Oral and gastrointestinal sensing of dietary fat and appetite regulation in humans: Modification by diet and obesity

Frontiers in Neuroscience

Volumn 4, Issue OCT, 2010, Pages

  Little, Tanya J ^a,b   Feinle Bisset, Christine ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE   (Australia)

Author keywords

Energy intake; Fat sensing; Fatty acids; Gastrointestinal function; High fat diet; Obesity; Taste

Indexed keywords

EID: 79960389085     PISSN: 16624548     EISSN: 1662453X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2010.00178     Document Type: Review

References (108)

1. Abumrad, N. A. (2005). CD36 may determine our desire for dietary fats. J. Clin. Invest. 115, 2965-2967.
2. Armand, M., Pasquier, B., Andre, M., Borel, P., Senft, M., Peyrot, J., Salducci, J., Portugal, H., Jaussan, V., and Lairon, D. (1999). Digestion and absorption of 2 fat emulsions with different droplet sizes in the human digestive tract. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 70, 1096-1106.
3. Artmann, A., Petersen, G., Hellgren, L. I., Boberg, J., Skonberg, C., Nellemann, C., Hansen, S. H., and Hansen, H. S. (2008). Influence of dietary fatty acids on endocannabinoid and N-acylethanolamine levels in rat brain, liver and small intestine. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1781, 200-212.
4. Azpiroz, F., and Malagelada, J. R. (1985). Intestinal control of gastric tone. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 249, G501-G509.
5. Bach, A. C., Ingenbleek, Y., and Frey, A. (1996). The usefulness of dietary medium-chain triglycerides in body weight control: fact or fancy? J. Lipid Res. 37, 708-726.
6. Blundell, J. E., Stubbs, R. J., Golding, C., Croden, F., Alam, R., Whybrow, S., Le Noury, J., and Lawton, C. L. (2005). Resistance and susceptibility to weight gain: individual variability in response to a high-fat diet. Physiol. Behav. 86, 614-622.
7. Borovicka, J., Schwizer, W., Guttmann, G., Hartmann, D., Kosinski, M., Wastiel, C., Bischof-Delaloye, A., and Fried, M. (2000). Role of lipase in the regulation of postprandial gastric acid secretion and emptying of fat in humans: a study with orlistat, a highly specific lipase inhibitor. Gut 46, 774-781.
8. Bouchard, C. (2000). Inhibition of food intake by inhibitors of fatty acid synthase. N. Engl. J. Med. 343, 1888-1889.
9. Boyd, K. A., O'Donovan, D. G., Doran, S., Wishart, J., Chapman, I. M., Horowitz, M., and Feinle, C. (2003). High-fat diet effects on gut motility, hormone, and appetite responses to duodenal lipid in healthy men. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 285, G188-G196.
10. Brennan, I. M., Feltrin, K. L., Horowitz, M., Smout, A. J., Meyer, J. H., Wishart, J., and Feinle-Bisset, C. (2005). Evaluation of interactions between CCK and GLP-1 in their effects on appetite, energy intake and antropyloroduodenal motility in healthy men. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 288, R1477-R1485.
11. Briscoe, C. P., Tadayyon, M., Andrews, J. L., Benson, W. G., Chambers, J. K., Eilert, M. M. Ellis, C., Elshourbagy, N. A., Goetz, A. S., Minnick, D. T., Murdock, P. R., Sauls, H. R. Jr., Shabon, U., Spinage, L. D., Strum, J. C., Szekeres, P. G., Tan, K. B., Way, J. M., Ignar, D. M., Wilson, S., and Muir, A. I. (2003). The orphan G protein-coupled receptor GPR40 is activated by medium and long chain fatty acids. J. Biol. Chem. 278, 11303-11311.
12. Castiglione, K. E., Read, N. W., and French, S. J. (2002). Adaptation to high-fat diet accelerates emptying of fat but not carbohydrate test meals in humans. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 282, R366-R371.
13. Chale-Rush, A., Burgess, J. R., and Mattes, R. D. (2007a). Evidence for human orosensory (taste?) sensitivity to free fatty acids. Chem. Senses 32, 423-431.
14. Chale-Rush, A., Burgess, J. R., and Mattes, R. D. (2007b). Multiple routes of chemosensitivity to free fatty acids in humans. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 292, G1206-1212.
15. Chaudhri, O. B., Salem, V., Murphy, K. G., and Bloom, S. R. (2008). Gastrointestinal satiety signals. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 70, 239-255.
16. Cooke, A. R. (1977). Localization of receptors inhibiting gastric emptying in the gut. Gastroenterology 72, 875-880.
17. Covasa, M., Grahn, J., and Ritter, R. C. (2000). Reduced hindbrain and enteric neuronal response to intestinal oleate in rats maintained on high-fat diet. Auton. Neurosci. 84, 8-18.
18. Covasa, M., Marcuson, J. K., and Ritter, R. C. (2001). Diminished satiation in rats exposed to elevated levels of endogenous or exogenous cholecystokinin. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 280, R331-R337.
19. Covasa, M., and Ritter, R. C. (1998). Rats maintained on high-fat diets exhibit reduced satiety in response to CCK and bombesin. Peptides 19, 1407-1415.
20. Covasa, M., and Ritter, R. C. (1999). Reduced sensitivity to the satiation effect of intestinal oleate in rats adapted to high-fat diet. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 277, R279-R285.
21. Covasa, M., and Ritter, R. C. (2000). Adaptation to high-fat diet reduces inhibition of gastric emptying by CCK and intestinal oleate. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 278, R166-R170.
22. Crystal, S. R., and Teff, K. L. (2006). Tasting fat: cephalic phase hormonal responses and food intake in restrained and unrestrained eaters. Physiol. Behav. 89, 213-220.
23. Cunningham, K. M., Daly, J., Horowitz, M., and Read, N. W. (1991). Gastrointestinal adaptation to diets of differing fat composition in human volunteers. Gut 32, 483-486.
24. De Araujo, I. E., and Rolls, E. T. (2004). Representation in the human brain of food texture and oral fat. J. Neurosci. 24, 3086-3093.
25. Degen, L., Drewe, J., Piccoli, F., Grani, K., Oesch, S., Bunea, R., D'Amato, M., and Beglinger, C. (2007). Effect of CCK-1 receptor blockade on ghrelin and PYY secretion in man. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 292, R1391-R1399.
26. Degen, L., Matzinger, D., Drewe, J., Nissle, S., Maecke, H., Lengsfeld, H., Hadvary, P., and Beglinger, C. (2006). Role of free Fatty acids in regulating gastric emptying and gallbladder contraction. Digestion 74, 131-139.
27. Donovan, M. J., Paulino, G., and Raybould, H. E. (2009). Activation of hindbrain neurons in response to gastrointestinal lipid is attenuated by high fat, high energy diets in mice prone to diet-induced obesity. Brain Res. 1248, 136-140.
28. Edfalk, S., Steneberg, P., and Edlund, H. (2008). GPR40 is expressed in enteroendocrine cells and mediates free fatty acid stimulation of incretin secretion. Diabetes 57, 2280-2287.
29. Feinle, C., D'Amato, M., and Read, N. W. (1996). Cholecystokinin-A receptors modulate gastric sensory and motor responses to gastric distension and duodenal lipid. Gastroenterology 110, 1379-1385.
30. Feinle, C., O'Donovan, D. G., Doran, S., Andrews, J. M., Wishart, J., Chapman, I., and Horowitz, M. (2003). Effects of fat digestion on appetite, APD motility, and gut hormones in response to duodenal fat infusion in humans. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 284, G798-G807.
31. Feinle, C., Rades, T., Otto, B., and Fried, M. (2001). Fat digestion modulates gastrointestinal sensations induced by gastric distention and duodenal lipid in humans. Gastroenterology 120, 1100-1107.
32. Feinle-Bisset, C., Patterson, M., Ghatei, M. A., Bloom, S. R., and Horowitz, M. (2005). Fat digestion is required for suppression of ghrelin and stimulation of peptide YY and pancreatic polypeptide secretion by intraduodenal lipid. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 289, E948-E953.
33. Feltrin, K. L., Little, T. J., Meyer, J. H., Horowitz, M., Rades, T., Wishart, J., and Feinle-Bisset, C. (2008). Comparative effects of intraduodenal infusions of lauric and oleic acids on antropyloroduodenal motility, plasma cholecystokinin and peptide YY, appetite, and energy intake in healthy men. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 87, 1181-1187.
34. Feltrin, K. L., Little, T. J., Meyer, J. H., Horowitz, M., Smout, A. J., Wishart, J., Pilichiewicz, A. N., Rades, T., Chapman, I. M., and Feinle-Bisset, C. (2004). Effects of intraduodenal fatty acids on appetite, antropyloroduodenal motility, and plasma CCK and GLP-1 in humans vary with their chain length. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 287, R524-R533.
35. Feltrin, K. L., Patterson, M., Ghatei, M. A., Bloom, S. R., Meyer, J. H., Horowitz, M., and Feinle-Bisset, C. (2006). Effect of fatty acid chain length on suppression of ghrelin and stimulation of PYY, GLP-2 and PP secretion in healthy men. Peptides 27, 1638-1643.
36. French, S. J., Murray, B., Rumsey, R. D., Fadzlin, R., and Read, N. W. (1995). Adaptation to high-fat diets: effects on eating behaviour and plasma cholecystokinin. Br. J. Nutr. 73, 179-189.
37. French, S. J., Murray, B., Rumsey, R. D., Sepple, C. P., and Read, N. W. (1993). Preliminary studies on the gastrointestinal responses to fatty meals in obese people. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 17, 295-300.
38. Fu, J., Gaetani, S., Oveisi, F., Lo Verme, J., Serrano, A., Rodriguez De Fonseca, F., Rosengarth, A., Luecke, H., Di Giacomo, B., Tarzia, G., and Piomelli, D. (2003). Oleylethanolamide regulates feeding and body weight through activation of the nuclear receptor PPAR-alpha. Nature 425, 90-93.
39. Fu, J., Kim, J., Oveisi, F., Astarita, G., and Piomelli, D. (2008). Targeted enhancement of oleoylethanolamide production in proximal small intestine induces across-meal satiety in rats. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 295, R45-R50.
40. Fu, J., Oveisi, F., Gaetani, S., Lin, E., and Piomelli, D. (2005). Oleoylethanolamide, an endogenous PPAR-alpha agonist, lowers body weight and hyperlipidemia in obese rats. Neuropharmacology 48, 1147-1153.
41. Gaillard, D., Laugerette, F., Darcel, N., El-Yassimi, A., Passilly-Degrace, P., Hichami, A., Khan, N. A., Montmayeur, J. P., and Besnard, P. (2008). The gustatory pathway is involved in CD36-mediated orosensory perception of long-chain fatty acids in the mouse. FASEB J. 22, 1458-1468.
42. Gilbertson, T. A. (1998). Gustatory mechanisms for the detection of fat. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 8, 447-452.
43. Gilbertson, T. A., Liu, L., Kim, I., Burks, C. A., and Hansen, D. R. (2005). Fatty acid responses in taste cells from obesity-prone and -resistant rats. Physiol. Behav. 86, 681-690.
44. Gilbertson, T. A., Liu, L., York, D. A., and Bray, G. A. (1998). Dietary fat preferences are inversely correlated with peripheral gustatory fatty acid sensitivity. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 855, 165-168.
45. Glatzle, J., Darcel, N., Rechs, A. J., Kalogeris, T. J., Tso, P., and Raybould, H. E. (2004). Apolipoprotein (apo) A-IV stimulates duodenal vagal afferent fiber activity to inhibit gastric motility via a CCK-1 receptor dependent pathway. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 287, R354-R359.
46. Glatzle, J., Kalogeris, T. J., Zittel, T. T., Guerrini, S., Tso, P., and Raybould, H. E. (2002). Chylomicron components mediate intestinal lipid-induced inhibition of gastric motor function. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 282, G86-G91.
47. Golay, A., and Bobbioni, E. (1997). The role of dietary fat in obesity. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 21(Suppl. 3), S2-S11.
48. Heath, R. B., Jones, R., Frayn, K. N., and Robertson, M. D. (2004). Vagal stimulation exaggerates the inhibitory ghrelin response to oral fat in humans. J. Endocrinol. 180, 273-281.
49. Heddle, R., Collins, P. J., Dent, J., Horowitz, M., Read, N. W., Chatterton, B., and Houghton, L. A. (1989). Motor mechanisms associated with slowing of the gastric emptying of a solid meal by an intraduodenal lipid infusion. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 4, 437-447.
50. Heddle, R., Dent, J., Read, N. W., Houghton, L. A., Toouli, J., Horowitz, M., Maddern, G. J., and Downton, J. (1988a). Antropyloroduodenal motor responses to intraduodenal lipid infusion in healthy volunteers. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 254, G671-G679.
51. Heddle, R., Dent, J., Toouli, J., and Read, N. W. (1988b). Topography and measurement of pyloric pressure waves and tone in humans. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 255, G490-G497.
52. Herrmann, C., Goke, R., Richter, G., Fehmann, H. C., Arnold, R., and Goke, B. (1995). Glucagon-like peptide-1 and glucose-dependent insulin-releasing polypeptide plasma levels in response to nutrients. Digestion 56, 117-126.
53. Hirasawa, A., Tsumaya, K., Awaji, T., Katsuma, S., Adachi, T., Yamada, M., Sugimoto, Y., Miyazaki, S., and Tsujimoto, G. (2005). Free fatty acids regulate gut incretin glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion through GPR120. Nat. Med. 11, 90-94.
54. Hunt, J. N., and Knox, M. T. (1968). A relation between the chain length of fatty acids and the slowing of gastric emptying. J. Physiol. (Lond) 194, 327-336.
55. Lal, S., McLaughlin, J., Barlow, J., D'Amato, M., Giacovelli, G., Varro, A., Dockray, G. J., and Thompson, D. G. (2004). Cholecystokinin pathways modulate sensations induced by gastric distension in man. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 287, G72-G79.
56. Lan, H., Vassileva, G., Corona, A., Liu, L., Baker, H., Golovko, A., Abbondanzo, S. J., Hu, W., Yang, S., Ning, Y., Del Vecchio, R. A., Poulet, F., Laverty, M., Gustafson, E. L., Hedrick, J. A., and Kowalski, T. J. (2009). GPR119 is required for physiological regulation of glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion but not for metabolic homeostasis. J. Endocrinol. 201, 219-230.
57. Lane, M. D., Hu, Z., Cha, S. H., Dai, Y., Wolfgang, M., and Sidhaye, A. (2005). Role of malonyl-CoA in the hypothalamic control of food intake and energy expenditure. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 33, 1063-1067.
58. Lassman, D. J., McKie, S., Gregory, L. J., Lal, S., D'Amato, M., Steele, I., Varro, A., Dockray, G. J., Williams, S. C. R., and Thompson, D. G. (2010). Defining the role of CCK in the lipid induced human brain activation matrix. Gastroenterology 138, 1514-1524.
59. Lauffer, L. M., Iakoubov, R., and Brubaker, P. L. (2009). GPR119 is essential for oleoylethanolamide-induced glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion from the intestinal enteroendocrine L-cell. Diabetes 58, 1058-1066.
60. Lissner, L., and Heitmann, B. L. (1995). Dietary fat and obesity: evidence from epidemiology. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 49, 79-90.
61. Lissner, L., Levitsky, D. A., Strupp, B. J., Kalkwarf, H. J., and Roe, D. A. (1987). Dietary fat and the regulation of energy intake in human subjects. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 46, 886-892.
62. Little, T. J., Feltrin, K. L., Horowitz, M., Meyer, J. H., Wishart, J., Chapman, I. M., and Feinle-Bisset, C. (2008). A high-fat diet raises fasting plasma CCK but does not affect upper gut motility, PYY, and ghrelin, or energy intake during CCK-8 infusion in lean men. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 294, R45-R51.
63. Little, T. J., Feltrin, K. L., Horowitz, M., Smout, A. J., Rades, T., Meyer, J. H., Pilichiewicz, A. N., Wishart, J., and Feinle-Bisset, C. (2005). Dose-related effects of lauric acid on antropyloroduodenal motility, gastrointestinal hormone release, appetite, and energy intake in healthy men. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 289, R1090-R1098.
64. Little, T. J., Russo, A., Meyer, J. H., Horowitz, M., Smyth, D. R., Bellon, M., Wishart, J. M., Jones, K. L., and Feinle-Bisset, C. (2007). Free fatty acids have more potent effects on gastric emptying, gut hormones, and appetite than triacylglycerides. Gastroenterology 133, 1124-1131.
65. Lo, C. M., King, A., Samuelson, L. C., Kindel, T. L., Rider, T., Jandacek, R. J., Raybould, H. E., Woods, S. C., and Tso, P. (2010). Cholecystokinin knockout mice are resistant to high-fat diet-induced obesity. Gastroenterology 138, 1997-2005.
66. Lo, C. M., Ma, L., Zhang, D. M., Lee, R., Qin, A., Liu, M., Woods, S. C., Sakai, R. R., Raybould, H. E., and Tso, P. (2007). Mechanism of the induction of brain c-Fos-positive neurons by lipid absorption. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 292, R268-R273.
67. Lobo, M. V., Huerta, L., Ruiz-Velasco, N., Teixeiro, E., de la Cueva, P., Celdran, A., Martin-Hidalgo, A., Vega, M. A., and Bragado, R. (2001). Localization of the lipid receptors CD36 and CLA-1/SR-BI in the human gastrointestinal tract: towards the identification of receptors mediating the intestinal absorption of dietary lipids. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 49, 1253-1260.
68. Lutter, M., and Nestler, E. J. (2009). Homeostatic and hedonic signals interact in the regulation of food intake. J. Nutr. 139, 629-632.
69. MacIntosh, C. G., Andrews, J. M., Jones, K. L., Wishart, J. M., Morris, H. A., Jansen, J. B., Morley, J. E., Horowitz, M., and Chapman, I. M. (1999). Effects of age on concentrations of plasma cholecystokinin, glucagon-like peptide-1, and peptide YY and their relation to appetite and pyloric motility. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 69, 999-1006.
70. Marciani, L., Faulks, R., Wickham, M. S., Bush, D., Pick, B., Wright, J., Cox, E. F., Fillery-Travis, A., Gowland, P. A., and Spiller, R. C. (2009). Effect of intragastric acid stability of fat emulsions on gastric emptying, plasma lipid profile and postprandial satiety. Br. J. Nutr. 101, 919-928.
71. Marciani, L., Wickham, M., Singh, G., Bush, D., Pick, B., Cox, E., Fillery-Travis, A., Faulks, R., Marsden, C., Gowland, P. A., and Spiller, R. C. (2007). Enhancement of intragastric acid stability of a fat emulsion meal delays gastric emptying and increases cholecystokinin release and gallbladder contraction. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 292, G1607-G1613.
72. Matsumura, S., Eguchi, A., Mizushige, T., Kitabayashi, N., Tsuzuki, S., Inoue, K., and Fushiki, T. (2009). Colocalization of GPR120 with phospholipase-Cbeta2 and alpha-gustducin in the taste bud cells in mice. Neurosci. Lett. 450, 186-190.
73. Mattes, R. D. (1996). Oral fat exposure alters postprandial lipid metabolism in humans. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 63, 911-917.
74. Mattes, R. D. (2009a). Brief oral stimulation, but especially oral fat exposure, elevates serum triglycerides in humans. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 296, G365-G371.
75. Mattes, R. D. (2009b). Is there a fatty acid taste? Annu. Rev. Nutr. 29, 305-327.
76. Matzinger, D., Degen, L., Drewe, J., Meuli, J., Duebendorfer, R., Ruckstuhl, N., D'Amato, M., Rovati, L., and Beglinger, C. (2000). The role of long chain fatty acids in regulating food intake and cholecystokinin release in humans. Gut 46, 688-693.
77. McLaughlin, J., Grazia-Luca, M., Jones, M. N., D'Amato, M., Dockray, G. J., and Thompson, D. G. (1999). Fatty acid chain length determines cholecystokinin secretion and effect on human gastric motility. Gastroenterology 116, 46-53.
78. Mela, D. J., and Sacchetti, D. A. (1991). Sensory preferences for fats: relationships with diet and body composition. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 53, 908-915.
79. Meyer, J. H., Elashoff, J. D., and Lake, R. (1999). Gastric emptying of indigestible versus digestible oils and solid fats in normal humans. Dig. Dis. Sci. 44, 1076-1082.
80. Meyer, J. H., Hlinka, M., Kao, D., Lake, R., MacLaughlin, E., Graham, L. S., and Elashoff, J. D. (1996). Gastric emptying of oil from solid and liquid meals. Effect of human pancreatic insufficiency. Dig. Dis. Sci. 41, 1691-1699.
81. Meyer, J. H., Hlinka, M., Khatibi, A., Raybould, H. E., and Tso, P. (1998a). Role of small intestine in caloric compensations to oil premeals in rats. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 275, R1320-R1333.
82. Meyer, J. H., Hlinka, M., Tabrizi, Y., DiMaso, N., and Raybould, H. E. (1998b). Chemical specificities and intestinal distributions of nutrient-driven satiety. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 275, R1293-R1307.
83. Miyauchi, S., Hirasawa, A., Ichimura, A., Hara, T., and Tsujimoto, G. (2010). New frontiers in gut nutrient sensor research: free fatty acid sensing in the gastrointestinal tract. J. Pharmacol. Sci. 112, 19-24.
84. O'Donovan, D., Feinle-Bisset, C., Wishart, J., and Horowitz, M. (2003). Lipase inhibition attenuates the acute effects of oral fat on food intake in healthy subjects. Br. J. Nutr. 90, 849-852.
85. Overton, H. A., Babbs, A. J., Doel, S. M., Fyfe, M. C., Gardner, L. S., Griffin, G., Jackson, H. C., Procter, M. J., Rasamison, C. M., Tang-Christensen, M., Widdowson, P. S., Williams, G. M., and Reynet, C. (2006). Deorphanization of a G protein-coupled receptor for oleoylethanolamide and its use in the discovery of small-molecule hypophagic agents. Cell Metab. 3, 167-175.
86. Park, M. I., Camilleri, M., O'Connor, H., Oenning, L., Burton, D., Stephens, D., and Zinsmeister, A. R. (2007). Effect of different macronutrients in excess on gastric sensory and motor functions and appetite in normal-weight, overweight, and obese humans. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 85, 411-418.
87. Pilichiewicz, A., O'Donovan, D., Feinle, C., Lei, Y., Wishart, J. M., Bryant, L., Meyer, J. H., Horowitz, M., and Jones, K. L. (2003). Effect of lipase inhibition on gastric emptying of, and the glycemic and incretin responses to, an oil/aqueous drink in type 2 diabetes mellitus. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 88, 3829-3834.
88. Randich, A., Tyler, W. J., Cox, J. E., Meller, S. T., Kelm, G. R., and Bharaj, S. S. (2000). Responses of celiac and cervical vagal afferents to infusions of lipids in the jejunum or ileum of the rat. Am. J. Physiol. 278, R34-R43.
89. Raybould, H. E., Meyer, J. H., Tabrizi, Y., Liddle, R. A., and Tso, P. (1998). Inhibition of gastric emptying in response to intestinal lipid is dependent on chylomicron formation. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 274, R1834-R1838.
90. Read, N., French, S., and Cunningham, K. (1994). The role of the gut in regulating food intake in man. Nutr. Rev. 52, 1-10.
91. Rolls, B. J. (1995). Carbohydrates, fats, and satiety. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 61(Suppl.), 960S-967S.
92. Rolls, E. T. (2010). Taste, olfactory and food texture reward processing in the brain and obesity. Int. J. Obes. (Lond). doi: 10.1038/ijo.2010.163.
93. Schirra, J., Houck, P., Wank, U., Arnold, R., Goke, B., and Katschinski, M. (2000). Effects of glucagon-like peptide-1(7-36)amide on antro-pyloro-duodenal motility in the interdigestive state and with duodenal lipid perfusion in humans. Gut 46, 622-631.
94. Schwartz, G. J. (2000). The role of gastrointestinal vagal afferents in the control of food intake: current prospects. Nutrition 16, 866-873.
95. Schwartz, G. J., Fu, J., Astarita, G., Li, X., Gaetani, S., Campolongo, P., Cuomo, V., and Piomelli, D. (2008). The lipid messenger OEA links dietary fat intake to satiety. Cell Metab. 8, 281-288.
96. Schwizer, W., Asal, K., Kreiss, C., Mettraux, C., Borovicka, J., Remy, B., Guzelhan, C., Hartmann, D., and Fried, M. (1997). Role of lipase in the regulation of upper gastrointestinal function in humans. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 273, G612-G620.
97. Seimon, R. V., Lange, K., Little, T. J., Brennan, I. M., Pilichiewicz, A., Feltrin, K. L., Smeets, A. J., Horowitz, M., and Feinle-Bisset, C. (2010). Pooled data analysis identifies pyloric pressures and plasma CCK concentrations as major determinants of acute energy intake in healthy lean males. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 92, 61-68.
98. Seimon, R. V., Wooster, T., Otto, B., Golding, M., Day, L., Little, T. J., Horowitz, M., Clifton, P. M., and Feinle-Bisset, C. (2009). The droplet size of intraduodenal fat emulsions influences antropyloroduodenal motility, hormone release, and appetite in healthy males. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 89, 1729-1736.
99. Smeets, A. J., Lejeune, M. P., and Westerterp-Plantenga, M. S. (2009). Effects of oral fat perception by modified sham feeding on energy expenditure, hormones and appetite profile in the postprandial state. Br. J. Nutr. 101, 1360-1368.
100. Smeets, A. J., and Westerterp-Plantenga, M. S. (2006). Satiety and substrate mobilization after oral fat stimulation. Br. J. Nutr. 95, 795-801.
101. Spannagel, A. W., Nakano, I., Tawil, T., Chey, W. Y., Liddle, R. A., and Green, G. M. (1996). Adaptation to fat markedly increases pancreatic secretory response to intraduodenal fat in rats. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 270, G128-G135.
102. Speechly, D. P., and Buffenstein, R. (2000). Appetite dysfunction in obese males: evidence for role of hyperinsulinaemia in passive overconsumption with a high fat diet. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 54, 225-233.
103. Stewart, J. E., Feinle-Bisset, C., Golding, M., Delahunty, C., Clifton, P. M., and Keast, R. S. (2010a). Oral sensitivity to fatty acids, food consumption and BMI in human subjects. Br. J. Nutr. 104, 145-152.
104. Stewart, J. E., Seimon, R. V., Otto, B., Keast, R. S. J., Clifton, P. M., and Feinle-Bisset, C. (2010b). Differences in gustatory and gastrointestinal (GI) sensitivity to oleic acid between lean and obese. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 22(Suppl. 1), 24.
105. Tanaka, T., Katsuma, S., Adachi, T., Koshimizu, T. A., Hirasawa, A., and Tsujimoto, G. (2008). Free fatty acids induce cholecystokinin secretion through GPR120. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch. Pharmacol. 377, 523-527.
106. Wisen, O., and Johansson, C. (1992). Gastrointestinal function in obesity: motility, secretion, and absorption following a liquid test meal. Metab. Clin. Exp. 41, 390-395.
107. Wojdemann, M., Olsen, O., Norregaard, P., Sternby, B., and Rehfeld, J. F. (1997). Gastric lipase secretion after sham feeding and cholinergic blockade. Dig. Dis. Sci. 42, 1070-1075.
108. Woods, S. C., Seeley, R. J., Rushing, P. A., D'Alessio, D., and Tso, P. (2003). A controlled high-fat diet induces an obese syndrome in rats. J. Nutr. 133, 1081-1087.