Buying time-the immune system determinants of the incubation period to respiratory viruses

Viruses

Volumn 2, Issue 11, 2010, Pages 2541-2558

  Hermesh, Tamar ^a   Moltedo, Bruno ^a   López, Carolina B ^a,b   Moran, Thomas M ^a  

^a MOUNT SINAI SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Cytokines; Incubation period; Influenza; Innate immune response; Respiratory infection; Stealth phase; Type i interferons; Virus

Indexed keywords

ALPHA INTERFERON; BETA INTERFERON; GAMMA INTERFERON; INTERFERON STIMULATED GENE FACTOR 3; INTERLEUKIN 1; INTERLEUKIN 18; INTERLEUKIN 1BETA; INTERLEUKIN 29; INTERLEUKIN 33; INTERLEUKIN 6; INTERLEUKIN 8; MACROPHAGE INFLAMMATORY PROTEIN 1BETA; MELANOMA DIFFIRENTIATION ASSOCIATED PROTEIN 5; NUCLEOTIDE BINDING OLIGOMERIZATION DOMAIN LIKE RECEPTOR; NUCLEOTIDE BINDING OLIGOMERIZATION DOMAIN LIKE RECEPTOR 3; RETINOIC ACID INDUCIBLE PROTEIN I; RETINOIC ACID INDUCIBLE PROTEIN I LIKE RECEPTOR; STAT1 PROTEIN; STAT2 PROTEIN; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR 2; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR 3; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR 4; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR 6; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR 7; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR 8; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR 9; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VIRUS RECEPTOR;

ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY; COMPLEX FORMATION; COUGHING; CYTOKINE RELEASE; FEVER; HUMAN; INCUBATION TIME; INFLAMMATION; INFLUENZA VIRUS; INNATE IMMUNITY; MOLECULAR RECOGNITION; MUMPS VIRUS; MURINE PNEUMONIA VIRUS; NONHUMAN; PROTEIN DETERMINATION; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; PROTEIN FUNCTION; RESPIRATORY VIRUS; REVIEW; RHINORRHEA; SENDAI VIRUS; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SNEEZING; TRANSCRIPTION REGULATION; VIRUS CELL INTERACTION; VIRUS INHIBITION; VIRUS REPLICATION;

ANIMALIA; RNA VIRUSES;

EID: 79952135793     PISSN: None     EISSN: 19994915     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/v2112541     Document Type: Review

References (130)

1. Lessler, J.; Reich, N.G.; Brookmeyer, R.; Perl, T.M.; Nelson, K.E.; Cummings, D.A. Incubation periods of acute respiratory viral infections: A systematic review. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2009, 9, 291-300.
2. Monto, A.S.; Gravenstein, S.; Elliott, M.; Colopy, M.; Schweinle, J. Clinical signs and symptoms predicting influenza infection. Arch. Intern. Med. 2000, 160, 3243-3247.
3. Couch, R.B. Medical Microbiology, 4th ed.; University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston: Galveston, Texas, TX, USA, 1996.
4. Hayden, F.G.; Fritz, R.; Lobo, M.C.; Alvord, W.; Strober, W.; Straus, S.E. Local and systemic cytokine responses during experimental human influenza A virus infection. Relation to symptom formation and host defense. J. Clin. Invest. 1998, 101, 643-649.
5. Noah, T.L.; Henderson, F.W.; Wortman, I.A.; Devlin, R.B.; Handy, J.; Koren, H.S.; Becker, S. Nasal cytokine production in viral acute upper respiratory infection of childhood. J. Infect. Dis. 1995, 171, 584-592.
6. Skoner, D.P.; Gentile, D.A.; Patel, A.; Doyle, W.J. Evidence for cytokine mediation of disease expression in adults experimentally infected with influenza A virus. J. Infect. Dis. 1999, 180, 10-14.
7. Eccles, R. Understanding the symptoms of the common cold and influenza. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2005, 5, 718-725.
8. Collins, P.L.; Graham, B.S. Viral and host factors in human respiratory syncytial virus pathogenesis. J. Virol. 2008, 82, 2040-2055.
9. Everard, M.L.; Swarbrick, A.; Wrightham, M.; McIntyre, J.; Dunkley, C.; James, P.D.; Sewell, H.F.; Milner, A.D. Analysis of cells obtained by bronchial lavage of infants with respiratory syncytial virus infection. Arch. Dis. Child. 1994, 71, 428-432.
10. Smith, R.S. The cytokine theory of headache. Med. Hypotheses 1992, 39, 168-174.
11. Gold, R.; Rieckmann, P.; Chang, P.; Abdalla, J. The long-term safety and tolerability of high-dose interferon beta-1a in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: 4-year data from the PRISMS study. Eur. J. Neurol. 2005, 12, 649-656.
12. Schaefer, M.; Schmidt, F.; Neumer, R.; Scholler, G.; Schwarz, M. Interferon-alpha, cytokines and possible implications for mood disorders. Bipolar. Disord. 2002, 4 (Suppl. 1), 111-113.
13. Capuron, L.; Miller, A.H. Cytokines and psychopathology: Lessons from interferon-alpha. Biol. Psychiatry 2004, 56, 819-824.
14. Dinarello, C.A. Biologic basis for interleukin-1 in disease. Blood 1996, 87, 2095-2147.
15. Netea, M.G.; Kullberg, B.J.; Van der Meer, J.W. Circulating cytokines as mediators of fever. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2000, 31 (Suppl. 5), S178-S184.
16. Leon, L.R. Molecular Biology of Thermoregulation: Invited review: Cytokine regulation of fever: Studies using gene knockout mice. J. Appl. Physiol. 2002, 92, 2648-2655.
17. Baracos, V.; Rodemann, H.P.; Dinarello, C.A.; Goldberg, A.L. Stimulation of muscle protein degradation and prostaglandin E2 release by leukocytic pyrogen (interleukin-1). A mechanism for the increased degradation of muscle proteins during fever. N. Engl. J. Med. 1983, 308, 553-558.
18. Conti, B.; Tabarean, I.; Andrei, C.; Bartfai, T. Cytokines and fever. Front. Biosci. 2004, 9, 1433-1449.
19. Leung, A.K.; Robson, W.L. Sneezing. J. Otolaryngol. 1994, 23, 125-129.
20. Mygind, N.; Secher, C.; Kirkegaard, J. Role of histamine and antihistamines in the nose. Eur. J. Respir. Dis. Suppl. 1983, 128 (Pt. 1), 16-20.
21. Jacoby, D.B. Pathophysiology of airway viral infections. Pulm. Pharmacol. Ther. 2004, 17, 333-336.
22. Widdicombe, J.G. Neurophysiology of the cough reflex. Eur. Respir. J. 1995, 8, 1193-1202.
23. Stockley, R.A.; Bayley, D.; Hill, S.L.; Hill, A.T.; Crooks, S.; Campbell, E.J. Assessment of airway neutrophils by sputum colour: Correlation with airways inflammation. Thorax 2001, 56, 366-372.
24. Akerlund, A.; Greiff, L.; Andersson, M.; Bende, M.; Alkner, U.; Persson, C.G. Mucosal exudation of fibrinogen in coronavirus-induced common colds. Acta Otolaryngol. 1993, 113, 642-648.
25. Alexopoulou, L.; Holt, A.C.; Medzhitov, R.; Flavell, R.A. Recognition of double-stranded RNA and activation of NF-kappaB by Toll-like receptor 3. Nature 2001, 413, 732-738.
26. Matsumoto, M.; Funami, K.; Tanabe, M.; Oshiumi, H.; Shingai, M.; Seto, Y.; Yamamoto, A.; Seya, T. Subcellular localization of Toll-like receptor 3 in human dendritic cells. J. Immunol. 2003, 171, 3154-3162.
27. Heil, F.; Hemmi, H.; Hochrein, H.; Ampenberger, F.; Kirschning, C.; Akira, S.; Lipford, G.; Wagner, H.; Bauer, S. Species-specific recognition of single-stranded RNA via toll-like receptor 7 and 8. Science 2004, 303, 1526-1529.
28. Diebold, S.S.; Kaisho, T.; Hemmi, H.; Akira, S.; Reis e Sousa, C. Innate antiviral responses by means of TLR7-mediated recognition of single-stranded RNA. Science 2004, 303, 1529-1531.
29. Lund, J.; Sato, A.; Akira, S.; Medzhitov, R.; Iwasaki, A. Toll-like receptor 9-mediated recognition of Herpes simplex virus-2 by plasmacytoid dendritic cells. J. Exp. Med. 2003, 198, 513-520.
30. Hemmi, H.; Takeuchi, O.; Kawai, T.; Kaisho, T.; Sato, S.; Sanjo, H.; Matsumoto, M.; Hoshino, K.; Wagner, H.; Takeda, K.; Akira, S. A Toll-like receptor recognizes bacterial DNA. Nature 2000, 408, 740-745.
31. Murawski, M.R.; Bowen, G.N.; Cerny, A.M.; Anderson, L.J.; Haynes, L.M.; Tripp, R.A.; Kurt-Jones, E.A.; Finberg, R.W. Respiratory syncytial virus activates innate immunity through toll-like receptor 2. J. Virol. 2009, 83, 1492-1500.
32. Tulic, M.K.; Hurrelbrink, R.J.; Prele, C.M.; Laing, I.A.; Upham, J.W.; Le Souef, P.; Sly, P.D.; Holt, P.G. TLR4 polymorphisms mediate impaired responses to respiratory syncytial virus and lipopolysaccharide. J. Immunol. 2007, 179, 132-140.
33. Bieback, K.; Lien, E.; Klagge, I.M.; Avota, E.; Schneider-Schaulies, J.; Duprex, W.P.; Wagner, H.; Kirschning, C.J.; ter Meulen, V.; Schneider-Schaulies, S. Hemagglutinin protein of wild-type measles virus activates toll-like receptor 2 signaling. J. Virol. 2002, 76, 8729-8736.
34. Pichlmair, A.; Schulz, O.; Tan, C.P.; Naslund, T.I.; Liljestrom, P.; Weber, F.; Reis e Sousa, C. RIG-I-Mediated antiviral responses to single-stranded RNA bearing 5'-Phosphates. Science 2006, 314, 997-1001.
35. Hornung, V.; Ellegast, J.; Kim, S.; Brzozka, K.; Jung, A.; Kato, H.; Poeck, H.; Akira, S.; Conzelmann, K.K.; Schlee, M.; Endres, S.; Hartmann, G. 5'-Triphosphate RNA is the ligand for RIG-I. Science 2006, 314, 994-997.
36. Kato, H.; Takeuchi, O.; Sato, S.; Yoneyama, M.; Yamamoto, M.; Matsui, K.; Uematsu, S.; Jung, A.; Kawai, T.; Ishii, K.J.; et al. Differential roles of MDA5 and RIG-I helicases in the recognition of RNA viruses. Nature 2006, 441, 101-105.
37. Kato, H.; Takeuchi, O.; Mikamo-Satoh, E.; Hirai, R.; Kawai, T.; Matsushita, K.; Hiiragi, A.; Dermody, T.S.; Fujita, T.; Akira, S. Length-dependent recognition of double-stranded ribonucleic acids by retinoic acid-inducible gene-I and melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5. J. Exp. Med. 2008, 205, 1601-1610.
38. Kawai, T.; Takahashi, K.; Sato, S.; Coban, C.; Kumar, H.; Kato, H.; Ishii, K.J.; Takeuchi, O.; Akira, S. IPS-1, an adaptor triggering RIG-I- and Mda5-mediated type I interferon induction. Nat. Immunol. 2005, 6, 981-988.
39. Seth, R.B.; Sun, L.; Ea, C.K.; Chen, Z.J. Identification and characterization of MAVS, a mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein that activates NF-kappaB and IRF 3. Cell 2005, 122, 669-682.
40. Xu, L.G.; Wang, Y.Y.; Han, K.J.; Li, L.Y.; Zhai, Z.; Shu, H.B. VISA is an adapter protein required for virus-triggered IFN-beta signaling. Mol. Cell 2005, 19, 727-740.
41. Satoh, T.; Kato, H.; Kumagai, Y.; Yoneyama, M.; Sato, S.; Matsushita, K.; Tsujimura, T.; Fujita, T.; Akira, S.; Takeuchi, O. LGP2 is a positive regulator of RIG-I- and MDA5-mediated antiviral responses. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2010, 107, 1512-1517.
42. Yoneyama, M.; Kikuchi, M.; Matsumoto, K.; Imaizumi, T.; Miyagishi, M.; Taira, K.; Foy, E.; Loo, Y.-M.; Gale, M. Jr; Akira, S.; Yonehara, S.; Kato, A.; Fujita, T. Shared and Unique functions of the DExD/H-Box helicases RIG-I, MDA5, and LGP2 in antiviral innate immunity. J. Immunol. 2005, 175, 2851-2858.
43. Rothenfusser, S.; Goutagny, N.; DiPerna, G.; Gong, M.; Monks, B.G.; Schoenemeyer, A.; Yamamoto, M.; Akira, S.; Fitzgerald, K.A. The RNA helicase Lgp2 inhibits TLR-independent sensing of viral replication by retinoic acid-inducible gene-I. J. Immunol. 2005, 175, 5260-5268.
44. Kanneganti, T.D.; Body-Malapel, M.; Amer, A.; Park, J.H.; Whitfield, J.; Franchi, L.; Taraporewala, Z.F.; Miller, D.; Patton, J.T.; Inohara, N.; Nunez, G. Critical role for Cryopyrin/Nalp3 in activation of caspase-1 in response to viral infection and double-stranded RNA. J. Biol. Chem. 2006, 281, 36560-36568.
45. Poeck, H.; Bscheider, M.; Gross, O.; Finger, K.; Roth, S.; Rebsamen, M.; Hannesschlager, N.; Schlee, M.; Rothenfusser, S.; Barchet, W.; et al. Recognition of RNA virus by RIG-I results in activation of CARD9 and inflammasome signaling for interleukin 1 beta production. Nat. Immunol. 2010, 11, 63-69.
46. Mariathasan, S.; Weiss, D.S.; Newton, K.; McBride, J.; O'Rourke, K.; Roose-Girma, M.; Lee, W.P.; Weinrauch, Y.; Monack, D.M.; Dixit, V.M. Cryopyrin activates the inflammasome in response to toxins and ATP. Nature 2006, 440, 228-232.
47. Martinon, F.; Petrilli, V.; Mayor, A.; Tardivel, A.; Tschopp, J. Gout-associated uric acid crystals activate the NALP3 inflammasome. Nature 2006, 440, 237-241.
48. Schroder, K.; Tschopp, J. The inflammasomes. Cell 2010, 140, 821-832.
49. Allen, I.C.; Scull, M.A.; Moore, C.B.; Holl, E.K.; McElvania-TeKippe, E.; Taxman, D.J.; Guthrie, E.H.; Pickles, R.J.; Ting, J.P. The NLRP3 inflammasome mediates in vivo innate immunity to influenza A virus through recognition of viral RNA. Immunity 2009, 30, 556-565.
50. Ichinohe, T.; Pang, I.K.; Iwasaki, A. Influenza virus activates inflammasomes via its intracellular M2 ion channel. Nat. Immunol. 2010, 11, 404-410.
51. Randall, R.E.; Goodbourn, S. Interferons and viruses: An interplay between induction, signalling, antiviral responses and virus countermeasures. J. Gen. Virol. 2008, 89, 1-47.
52. Pestka, S.; Krause, C.D.; Walter, M.R. Interferons, interferon-like cytokines, and their receptors. Immunol. Rev. 2004, 202, 8-32.
53. Theofilopoulos, A.N.; Baccala, R.; Beutler, B.; Kono, D.H. Type I interferons (alpha/beta) in immunity and autoimmunity. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 2005, 23, 307-336.
54. Stark, G.R.; Kerr, I.M.; Williams, B.R.; Silverman, R.H.; Schreiber, R.D. How cells respond to interferons. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 1998, 67, 227-264.
55. Ank, N.; Paludan, S.R. Type III IFNs: New layers of complexity in innate antiviral immunity. Biofactors 2009, 35, 82-87.
56. Ank, N.; West, H.; Bartholdy, C.; Eriksson, K.; Thomsen, A.R.; Paludan, S.R. Lambda interferon (IFN-lambda), a type III IFN, is induced by viruses and IFNs and displays potent antiviral activity against select virus infections in vivo. J. Virol. 2006, 80, 4501-4509.
57. Sheppard, P.; Kindsvogel, W.; Xu, W.; Henderson, K.; Schlutsmeyer, S.; Whitmore, T.E.; Kuestner, R.; Garrigues, U.; Birks, C.; Roraback, J.; et al. IL-28, IL-29 and their class II cytokine receptor IL-28R. Nat. Immunol. 2003, 4, 63-68.
58. Kotenko, S.V.; Gallagher, G.; Baurin, V.V.; Lewis-Antes, A.; Shen, M.; Shah, N.K.; Langer, J.A.; Sheikh, F.; Dickensheets, H.; Donnelly, R.P. IFN-lambdas mediate antiviral protection through a distinct class II cytokine receptor complex. Nat. Immunol. 2003, 4, 69-77.
59. Uze, G.; Monneron, D. IL-28 and IL-29: Newcomers to the interferon family. Biochimie 2007, 89, 729-734.
60. Hale, B.G.; Randall, R.E.; Ortin, J.; Jackson, D. The multifunctional NS1 protein of influenza A viruses. J. Gen. Virol. 2008, 89, 2359-2376.
61. Mibayashi, M.; Martinez-Sobrido, L.; Loo, Y.-M.; Cardenas, W.B.; Gale, M. Jr.; Garcia-Sastre, A. Inhibition of Retinoic Acid-Inducible Gene I-Mediated Induction of Beta Interferon by the NS1 Protein of Influenza A Virus. J. Virol. 2007, 81, 514-524.
62. Opitz, B.; Rejaibi, A.; Dauber, B.; Eckhard, J.; Vinzing, M.; Schmeck, B.; Hippenstiel, S.; Suttorp, N.; Wolff, T. IFNβ induction by influenza A virus is mediated by RIG-I which is regulated by the viral NS1 protein. Cell. Microbiol. 2007, 9, 930-938.
63. Guo, Z.; Chen, L.-m.; Zeng, H.; Gomez, J.A.; Plowden, J.; Fujita, T.; Katz, J.M.; Donis, R.O.; Sambhara, S. NS1 protein of influenza A virus inhibits the function of intracytoplasmic pathogen sensor, RIG-I. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 2007, 36, 263-269.
64. Ludwig, S.; Wang, X.; Ehrhardt, C.; Zheng, H.; Donelan, N.; Planz, O.; Pleschka, S.; Garcia-Sastre, A.; Heins, G.; Wolff, T. The influenza A virus NS1 protein inhibits activation of Jun N-terminal kinase and AP-1 transcription factors. J. Virol. 2002, 76, 11166-11171.
65. Talon, J.; Horvath, C.M.; Polley, R.; Basler, C.F.; Muster, T.; Palese, P.; Garcia-Sastre, A. Activation of interferon regulatory factor 3 is inhibited by the influenza A virus NS1 protein. J. Virol. 2000, 74, 7989-7996.
66. Wang, X.; Li, M.; Zheng, H.; Muster, T.; Palese, P.; Beg, A.A.; Garcia-Sastre, A. Influenza A virus NS1 protein prevents activation of NF-kappa B and induction of Alpha/Beta interferon. J. Virol. 2000, 74, 11566-11573.
67. Lu, Y.; Wambach, M.; Katze, M.G.; Krug, R.M. Binding of the influenza virus NS1 protein to double-stranded RNA inhibits the activation of the protein kinase that phosphorylates the elF-2 translation initiation factor. Virology 1995, 214, 222-228.
68. Talon, J.; Horvath, C.M.; Polley, R.; Basler, C.F.; Muster, T.; Palese, P.; Garcia-Sastre, A. Activation of interferon regulatory factor 3 is inhibited by the influenza A virus NS1 protein. J. Virol. 2000, 74, 7989-7996.
69. Fortes, P.; Beloso, A.; Ortin, J. Influenza virus NS1 protein inhibits pre-mRNA splicing and blocks mRNA nucleocytoplasmic transport. EMBO J. 1994, 13, 704-712.
70. Chen, Z.; Li, Y.; Krug, R.M. Influenza A virus NS1 protein targets poly(A)-binding protein II of the cellular 3'-end processing machinery. EMBO J. 1999, 18, 2273-2283.
71. Fontana, J.M.; Bankamp, B.; Rota, P.A. Inhibition of interferon induction and signaling by paramyxoviruses. Immunol. Rev. 2008, 225, 46-67.
72. Childs, K.; Stock, N.; Ross, C.; Andrejeva, J.; Hilton, L.; Skinner, M.; Randall, R.; Goodbourn, S. mda-5, but not RIG-I, is a common target for paramyxovirus V proteins. Virology 2007, 359, 190-200.
73. Childs, K.S.; Andrejeva, J.; Randall, R.E.; Goodbourn, S. Mechanism of mda-5 Inhibition by Paramyxovirus V Proteins. J. Virol. 2009, 83, 1465-1473.
74. Parisien, J.P.; Bamming, D.; Komuro, A.; Ramachandran, A.; Rodriguez, J.J.; Barber, G.; Wojahn, R.D.; Horvath, C.M. A shared interface mediates paramyxovirus interference with antiviral RNA helicases MDA5 and LGP2. J. Virol. 2009, 83, 7252-7260.
75. Andrejeva, J.; Childs, K.S.; Young, D.F.; Carlos, T.S.; Stock, N.; Goodbourn, S.; Randall, R.E. The V proteins of paramyxoviruses bind the IFN-inducible RNA helicase, mda-5, and inhibit its activation of the IFN-beta promoter. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2004, 101, 17264-17269.
76. Lu, L.L.; Puri, M.; Horvath, C.M.; Sen, G.C. Select paramyxoviral V proteins inhibit IRF3 activation by acting as alternative substrates for inhibitor of kappaB kinase epsilon (IKKe)/TBK1. J. Biol. Chem. 2008, 283, 14269-14276.
77. Spann, K.M.; Tran, K.C.; Collins, P.L. Effects of nonstructural proteins NS1 and NS2 of human respiratory syncytial virus on interferon regulatory factor 3, NF-κB, and proinflammatory cytokines. J. Virol. 2005, 79, 5353-5362.
78. Ling, Z.; Tran, K.C.; Teng, M.N. Human respiratory syncytial virus nonstructural protein NS2 antagonizes the activation of beta interferon transcription by interacting with RIG-I. J. Virol. 2009, 83, 3734-3742.
79. Schlender, J.; Hornung, V.; Finke, S.; Gunthner-Biller, M.; Marozin, S.; Brzozka, K.; Moghim, S.; Endres, S.; Hartmann, G.; Conzelmann, K.K. Inhibition of toll-like receptor 7- and 9-mediated alpha/beta interferon production in human plasmacytoid dendritic cells by respiratory syncytial virus and measles virus. J. Virol. 2005, 79, 5507-5515.
80. Pfaller, C.K.; Conzelmann, K.-K. Measles virus V protein is a decoy substrate for IκB kinase α and prevents Toll-like receptor 7/9-mediated interferon induction. J. Virol. 2008, 82, 12365-12373.
81. Yokota, S.-i.; Okabayashi, T.; Yokosawa, N.; Fujii, N. Measles virus P protein suppresses toll-like receptor signal through up-regulation of ubiquitin-modifying enzyme A20. FASEB J. 2008, 22, 74-83.
82. Van Cleve, W.; Amaro-Carambot, E.; Surman, S.R.; Bekisz, J.; Collins, P.L.; Zoon, K.C.; Murphy, B.R.; Skiadopoulos, M.H.; Bartlett, E.J. Attenuating mutations in the P/C gene of human parainfluenza virus type 1 (HPIV1) vaccine candidates abrogate the inhibition of both induction and signaling of type I interferon (IFN) by wild-type HPIV1. Virology 2006, 352, 61-73.
83. Bousse, T.; Chambers, R.L.; Scroggs, R.A.; Portner, A.; Takimoto, T. Human parainfluenza virus type 1 but not Sendai virus replicates in human respiratory cells despite IFN treatment. Virus Res. 2006, 121, 23-32.
84. Malur, A.G.; Chattopadhyay, S.; Maitra, R.K.; Banerjee, A.K. Inhibition of STAT 1 phosphorylation by human parainfluenza virus type 3 C protein. J. Virol. 2005, 79, 7877-7882.
85. Shaffer, J.A.; Bellini, W.J.; Rota, P.A. The C protein of measles virus inhibits the type I interferon response. Virology 2003, 315, 389-397.
86. Ramachandran, A.; Parisien, J.-P.; Horvath, C.M. STAT2 is a primary target for measles virus V protein-mediated alpha/beta interferon signaling inhibition. J. Virol. 2008, 82, 8330-8338.
87. Fontana, J.M.; Bankamp, B.; Bellini, W.J.; Rota, P.A. Regulation of interferon signaling by the C and V proteins from attenuated and wild-type strains of measles virus. Virology 2008, 374, 71-81.
88. Caignard, G.; Guerbois, M.; Labernardiere, J.L.; Jacob, Y.; Jones, L.M.; Wild, F.; Tangy, F.; Vidalain, P.O. Measles virus V protein blocks Jak1-mediated phosphorylation of STAT1 to escape IFN-alpha/beta signaling. Virology 2007, 368, 351-362.
89. Palosaari, H.; Parisien, J.P.; Rodriguez, J.J.; Ulane, C.M.; Horvath, C.M. STAT protein interference and suppression of cytokine signal transduction by measles virus V protein. J. Virol. 2003, 77, 7635-7644.
90. Takeuchi, K.; Kadota, S.I.; Takeda, M.; Miyajima, N.; Nagata, K. Measles virus V protein blocks interferon (IFN)-alpha/beta but not IFN-gamma signaling by inhibiting STAT1 and STAT2 phosphorylation. FEBS Lett. 2003, 545, 177-182.
91. Ohno, S.; Ono, N.; Takeda, M.; Takeuchi, K.; Yanagi, Y. Dissection of measles virus V protein in relation to its ability to block alpha/beta interferon signal transduction. J. Gen. Virol. 2004, 85, 2991-2999.
92. Lo, M.S.; Brazas, R.M.; Holtzman, M.J. Respiratory syncytial virus nonstructural proteins NS1 and NS2 mediate inhibition of Stat2 expression and alpha/beta interferon responsiveness. J. Virol. 2005, 79, 9315-9319.
93. Spann, K.M.; Tran, K.C.; Chi, B.; Rabin, R.L.; Collins, P.L. Suppression of the induction of alpha, beta, and lambda interferons by the NS1 and NS2 proteins of human respiratory syncytial virus in human epithelial cells and macrophages [corrected]. J. Virol. 2004, 78, 4363-4369.
94. Elliott, J.; Lynch, O.T.; Suessmuth, Y.; Qian, P.; Boyd, C.R.; Burrows, J.F.; Buick, R.; Stevenson, N.J.; Touzelet, O.; Gadina, M.; Power, U.F.; Johnston, J.A. Respiratory syncytial virus NS1 protein degrades STAT2 by using the Elongin-Cullin E3 ligase. J. Virol. 2007, 81, 3428-3436.
95. Hale, B.G.; Albrecht, R.A.; Garcia-Sastre, A. Innate immune evasion strategies of influenza viruses. Future Microbiol. 2010, 5, 23-41.
96. Moltedo, B.; Lopez, C.B.; Pazos, M.; Becker, M.I.; Hermesh, T.; Moran, T.M. Cutting edge: Stealth influenza virus replication precedes the initiation of adaptive immunity. J. Immunol. 2009, 183, 3569-3573.
97. Matzinger, P. Tolerance, danger, and the extended family. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 1994, 12, 991-1045.
98. Chen, C.J.; Kono, H.; Golenbock, D.; Reed, G.; Akira, S.; Rock, K.L. Identification of a key pathway required for the sterile inflammatory response triggered by dying cells. Nat. Med. 2007, 13, 851-856.
99. Ichinohe, T.; Lee, H.K.; Ogura, Y.; Flavell, R.; Iwasaki, A. Inflammasome recognition of influenza virus is essential for adaptive immune responses. J. Exp. Med. 2009, 206, 79-87.
100. Kumagai, Y.; Takeuchi, O.; Kato, H.; Kumar, H.; Matsui, K.; Morii, E.; Aozasa, K.; Kawai, T.; Akira, S. Alveolar macrophages are the primary interferon-alpha producer in pulmonary infection with RNA viruses. Immunity 2007, 27, 240-252.
101. Diebold, S.S.; Kaisho, T.; Hemmi, H.; Akira, S.; Reis e Sousa, C. Innate antiviral responses by means of TLR7-mediated recognition of single-stranded RNA. Science 2004, 303, 1529-1531.
102. Lee, H.K.; Lund, J.M.; Ramanathan, B.; Mizushima, N.; Iwasaki, A. Autophagy-dependent viral recognition by plasmacytoid dendritic cells. Science 2007, 315, 1398-1401.
103. Tschopp, J.; Schroder, K. NLRP3 inflammasome activation: The convergence of multiple signalling pathways on ROS production? Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2010, 10, 210-215.
104. Schroder, K.; Zhou, R.; Tschopp, J. The NLRP3 inflammasome: A sensor for metabolic danger? Science 2010, 327, 296-300.
105. Gasse, P.; Riteau, N.; Charron, S.; Girre, S.; Fick, L.; Petrilli, V.; Tschopp, J.; Lagente, V.; Quesniaux, V.F.; Ryffel, B.; Couillin, I. Uric acid is a danger signal activating NALP3 inflammasome in lung injury inflammation and fibrosis. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2009, 179, 903-913.
106. Kool, M.; Petrilli, V.; De Smedt, T.; Rolaz, A.; Hammad, H.; van Nimwegen, M.; Bergen, I.M.; Castillo, R.; Lambrecht, B.N.; Tschopp, J. Cutting edge: Alum adjuvant stimulates inflammatory dendritic cells through activation of the NALP3 inflammasome. J. Immunol. 2008, 181, 3755-3759.
107. Petrilli, V.; Dostert, C.; Muruve, D.A.; Tschopp, J. The inflammasome: A danger sensing complex triggering innate immunity. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 2007, 19, 615-622.
108. Agostini, L.; Martinon, F.; Burns, K.; McDermott, M.F.; Hawkins, P.N.; Tschopp, J. NALP3 forms an IL-1beta-processing inflammasome with increased activity in Muckle-Wells autoinflammatory disorder. Immunity 2004, 20, 319-325.
109. Thomas, P.G.; Dash, P.; Aldridge, J.R. Jr.; Ellebedy, A.H.; Reynolds, C.; Funk, A.J.; Martin, W.J.; Lamkanfi, M.; Webby, R.J.; Boyd, K.L.; Doherty, P.C.; Kanneganti, T.D. The intracellular sensor NLRP3 mediates key innate and healing responses to influenza A virus via the regulation of caspase-1. Immunity 2009, 30, 566-575.
110. Fernandes-Alnemri, T.; Yu, J.W.; Datta, P.; Wu, J.; Alnemri, E.S. AIM2 activates the inflammasome and cell death in response to cytoplasmic DNA. Nature 2009, 458, 509-513.
111. Kuenzel, S.; Till, A.; Winkler, M.; Hasler, R.; Lipinski, S.; Jung, S.; Grotzinger, J.; Fickenscher, H.; Schreiber, S.; Rosenstiel, P. The nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor NLRC5 is involved in IFN-dependent antiviral immune responses. J. Immunol. 2010, 184, 1990-2000.
112. Yount, J.S.; Kraus, T.A.; Horvath, C.M.; Moran, T.M.; Lopez, C.B. A novel role for viral-defective interfering particles in enhancing dendritic cell maturation. J. Immunol. 2006, 177, 4503-4513.
113. Shingai, M.; Ebihara, T.; Begum, N.A.; Kato, A.; Honma, T.; Matsumoto, K.; Saito, H.; Ogura, H.; Matsumoto, M.; Seya, T. Differential type I IFN-inducing abilities of wild-type versus vaccine strains of measles virus. J. Immunol. 2007, 179, 6123-6133.
114. Osterlund, P.; Veckman, V.; Siren, J.; Klucher, K.M.; Hiscott, J.; Matikainen, S.; Julkunen, I. Gene expression and antiviral activity of alpha/beta interferons and interleukin-29 in virus-infected human myeloid dendritic cells. J. Virol. 2005, 79, 9608-9617.
115. Phipps-Yonas, H.; Seto, J.; Sealfon, S.C.; Moran, T.M.; Fernandez-Sesma, A. Interferon-beta pretreatment of conventional and plasmacytoid human dendritic cells enhances their activation by influenza virus. PLoS Pathog. 2008, 4, e1000193.
116. Gallucci, S.; Lolkema, M.; Matzinger, P. Natural adjuvants: Endogenous activators of dendritic cells. Nat. Med. 1999, 5, 1249-1255.
117. Kohlmeier, J.E.; Cookenham, T.; Roberts, A.D.; Miller, S.C.; Woodland, D.L. Type I Interferons Regulate Cytolytic Activity of Memory CD8+ T Cells in the Lung Airways during Respiratory Virus Challenge. Immunity 2010, in press.
118. Hermesh, T.; Moltedo, B.; Moran, T.M.; Lopez, C.B. Antiviral Instruction of Bone Marrow Leukocytes during Respiratory Viral Infections. Cell Host Microbe 2010, 7, 343-353.
119. Mordstein, M.; Kochs, G.; Dumoutier, L.; Renauld, J.C.; Paludan, S.R.; Klucher, K.; Staeheli, P. Interferon-lambda contributes to innate immunity of mice against influenza A virus but not against hepatotropic viruses. PLoS Pathog. 2008, 4, e1000151.
120. Banchereau, J.; Steinman, R.M. Dendritic cells and the control of immunity. Nature 1998, 392, 245-252.
121. Randolph, G.J.; Ochando, J.; Partida-Sanchez, S. Migration of dendritic cell subsets and their precursors. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 2008, 26, 293-316.
122. Brimnes, M.K.; Bonifaz, L.; Steinman, R.M.; Moran, T.M. Influenza virus-induced dendritic cell maturation is associated with the induction of strong T cell immunity to a coadministered, normally nonimmunogenic protein. J. Exp. Med. 2003, 198, 133-144.
123. Kim, T.S.; Braciale, T.J. Respiratory dendritic cell subsets differ in their capacity to support the induction of virus-specific cytotoxic CD8+ T cell responses. PLoS ONE 2009, 4, e4204.
124. GeurtsvanKessel, C.H.; Willart, M.A.; van Rijt, L.S.; Muskens, F.; Kool, M.; Baas, C.; Thielemans, K.; Bennett, C.; Clausen, B.E.; Hoogsteden, H.C.; Osterhaus, A.D.; Rimmelzwaan, G.F.; Lambrecht, B.N. Clearance of influenza virus from the lung depends on migratory langerin+CD11b- but not plasmacytoid dendritic cells. J. Exp. Med. 2008, 205, 1621-1634.
125. Lawrence, C.W.; Ream, R.M.; Braciale, T.J. Frequency, specificity, and sites of expansion of CD8+ T cells during primary pulmonary influenza virus infection. J. Immunol. 2005, 174, 5332-5340.
126. Thomas, P.G.; Keating, R.; Hulse-Post, D.J.; Doherty, P.C. Cell-mediated protection in influenza infection. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2006, 12, 48-54.
127. Legge, K.L.; Braciale, T.J. Accelerated migration of respiratory dendritic cells to the regional lymph nodes is limited to the early phase of pulmonary infection. Immunity 2003, 18, 265-277.
128. Belz, G.T.; Smith, C.M.; Kleinert, L.; Reading, P.; Brooks, A.; Shortman, K.; Carbone, F.R.; Heath, W.R. Distinct migrating and nonmigrating dendritic cell populations are involved in MHC class I-restricted antigen presentation after lung infection with virus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2004, 101, 8670-8675.
129. Jakubzick, C.; Helft, J.; Kaplan, T.J.; Randolph, G.J. Optimization of methods to study pulmonary dendritic cell migration reveals distinct capacities of DC subsets to acquire soluble versus particulate antigen. J. Immunol. Method. 2008, 337, 121-131.
130. Ballesteros-Tato, A.; Leon, B.; Lund, F.E.; Randall, T.D. Temporal changes in dendritic cell subsets, cross-priming and costimulation via CD70 control CD8(+) T cell responses to influenza. Nat. Immunol. 2010, 11, 216-224.