, J. E.; Juurlink, D. N.; Alter, D. A. Thiazolidinediones and cardiovascular outcomes in older patients with diabetes. JAMA, 2007, 298 (22), 2634-2643.
168. Winkelmayer, W. C.; Setoguchi, S.; Levin, R.; Solomon, D. H. Comparison of cardiovascular outcomes in elderly patients with diabetes who initiated rosiglitazone vs pioglitazone therapy. Arch. Intern. Med., 2008, 168 (21), 2368-2375.
169. Gerrits, C. M.; Bhattacharya, M.; Manthena, S.; Baran, R.; Perez, A.; Kupfer, S. A comparison of pioglitazone and rosiglitazone for hospitalization for acute myocardial infarction in type 2 diabetes. Pharmacoepidemiol. Drug Saf., 2007, 16 (10), 1065-1071.
170. Stockl, K. M.; Le, L.; Zhang, S.; Harada, A. S. Risk of acute myocardial infarction in patients treated with thiazolidinediones or other antidiabetic medications. Pharmacoepidemiol. Drug Saf., 2009, 18 (2), 166-174.
171. Walker, A. M.; Koro, C. E.; Landon, J. Coronary heart disease outcomes in patients receiving antidiabetic agents in the PharMetrics database 2000-2007. Pharmacoepidemiol. Drug Saf., 2008, 17 (8), 760-768.
172. Nissen, S. E.; Wolski, K. Effect of rosiglitazone on the risk of myocardial infarction and death from cardiovascular causes. N. Engl. J. Med., 2007, 356 (24), 2457-2471.
173. Ajjan, R. A.; Grant, P. J. The cardiovascular safety of rosiglitazone. Expert. Opin. Drug Saf., 2008, 7 (4), 367-376.
174. Diamond, G. A.; Bax, L.; Kaul, S. Uncertain effects of rosiglitazone on the risk for myocardial infarction and cardiovascular death. Ann. Intern. Med., 2007, 147 (8), 578-581.
175. Singh, S.; Loke, Y. K.; Furberg, C. D. Long-term risk of cardiovascular events with rosiglitazone: a meta-analysis. JAMA, 2007, 298 (10), 1189-1195.
176. Lincoff, A. M.; Wolski, K.; Nicholls, S. J.; Nissen, S. E. Pioglitazone and risk of cardiovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. JAMA, 2007, 298 (10), 1180-1188.
177. Mannucci, E.; Monami, M.; Lamanna, C.; Gensini, G. F.; Marchionni, N. Pioglitazone and cardiovascular risk. A comprehensive meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Diabetes Obes. Metab., 2008, 10 (12), 1221-1238.
178. Graham, DJ.; Gelperin K. FDA on Rosiglitazone. More on advisory committee decision. BMJ, 2010, 7, 341-C4868.
179. Lago, R. M.; Singh, P. P.; Nesto, R. W. Congestive heart failure and cardiovascular death in patients with prediabetes and type 2 diabetes given thiazolidinediones: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Lancet, 2007, 370 (9593), 1129-1136.
180. Dargie, H. J.; Hildebrandt, P. R.; Riegger, G. A.; McMurray, J. J.; McMorn, S. O.; Roberts, J. N.; Zambanini, A.; Wilding, J. P. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial assessing the effects of rosiglitazone on echocardiographic function and cardiac status in type 2 diabetic patients with New York Heart Association Functional Class I or II Heart Failure. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2007, 49 (16), 1696-1704.
181. St John, S. M.; Rendell, M.; Dandona, P.; Dole, J. F.; Murphy, K.; Patwardhan, R.; Patel, J.; Freed, M. A comparison of the effects of rosiglitazone and glyburide on cardiovascular function and glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care, 2002, 25 (11), 2058-2064.
182. Karalliedde, J.; Buckingham, R.; Starkie, M.; Lorand, D.; Stewart, M.; Viberti, G. Effect of various diuretic treatments on rosiglitazone-induced fluid retention. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., 2006, 17 (12), 3482-3490.
183. Cleland, J. G.; Atkin, S. L. Thiazolidinediones, deadly sins, surrogates, and elephants. Lancet, 2007, 370 (9593), 1103-1104.
184. Yang, T.; Michele, D. E.; Park, J.; Smart, A. M.; Lin, Z.; Brosius, F. C., III; Schnermann, J. B.; Briggs, J. P. Expression of peroxisomal proliferator-activated receptors and retinoid X receptors in the kidney. Am. J. Physiol., 1999, 277 (6 Pt 2), F966-F973.
185. Zhang, H.; Zhang, A.; Kohan, D. E.; Nelson, R. D.; Gonzalez, F. J.; Yang, T. Collecting duct-specific deletion of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma blocks thiazolidinedioneinduced fluid retention. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2005, 102 (26), 9406-9411.
186. Kleyman, T. R.; Sheng, S.; Kosari, F.; Kieber-Emmons, T. Mechanism of action of amiloride: a molecular prospective. Semin. Nephrol., 1999, 19 (6), 524-532.
187. Guan, Y.; Hao, C.; Cha, D. R.; Rao, R.; Lu, W.; Kohan, D. E.; Magnuson, M. A.; Redha, R.; Zhang, Y.; Breyer, M. D. Thiazolidinediones expand body fluid volume through PPARgamma stimulation of ENaC-mediated renal salt absorption. Nat. Med., 2005, 11 (8), 861-866.
188. Yamamoto, K.; Ohki, R.; Lee, R. T.; Ikeda, U.; Shimada, K. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma activators inhibit cardiac hypertrophy in cardiac myocytes. Circulation, 2001, 104 (14), 1670-1675.
189. Duan, S. Z.; Ivashchenko, C. Y.; Russell, M. W.; Milstone, D. S.; Mortensen, R. M. Cardiomyocyte-specific knockout and agonist of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma both induce cardiac hypertrophy in mice. Circ. Res., 2005, 97 (4), 372-379.
190. Caglayan, E.; Stauber, B.; Collins, A. R.; Lyon, C. J.; Yin, F.; Liu, J.; Rosenkranz, S.; Erdmann, E.; Peterson, L. E.; Ross, R. S.; Tangirala, R. K.; Hsueh, W. A. Differential roles of cardiomyocyte and macrophage peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma in cardiac fibrosis. Diabetes, 2008, 57 (9), 2470-2479.
191. Arakawa, K.; Ishihara, T.; Aoto, M.; Inamasu, M.; Kitamura, K.; Saito, A. An antidiabetic thiazolidinedione induces eccentric cardiac hypertrophy by cardiac volume overload in rats. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol., 2004, 31 (1-2), 8-13.
192. Sena, S.; Rasmussen, I. R.; Wende, A. R.; McQueen, A. P.; Theobald, H. A.; Wilde, N.; Pereira, R. O.; Litwin, S. E.; Berger, J. P.; Abel, E. D. Cardiac hypertrophy caused by peroxisome proliferator- activated receptor-gamma agonist treatment occurs independently of changes in myocardial insulin signaling. Endocrinology, 2007, 148 (12), 6047-6053.
193. Festuccia, W. T.; Laplante, M.; Brule, S.; Houde, V. P.; Achouba, A.; Lachance, D.; Pedrosa, M. L.; Silva, M. E.; Guerra-Sa, R.; Couet, J.; Arsenault, M.; Marette, A.; Deshaies, Y. Osiglitazoneinduced heart remodelling is associated with enhanced turnover of yofibrillar protein and mTOR activation. J. Mol. Cell Cardiol., 2009, 47 (1), 85-95.
194. Son, N. H.; Park, T. S.; Yamashita, H.; Yokoyama, M.; Huggins, L. A.; Okajima, K.; Homma, S.; Szabolcs, M. J.; Huang, L. S.; Goldberg, I. J. Cardiomyocyte expression of PPARgamma leads to cardiac dysfunction in mice. J. Clin. Invest., 2007, 117 (10), 2791-2801.
195. Krishnan, J.; Suter, M.; Windak, R.; Krebs, T.; Felley, A.; Montessuit, C.; Tokarska-Schlattner, M.; Aasum, E.; Bogdanova, A.; Perriard, E.; Perriard, J. C.; Larsen, T.; Pedrazzini, T.; Krek, W. Activation of a HIF1alpha-PPARgamma axis underlies the integration of glycolytic and lipid anabolic pathways in pathologic cardiac hypertrophy. Cell Metab., 2009, 9 (6), 512-524.
196. Birnbaum, Y.; Long, B.; Qian, J.; Perez-Polo, J. R.; Ye, Y. Pioglitazone limits myocardial infarct size, activates Akt, and upregulates cPLA2 and COX-2 in a PPAR-gamma-independent manner. Basic Res. Cardiol., 2011, 106 (3), 431-446.
197. Oudit, G. Y.; Penninger, J. M. Cardiac regulation by phosphoinositide 3-kinases and PTEN. Cardiovasc. Res., 2009, 82 (2), 250-260.
198. Bae, S.; Zhang, L. Gender differences in cardioprotection against ischemia/reperfusion injury in adult rat hearts: focus on Akt and protein kinase C signaling. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 2005, 315 (3), 1125-1135.
199. Ceci, M.; Gallo, P.; Santonastasi, M.; Grimaldi, S.; Latronico, M. V.; Pitisci, A.; Missol-Kolka, E.; Scimia, M. C.; Catalucci, D.; Hilfiker-Kleiner, D.; Condorelli, G. Cardiac-specific overexpression of E40K active Akt prevents pressure overload-induced heart failure in mice by increasing angiogenesis and reducing apoptosis. Cell Death. Differ., 2007, 14 (5), 1060-1062.
200. Aikawa, R.; Nawano, M.; Gu, Y.; Katagiri, H.; Asano, T.; Zhu, W.; Nagai, R.; Komuro, I. Insulin prevents cardiomyocytes from oxidative stress-induced apoptosis through activation of PI3 kinase/Akt. Circulation, 2000, 102 (23), 2873-2879.
201. Sussman, M. A.; Volkers, M.; Fischer, K.; Bailey, B.; Cottage, C. T.; Din, S.; Gude, N.; Avitabile, D.; Alvarez, R.; Sundararaman, B.; Quijada, P.; Mason, M.; Konstandin, M. H.; Malhowski, A.; Cheng, Z.; Khan, M.; McGregor, M. Myocardial AKT: the omnipresent nexus. Physiol Rev., 2011, 91 (3), 1023-1070.
202. Urbanek, K.; Rota, M.; Cascapera, S.; Bearzi, C.; Nascimbene, A.; De, A. A.; Hosoda, T.; Chimenti, S.; Baker, M.; Limana, F.; Nurzynska, D.; Torella, D.; Rotatori, F.; Rastaldo, R.; Musso, E.; Quaini, F.; Leri, A.; Kajstura, J.; Anversa, P. Cardiac stem cells possess growth factor-receptor systems that after activation regenerate the infarcted myocardium, improving ventricular function and long-term survival. Circ. Res., 2005, 97 (7), 663-673.
203. Ye, Y.; Hu, Z.; Lin, Y.; Zhang, C.; Perez-Polo, J. R. Downregulation of microRNA-29 by antisense inhibitors and a PPAR-gamma agonist protects against myocardial ischaemiareperfusion injury. Cardiovasc. Res., 2010, 87 (3), 535-544.
204. Biscetti, F.; Straface, G.; Arena, V.; Stigliano, E.; Pecorini, G.; Rizzo, P.; De, A. G.; Iuliano, L.; Ghirlanda, G.; Flex, A. Pioglitazone enhances collateral blood flow in ischemic hindlimb of diabetic mice through an Akt-dependent VEGF-mediated mechanism, regardless of PPARgamma stimulation. Cardiovasc. Diabetol., 2009, 8, 49.
205. Bulhak, A. A.; Jung, C.; Ostenson, C. G.; Lundberg, J. O.; Sjoquist, P. O.; Pernow, J. PPAR-alpha activation protects the type 2 diabetic myocardium against ischemia-reperfusion injury: involvement of the PI3-Kinase/Akt and NO pathway. Am. J. Physiol Heart Circ. Physiol., 2009, 296 (3), H719-H727.
206. Oshio, H.; Abe, T.; Onogawa, T.; Ohtsuka, H.; Sato, T.; Ii, T.; Fukase, K.; Muto, M.; Katayose, Y.; Oikawa, M.; Rikiyama, T.; Egawa, S.; Unno, M. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha activates cyclooxygenase-2 gene transcription through bile acid transport in human colorectal cancer cell lines. J. Gastroenterol., 2008, 43 (7), 538-549.
207. Buerke, M.; Murohara, T.; Skurk, C.; Nuss, C.; Tomaselli, K.; Lefer, A. M. Cardioprotective effect of insulin-like growth factor I in myocardial ischemia followed by reperfusion. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1995, 92 (17), 8031-8035.
208. Li, B.; Setoguchi, M.; Wang, X.; Andreoli, A. M.; Leri, A.; Malhotra, A.; Kajstura, J.; Anversa, P. Insulin-like growth factor-1 attenuates the detrimental impact of nonocclusive coronary artery constriction on the heart. Circ. Res., 1999, 84 (9), 1007-1019.
209. Mikaelian, I.; Buness, A.; Hirkaler, G.; Fernandes, R.; Coluccio, D.; Geng, W.; Visalli, T.; Bachynsky, M. O.; Berkofsky-Fessler, W.; Kanwal, C.; Hilton, H.; Nicklaus, R.; Hoflack, J. C.; Dunn, M.; Sanders, M.; Giron, M.; Boyle, B. W.; Singer, T.; Dick, L. S. Serum cardiac troponin I concentrations transiently increase in rats given rosiglitazone. Toxicol. Lett., 2011, 201 (2), 110-115.
210. Breider, M. A.; Gough, A. W.; Haskins, J. R.; Sobocinski, G.; de la Iglesia, F. A. Troglitazone-induced heart and adipose tissue cell proliferation in mice. Toxicol. Pathol., 1999, 27 (5), 545-552.
211. Szebeni, A.; Szentandrassy, N.; Pacher, P.; Simko, J.; Nanasi, P. P.; Kecskemeti, V. Can the electrophysiological action of rosiglitazone explain its cardiac side effects? Curr. Med. Chem., 2011, 18 (24), 3720-3728.
212. Grey, A.; Bolland, M.; Gamble, G.; Wattie, D.; Horne, A.; Davidson, J.; Reid, I. R. The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptorgamma agonist rosiglitazone decreases bone formation and bone mineral density in healthy postmenopausal women: a randomized, controlled trial. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 2007, 92 (4), 1305-1310.
213. Glintborg, D.; Andersen, M.; Hagen, C.; Heickendorff, L.; Hermann, A. P. Association of pioglitazone treatment with decreased bone mineral density in obese premenopausal patients with polycystic ovary syndrome: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 2008, 93 (5), 1696-1701.
214. Kintscher, U. Pharmacological differences of glitazones: does peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha activation make the difference? J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2008, 52 (10), 882-884.
215. Yki-Jarvinen, H. Thiazolidinediones. N. Engl. J. Med., 2004, 351 (11), 1106-1118.
216. Rubenstrunk, A.; Hanf, R.; Hum, D. W.; Fruchart, J. C.; Staels, B. Safety issues and prospects for future generations of PPAR modulators. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 2007, 1771 (8), 1065-1081.
217. Lewis, J. D.; Ferrara, A.; Peng, T.; Hedderson, M.; Bilker, W. B.; Quesenberry, C. P., Jr.; Vaughn, D. J.; Nessel, L.; Selby, J.; Strom, B. L. Risk of bladder cancer among diabetic patients treated with pioglitazone: interim report of a longitudinal cohort study. Diabetes Care, 2011, 34 (4), 916-922.
218. FDA Drug safety communication. (http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm255005.html) (Accesed Agust 28, 2011).
219. EMA Updates on pioglitazone. http://www.ema.europa.eu/ema/index.jsp?curl=pages/news_and_events/news/2011/07.html. (AccesedAgust 28, 2011).
220. Chang, C. H.; McNamara, L. A.; Wu, M. S.; Muise, E. S.; Tan, Y.; Wood, H. B.; Meinke, P. T.; Thompson, J. R.; Doebber, T. W.; Berger, J. P.; McCann, M. E. A novel selective peroxisome proliferatoractivator receptor-gamma modulator-SPPARgammaM5 improves insulin sensitivity with diminished adverse cardiovascular effects. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 2008, 584 (1), 192-201.
221. Oberfield, J. L.; Collins, J. L.; Holmes, C. P.; Goreham, D. M.; Cooper, J. P.; Cobb, J. E.; Lenhard, J. M.; Hull-Ryde, E. A.; Mohr, C. P.; Blanchard, S. G.; Parks, D. J.; Moore, L. B.; Lehmann, J. M.; Plunket, K.; Miller, A. B.; Milburn, M. V.; Kliewer, S. A.; Willson, T. M. A peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma ligand inhibits adipocyte differentiation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1999, 96 (11), 6102-6106.
222. Mukherjee, R.; Hoener, P. A.; Jow, L.; Bilakovics, J.; Klausing, K.; Mais, D. E.; Faulkner, A.; Croston, G. E.; Paterniti, J. R., Jr. A selective peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPARgamma) modulator blocks adipocyte differentiation but stimulates glucose uptake in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Mol. Endocrinol., 2000, 14 (9), 1425-1433.
223. Berger, J. P.; Petro, A. E.; Macnaul, K. L.; Kelly, L. J.; Zhang, B. B.; Richards, K.; Elbrecht, A.; Johnson, B. A.; Zhou, G.; Doebber, T. W.; Biswas, C.; Parikh, M.; Sharma, N.; Tanen, M. R.; Thompson, G. M.; Ventre, J.; Adams, A. D.; Mosley, R.; Surwit, R. S.; Moller, D. E. Distinct properties and advantages of a novel peroxisome proliferator-activated protein [gamma] selective modulator. Mol. Endocrinol., 2003, 17 (4), 662-676.
224. Minoura, H.; Takeshita, S.; Ita, M.; Hirosumi, J.; Mabuchi, M.; Kawamura, I.; Nakajima, S.; Nakayama, O.; Kayakiri, H.; Oku, T.; Ohkubo-Suzuki, A.; Fukagawa, M.; Kojo, H.; Hanioka, K.; Yamasaki, N.; Imoto, T.; Kobayashi, Y.; Mutoh, S. Pharmacological characteristics of a novel nonthiazolidinedione insulin sensitizer, FK614. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 2004, 494 (2-3), 273-281.
225. Burgermeister, E.; Schnoebelen, A.; Flament, A.; Benz, J.; Stihle, M.; Gsell, B.; Rufer, A.; Ruf, A.; Kuhn, B.; Marki, H. P.; Mizrahi, J.; Sebokova, E.; Niesor, E.; Meyer, M. A novel partial agonist of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPARgamma) recruits PPARgamma-coactivator-1alpha, prevents triglyceride accumulation, and potentiates insulin signaling in vitro. Mol. Endocrinol., 2006, 20 (4), 809-830.
226. Cavender, M. A.; Lincoff, A. M. Therapeutic potential of aleglitazar, a new dual PPAR-alpha/gamma agonist: implications for cardiovascular disease in patients with diabetes mellitus. Am. J. Cardiovasc. Drugs, 2010, 10 (4), 209-216.