Ochratoxin a and brewing technology: A review

Journal of the Institute of Brewing

Volumn 116, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 23-32

  Anli, Ertan ^a   Alkis, I Mert ^a  

^a ANKARA UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

Author keywords

Beer; Brewing; Mycotoxin; Ochratoxin; OTA

Indexed keywords

ASPERGILLUS; FUNGI; HORDEUM; PENICILLIUM;

EID: 77952809313     PISSN: 00469750     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/j.2050-0416.2010.tb00394.x     Document Type: Review

References (130)

1. Abdel-Wahhab, M. A., Nada, A. S. and Arbid, M. S., Ochratoxicosis: Prevention of developmental toxicity by L-methionine in rats. J. Appl. Toxicol., 1999, 19, 7-12.
2. Abdel-Wahhab, M. A., Abdel-Galil, M. M. and El-Lithey, M., Melatonin counteracts oxidative stress in rats fed with an ochratoxin A contaminated diet. J. Pineal Res., 2005, 38, 130-135.
3. Abrunhosa, L., Santos, L. and Venancio, A., Degradation of ochratoxin A by proteases and by a crude enzyme of Aspergillus niger. Food Biotechnol., 2006, 20, 231-242.
4. Abrunhosa, L. and Venancio, E. A., Isolation and purification of an enzyme hydrolyzing ochratoxin A from Aspergillus niger. Biotechnol. Lett., 2007, 29, 1909-1914.
5. Accensi, F., Abarca, M. L., Cabanes, F. J., Occurrence of Aspergillus species in mixed feeds and component raw materials and their ability to produce ochratoxin A. Food Microbiol., 2004, 21, 623-627.
6. Alldrick, A. J., The effects of processing on the occurrence of ochratoxin A in cereals. Food Additives and Contaminants, 1996, 13, 27-28.
7. Amézqueta, S., González-Peñas, E., Murillo-Arbizu, M. and López de Cerain, A., Ochratoxin A decontamination A review. Food Control, 2009, 20, 326-333.
8. Association of Official Analytical Chemists AOAC, Official methods of analysis of AOAC International, Vol II. Chapter 49, P. Cunniff, Ed., Sixteenth Edition, The Society: Arlington, Virginia, United States, 1995, p. 1-49.
9. Association of Official Analytical Chemists AOAC, Official Method 991.44 Ochratoxin A in corn and barley. AOAC International, 2002.
10. Association of Official Analytical Chemists AOAC, Official Method 2000.03, Ochratoxin A in barley. AOAC International, 2002.
11. Araguás, C., González-Peñas, E. and López de Cerain, A., Study on ochratoxin A in cerealderived products from Spain. Food Chemistry, 2005, 92, 459-464.
12. Atroshi, F., Biese, I., Saloniemi, H., Ali-Vehmas, T., Saari, S., Rizzo, A. and Veijalainen, P., Significance of apoptosis and its relationship to antioxidants after ochratoxin A administration in mice. J. Pharm. Pharmaceutical Science, 2000, 3, 281-291.
13. Atroshi, F., Rizzo, A., Westermarck, T. and, Ali-Vehmas, T., Antioxidant nutrients and mycotoxins. Toxicology, 2002, 180, 151-167.
14. Aziz, N. H., Moussa, L. A. A. and Far, F. M. E., Reduction of fungi and mycotoxins formation in seeds by gamma-radiation. J. Food Safety, 2004, 24, 109-127.
15. Baldi, A., Losio, M. N., Cheli, F., Rebucci, R., Sangalli, L. and Fusi, E., Evaluation of the protective effects of alpha-tocopherol and retinol against ochratoxin A cytotoxicity. British J. Nutrition, 2004, 91, 507-512.
16. Bauer, J., Möglichkeiten zur Entgiftung Mykotoxinhaltiger Futtersmittel. Monatshefte für Veterinärmedizin, 1994, 49, 175-181.
17. Baxter, E. D., Slaiding, I. R. and Kelly, B., Behaviour of ochratoxin A in brewing. J. Am. Soc. Brew. Chem., 2001, 59, 98-100.
18. Bayman, P., Baker, J. L., Doster, M. A., Michailidis, T. J. and Mahoney, N. E., Ochratoxin production by the Aspergillus ochraceus group and Aspergillus alliaceus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2002, 68, 2326-2329.
19. Belli, N., Marin, S., Sanchis, V. and Ramos, A. J., Influence of water activity and temperature on growth of isolates of Aspergillus section Nigri obtained from grapes. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2004, 96, 19-27.
20. Betina, V., Mycotoxins, Chemical, Biological and Environmental Aspects. Elsevier: Amsterdam, 1989.
21. Boudra, H., Le Bars, P. and Le Bars, J., Thermostability of ochratoxin A in wheat under two moisture conditions. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 1995, 61, 1156-1158.
22. Burdaspal, P. A. and Legarda, T. M., Ochratoxin A in roasted coffee and soluble coffees marketed in Spain. Alimentaria, 1998, 292, 103-109.
23. Cabanes, F. J., Accensi, F., Bragualt, M. R., Abarca, M. L., Minguez, G. and Pons, S., What is the source of ochratoxin A in wine. Int. J. Food Microbiol., 2002, 79, 213-215.
24. Cairns-Fuller, V., Dynamics and control of ochratoxigenic strains of Penicillium verrucosum and Aspergillus ochraceus in the stored grain ecosystem. PhD Thesis. Cranfield University, Silsoe, Bedford UK, 2004.
25. Cairns-Fuller, V., Aldred, D. and Magan, N., Water, temperature and gas composition interactions affect growth and ochratoxin A production by isolates of Penicillium verrucosum on wheat grain. J. Appl. Microbiol., 2005, 99, 1215-1221.
26. Callaghan, J. O., Caddick, M. X. and Dobson, A. D., A polyketide synthase gene required for ochratoxin A biosynthesis in Aspergillus ochraceus. Microbiology, 2003, 149, 3485-3491.
27. Carl, F. H., Malting Technology. In: Manual of Good Practice. European Brewery Convention, Fachverlag Hans Carl: Nürnberg, 2000, pp. 149-155.
28. Castella, G., Larsen, T. O., Cabanes, J., Schmidt, H., Alboresi, A., Niessen, L., Farber, P. and Geisen, R., Molecular characterization of ochratoxin A producing strains of the genus Penicillium. Syst. Appl. Microbiol., 2002, 25, 74-83.
29. European Committee of Standardization (CEN) Method prEN 14133, 2003.
30. Chu, F. S., Studies on ochratoxins. CRC Crit. Rev. Toxicol., 1974, 2, 499-524.
31. Chu, F. S., Chang, C. C., Ashoor, S. M. and Prentice, N., Stability of aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A in brewing. Appl. Microbiol., 1975, 29, 313-316.
32. Costa, S., Utan, A., Cervellati, R., Speroni, E. and Guerra, M. C., Catechins: Natural freeradical scavengers against ochratoxin A-induced cell damage in a pig kidney cell line (LLC-PK1). Food Chem. Toxicol., 2007, 45, 1910-1917.
33. Creppy, E. E., Betbeder, A. M., Godin, M., Fillastre, J. P., Simon, P., Lasseur, C., Combe, C. and Aparico, M., Ochratoxin A in human blood and chronic interstitial nephropathy: cases reported in France. Landbauforschung Volkenrode, Sonderheft vol. 157. Proceedings from 17. Mykotoxin-Workshop in der Bundesforschungsanstalt für Landwirtschaft Braun-schweig-Völkenrode, 1995, pp. 56-62.
34. Creppy, E. E., Human ochratoxicosis. J. Toxicol., 1999, 18, 277-293.
35. Creppy, E. E., Update of survey, Regulation and toxic effects of mycotoxins in Europe. Toxicol. Lett., 2002, 17, 19-28.
36. Commission Regulation EC 472/2002 of the 12 March 2002 amending regulation (EC) No. 466/2001 setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs, Off. J. Eur. Union, 2002.
37. Commission Regulation EC No. 125, 2005 of 26/01/2005 amending Regulation (EC) No. 466/2001 as regards ochratoxin A, Off. J. Eur. Union, 28/01/2005 L 25/3.
38. Daković, A., Tomašević-Čanović, M., Rottinghaus, G. E., Dondur, V. and Mašić, A., Adsorption of ochratoxin A on octa-decyldimethyl benzyl ammonium exchanged-clinoptilolite-heulandite tuff. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, 2003, 30, 157-165.
39. Directive 2002/32/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 May 2002 on undesirable substances in animal feed - Council statement. Off. J. Eur. Commun., 2002, 140, 10-22.
40. European Committee for Standardization (CEN), Foodstuffs - determination of ochratoxin A in wine and beer - HPLC method with immunoaffinity column clean-up. EN 14133:2003, Brussels, Belgium, 2003.
41. FAO/WHO/UNEP Minimising risks posed by mycotoxins utilising the HACCP Concept. Third Joint FAO/WHO/UNEP International Conference On Mycotoxins, (1999). 8 b, pp. 113. Available at: ftp://ftp.fao.org/es/esn/food/myco8b.pdf (last accessed March, 2010).
42. FAO/WHO/UNEP Mycotoxin prevention and decontamination, HACCP and its mycotoxin control potential: An evaluation of ochratoxin A in coffee production. Third Joint FAO/WHO/UNEP International Conference On Mycotoxins, (1999). 6 c, pp. 1-13. Available at: ftp://ftp.fao.org/es/esn/food/myco6c.pdf (last accessed March, 2010).
43. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Worldwide Regulations for Mycotoxins 1995, A Compendium, FAO Food and Nutrition Paper, paper 64, Rome.
44. Frisvad, J. C. and Samson, R. A., Neopetromyces gen. nov. and an overview of teleomorphs of Aspergillus subgenus Circumdati, Stud. Mycol., 2000, 45, 201-207.
45. Galtier, P., Pharmacokinetics of ochratoxin A in Animals, IARC Sci. Publ., 115, 1991, 187-200.
46. Gambuti, A., Strollo, D., Genovese, A., Ugliano, M., Ritieni, A. and Moio, L., Influence of enological practices on ochratoxin A concentration in wine. Am. J. Enol. Viticult., 2005, 56, 155-162.
47. Geisen, R., Mayer, Z., Karolewiez, A. and Färber, P., Development of a real time PCR system for detection of Penicillium nordicum and for monitoring ochratoxin A production in foods by targeting the ochratoxin polyketide synthase gene. Syst. Appl. Microbiol., 2004, 27, 501-507.
48. Gjerten, F., Myken, F., Krogh, P. and Hald, B., Malting and brewing experiments with ochratoxin and citrinin. Proceedings of the European Brewery Convention Congress, Salzburg, Elsevier Scientific: Amsterdam, 1973, pp. 373-380.
49. Gjerten, P., Trolle, B. and Andersen, K., Weathered barley as a contributory cause of gushing in beer. Proceedings of the European Brewery Convention Congress, Brussels, Elsevier Scientific: Amsterdam, 1963, pp. 320-341.
50. Grosse, Y., Chekir-Ghedira, L., Huc, A., Obrecht-Pflumio, S., Dirheimer, G. and Bacha, H., Retinol, ascorbic acid and a-tocopherol prevent DNA adduct formation in mice treated with the mycotoxins ochratoxin A and zearalenone. Cancer Lett., 1997, 114, 225-229.
51. Guerra, M. C., Galvano, F., Bonsi, L., Speroni, E., Costa, S., Renzulli, C. and Cervellati, R., Cyanidin-3-o-b-glucopyrano-side, a natural free-radical scavenger against aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A - Induced cell damage in a human hepatoma cell line (Hep G2) and a human colonic adenocarcinoma cell line (CaCo-2). British J. Nutrition, 2005, 94, 211-220.
52. Gumus, T., Arici, M. and Demirci, M., Okratoksin A'nin Bira Fermentasyonundaki Durumu ve Fermentasyona Etkisi. Trakya Univ. J. Sci., 2003, 4, 181-186.
53. Hamilton, P. B., Fallacies in our understanding of mycotoxins. J. Food Prot., 1978, 41, 404-408.
54. Harris, J. P. and Mantle, P. G., Biosynthesis of ochratoxins by Aspergillus ochraceus. Phytochemistry, 2001, 58, 709-716.
55. Huwig, A., Freimund, S., Käppeli, O. and Dutler, H., Mycotoxin detoxication of animal feed by different adsorbents. Toxicol. Lett., 2001, 122, 179-188.
56. International Agency for Research on Cancer. In: IARC Monograph on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, IARC: Lyon, 1993, 489 p.
57. Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). Safety evaluation of certain mycotoxins in food. WHO Food Additives Series 47; 2001. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 74, available at: http://www.inchem.org/documents/ jecfa/jecmono/v47je01.htm (last accessed March 2010).
58. Jorgensen, K., Survey of pork, poultry, coffee, beer and pulses for Ochratoxin A. Food Addit. Contam., 1998, 15, 550-554.
59. Kostecki, M., Golinski, P., Uchman, W. and Grabarkiewicz - Szczesna, J., Decomposition of Ochratoxin A by heat and g-Irradiation. In: Mycotoxins, Endemic Nephropathy and Urinary, Tract Tumours. M. Castegnaro, P. Plestina, G., Dirtemier, H. Chemozemsky and H. Bartsch, Eds., International Agency for Research on Cancer: Lyon, 1991, pp. 109-111.
60. Kozakiewicz, Z., Aspergillus species on stored products, Mycological paper no. 161, CAB International Mycological Institute: Kew, Surrey UK, 1989.
61. Krogh, P., Hald, B., Gjersten, P. and Myken, F., Fate of ochratoxin A and citrinin during malting and brewing experiments. Appl. Microbiol., 1974, 28, 31-34.
62. Kogh, P. (Ed.), Mycotoxins in Food. Academic Press: London, 1987, 97 p.
63. Kuipper-Goodman, T. and Scott, P. M., Risk assessment of the mycotoxin ochratoxin A. Biomed. Environ. Sci., 1989, 2, 179-248.
64. Larsen, T. O., Svendsen, A. and Smedsgaard, J., Biochemical characterization of ochratoxin A-producing strains of the genus Penicillium. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 2001, 67, 3630-3635.
65. Larsson, K. and Möller, T., Liquid chromatographic determination of ochratoxin A in barley, wheat bran, and rye by the AOAC/IUPAC/NMKL Method: NMKL Collaborative Study. AOAC Int., 1996, 79, 1102-1106.
66. Lee, S. E., Park, B. S., Bayman, P., Baker, J. L., Choi, W. S. and Campbell, B. C., Suppression of ochratoxin biosynthesis by naturally occurring alkaloids. Food Addit. Contam., 2007, 24, 391-397.
67. Legarda, T. M. and Burdaspal, P. A., Ocratoxina A en cervezas elaboradas en España y en otros países europeos, Alimentaria, 1998, 291, 115-122.
68. Leitner, A., Zöllner, P., Paolillo, A., Stroka, J., Papadopoulou-Bouraoui, A., Jaborek, S., Anklam, E. and Lindner, W., Anal. Chim. Acta, 2002, 453, 33-41.
69. Leong, S. L. L., Hocking, A. D. and Scott, E. S., The effect of juice clarification, static or rotary fermentation and fining on ochratoxin A in wine. Australian J. Grape and Wine Research, 2006, 12, 245-252.
70. Lillehoj, E. B., Aalund, O. and Hald, B., Bioproduction of 14C Ochratoxin A in submerged culture. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 1978, 36, 720-723.
71. Lindblat, M., Johnsson, P., Jonsson, N., Lindqvist, R. and Olsen, M., Predicting noncompliant levels of ochratoxin A in cereal grain from Penicillium verrusocum counts. J. Appl. Microbiol., 2004, 97, 609-616.
72. Lindner, W., Decontamination and detoxication of cereals contaminated by mycotoxins. Patent number: WO9216116, 1992.
73. Lund, F. and Frisvad, J. C., Penicillium verrucosum in wheat and barley indicates presence of ochratoxin A. J. Appl. Microbiol., 2003, 95, 1117-1123.
74. Magan, N., Hope, R., Cairns, V. and Aldred, D., Post-harvest fungal ecology: impact of fungal growth and mycotoxin accumulation in stored grain. Eur. J. Plant Pathol., 2003, 109, 723-730.
75. Magan, N., Sanchis, V. and Aldred, D., Role of spoilage fungi in seed deterioration. Chapter 28, In: Fungal Biotechnology in Agricultural, Food and Environmental Applications. D. K. Aurora, Ed., Marcel Dekker: New York, 2004, pp. 311-323.
76. Magan, N. and Aldred, D., Conditions of formation of ochratoxin A in drying, transport and in different commodities. Food Addit. Contamin., Supplement, 2005, 1, 10-16.
77. Maier, N. M., Buttinger, G., Welhartizki, S., Gavioli, E. and Lindner, W., Molecularly imprinted polymer-assisted sample clean-up of ochratoxin A from red wine: merits and limitations. J. Chromatogr. B, 2004, 804, 103-111.
78. Medina, A., Valle-Algarra, F. M., Gimeno-Adelantado, J. V., Mateo, R., Mateo F. and Jimenez, M., New method for determination of ochratoxin A in beer using zinc acetate and solidphase extraction silica cartridges. J. Chromatography A, 2006, 1121, 178-183.
79. Mitchell, D., Parra, R., Aldred, D. and Magan, N., Water and temperature relations of growth and ochratoxin A production by Aspergillus carbonarius strains from grapes in Europe and Israel. J. Appl. Microbiol., 2004, 97, 439-445.
80. Moss, M. O., Mode of formation of ochratoxin A. Food Addit. Contam., 1996, 13, 5-9.
81. Nip, W. K., Fred, C., Chang, F. S. and Prentic, N., Fate of ochratoxin A in brewing. Appl. Microbiol., 1975, 30, 1048-1049.
82. Office International de la Vigne et du Vin (OIV), CST 1/2002. Office International de la Vigne et du Vin (OIV), Reduction de L'Ochratoxine A dans les Vins, Resolution CST 1/2002, Paris, France, 2002.
83. Pardo, E., Maŕin, S., Ramos, A. J. and Sanchis, V., Effect of water activity and temperature on mycelial growth and ochratoxin A production by isolates of Aspergillus ochraceus on irradiated green coffee beans. J. Food Prot. 2005, 68, 133-138.
84. Paster, N., Lisker, N. and Chet I., Ochratoxin production by Aspergillus flavus Wilhem grown under controlled atmospheres. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 1983, 45, 1136-1139.
85. Péteri, Z., Téren, J., Vágvölgyi, C. and Varga, J., Ochratoxin degradation and adsorption caused by astaxanthin-producing yeasts. Food Microbiol., 2007, 24, 205-210.
86. Pfohl-Leszkowicz, A., Petkova-Bocharova, T., Chernozemsky, I. N. and Castegnaro, M., Balkan endemic nephropathy and associated urinary tract tumours: A review on aetiological causes and the potential role of mycotoxins. Food Addit. Contam. 2000, 19, 282-302.
87. Pitt, J. P., Penicillium viridicatum, Penicillium verrucosum and the production of ochratoxin A. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 1987, 53, 266-269.
88. Pitt, J. I. and Hocking, A. D., Fungi and Food Spoilage. 2nd ed., Blackie Academic and Professional: London, 1997.
89. Plank, G., Bauer, J., Grunkemeier, A., Fischer, S., Gedek, B. and Berner, H., Untersuchungen zur protektiven Wirkung von Adsorbentien gegenuber Ochratoxin A beim Schwein. Tierärztliche Praxis, 1990, 18, 483-489.
90. Pohland, A. E., Schuller, P. L., Steyn, P. S. and Van Egmond, H. P., Physicochemical data for some selected mycotoxins. Pure Appl. Chem. 1982, 54, 2219-2284.
91. Radic, B., Fuchs, R., Peraica, M. and Lucis, A., Ochratoxin A in human sera in the area with endemic nephropathy in Croatia. Toxicol. Lett. 1997, 91, 105-109.
92. Ramakrishna, N., Lacey, J. and Smith, J. E., Colonisation of barley grain by Penicillium verrucosum and ochratoxin A formation in the presence of competing fungi. J. Food Protect., 1996, 59, 1311-1317.
93. Reinsch, M., Töpfer, A., Lehmann, A., Nehls, I. and Panne, U., Determination of ochratoxin A in beer by LC-MS/MS ion trap detection. Food Chem., 2007, 100, 312-317.
94. Renzulli, C., Galvano, F., Piredomenico, L., Speroni, E. and Guerra, M. C., Effects of rosmarinic acid against aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A - Induced cell damage in a human hepatoma cell line (Hep G2). J. Appl. Toxicol., 2004, 24, 289-296.
95. Ringot, D., Changoa, A., Schneider, Y-J. and Larondelle, Y., Toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of ochratoxin A, an update. Chemico-Biolog. Interact., 2006, 159, 18-46.
96. Ringot, D., Lerzy, B., Chaplain, K., Bonhoure, J. P., Auclair, E. and Larondelle, Y., In vitro biosorption of ochratoxin A on the yeast industry by-products: Comparison of isotherm models. Bioresource Technol., 2007, 98, 1812-1821.
97. Rizzo, A., Eskola, M. and Atroshi, M., Ochratoxin A in cereals, foodstuffs and human plasma. Eur. J. Plant Pathol., 2002, 108, 631-637.
98. Rizzo, I., Vedoya, G., Maurotto, S., Haidukowski, M. and Varkavsky, E., Assessment of toxinogenic fungi on Argentinean medicinal herbs. Microbiol. Res., 2004, 159, 113-120.
99. Sage, L., Krivobok, S., Delbos, E., Seigle-Murandi, F. and Creppy, E. E., Fungal flora and ochratoxin A production in grapes and musts from France. J. Agric. Food Chem., 2002, 50, 1306-1311.
100. Samson, R. A., Houbraken, J. A. M. P., Kujipers, A. F. A., Frank, J. M. and Frisvard, J. C., New ochratoxin A or sclerotium producing species in Aspergillus section Nigri. Stud. Mycol., 2004, 50, 45-61.
101. Savino, M., Limosani, P. and García-Moruno, E., Reduction of ochratoxin A contamination in red wines by oak wood fragments. Am. J. Enol. Vitic., 2007, 58, 97-101.
102. Sáez, J. M., Medina, Á., Gimeno-Adelantado, J. V., Mateo, R. and Jimenez, M., Comparison of different sample treatments for the analysis of ochratoxin A in must, wine and beer by liquid chromatography. J. Chromatography A, 2004, 1029, 125-133
103. Schall, N., Simmler-Hübenthal, H. and Süd-Chemie, A. G., Use of activated layered silicates for the adsorption of mycotoxins. Patent number: WO0240150, 2002.
104. Scientific Committee on Food Opinion on Ochratoxin A, CS/CNTM/MYC/14 final, Annex II to Document XXIV/2210/98 European Commission: Brussels, 1998, p. 28.
105. SCOOP, Assessment of dietary intake of ochratoxin A by the population of EU member states. European Commission web page: http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/scoop/index_en.html (last accessed March, 2010)
106. Scott, P. M., Kanhere, S. R., Lawrence, G. A., Daley, E. F. and Farber, J. M., Fermentation of wort containing added ochratoxin A and fumonisins B1 and B2. Food Addit. Contam., 1995, 12, 31-40.
107. Scott, P. M., Effects of processing and detoxification treatments on ochratoxin A: Introduction. Food Addit. Contam., 1996, 13, 19-21.
108. Scott, P. M., Mycotoxins transmitted into beer from contaminated grains during brewing. J. AOAC Int., 1996, 79, 875-882.
109. Scott, P. M., Miller, J. D. and Trenholm, H. L. (Eds.), Mycotoxins in Grain-Compounds other than Aflatoxin. Eagan Press: St. Paul, MN, 1997, p. 97.
110. Scudamore, K. A., Prevention of ochratoxin A in commodities and likely effects of processing fractionation and animal feeds. Food Addit. Contam. Part A, 2005, 22, 17-25.
111. Soleas, G. J., Yan, J., Goldberg, D. M., Assay of ochratoxin A in wine and beer by high-pressure liquid chromatography photodiode array and gas chromatography mass selective detection. J. Agric. Food Chem., 2001, 49, 2733-2740.
112. Stander, M. A., Bornscheuer, U. T., Henke, E. and Steyn, P. S., Screening of commercial hydrolases for the degradation of ochratoxin A. J. Agric. Food Chem., 2000, 48, 5736-5739.
113. Steyn, P. S. and Holzapfel, C. W., The synthesis of ochratoxin A and B metabolites of Aspergillus ochraceus Wilh. Tetrahedron, 1967, 23, 4449-4461.
114. Steyn, P. S., Ochratoxin and other dihydroisocoumarins. In: Microbial Toxins, Vol. VI, Fungal Toxins, A. Ciegler, S. Kadis and S. J. Ajl, Eds., Academic Press: New York, 1971, pp. 179-205.
115. Steyn, P. S., The biosynthesis of mycotoxins. Rev. Med. Vet., 1998, 149, 469-478.
116. Studer-Rohr, I., Dissertation No. 11071, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zürich, 1995.
117. Tangni, E. K., Simonis, J., Larondelle, Y. and De Meeus, D. A. L., Decontaminating and detoxifying liquid food media, especially beer, using insoluble vegetable fibers to adsorb mycotoxins. Patent number: WO2005007794-A1, (2005/01/27).
118. Teren, J., Varga, J. and Hamari, Z., Immunochemical detection of ochratoxin A in black Aspergillus strains. Mycopathologia, 1996, 134, 171-176.
119. Valenta, H., Chromatographic methods for the determination of ochratoxin A in animal and human tissues and fluids. J. Chromatogr. A, 1998, 815, 75-92.
120. Van der Merwe, K. J., Steyn, P. S., Fourie, L., Scoot, D. B. and Theron, J. J., Ochratoxin A, a toxic metabolite produced by Aspergillus ochraceus Wilh. Nature, 1965, 205, 112-113.
121. Varga, J., Rigó, K. and Téren, J., Degradation of ochratoxin A by Aspergillus species. Int. J. Food Microbiol., 2000, 59, 1-7.
122. Varga, J., Rigo, K., Toth, B., Teren, J. and Kozakiewicz, Z., Evolutionary relationships among Aspergillus species producing economically important mycotoxins. Food Technol. Biotechnol., 2003, 41, 29-36.
123. Varga, J. and Kozakiewicz, Z., Ochratoxin A in grapes and grape-derived products. Trends Food Science Technol., 2006, 17, 72-81.
124. Visconti, A., Pascale, M. and Centonze, G., Determination of ochratoxin A in domestic and imported beers in Italy by immunoaffinity clean-up and liquid chromatography. J. Chromatography A, 2000, 888, 321-326.
125. Visconti A., Pascale, M. and Centonze, G., Determination of ochratoxin A in wine and beer by immunoaffinity column cleanup and liquid chromatographic analysis with fluorometric detection: Collaborative Study. J. AOAC Int., 2001, 84, 1818-1827.
126. WHO/FAO, Ochratoxin A, In: Safety Evaluation of Certain Mycotoxins in Food, Vol. 47, WHO Food Additives Series, WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2001, pp. 281-415.
127. Wood, G. M., Patel, S., Entwisle, A. C. and Boenke, A., Ochratoxin A in wheat: a second intercomparison of procedures. Food Addit. Contam., 1996, 13, 519-539.
128. Wyatt, R. D., Measurement of mould growth and mycotoxins in feed: fallacies and innovations. Proceedings 1991 Georgia Nutrition Conference: University of Georgia, Athens, 1991.
129. Yamazaki, M., Maebayashi, Y. and Miyaki, K., Biosynthesis of ochratoxin A. Tetrahedron Lett., 1971, 25, 2301-2303.
130. Zöllner, P., Leitner, A., Lubda, D., Cabrera, K. and Lindner, W., Application of a chromolith SpeedROD RP-18e HPLC column: Chromatographia, 2000, 804, 818-820