Therapeutic manipulation of glucocorticoid metabolism in cardiovascular disease

British Journal of Pharmacology

Volumn 156, Issue 5, 2009, Pages 689-712

  Hadoke, Patrick W F ^a   Iqbal, Javaid ^a   Walker, Brian R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

11 hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase; Cardiovascular disease; Glucocorticoids; Selective inhibition

Indexed keywords

11 BETA HYDROXSTEROID DEHYDROGENASE TYPE 1; 4 HETEROARYLBICYCLO OCTYL TRIAZOLE; AMIDE; AMINOGLUTETHIMIDE; ANTIDIABETIC AGENT; BETAMETHASONE; BILE ACID; CARBENOXOLONE; CORTISONE; DEHYDROCORTICOSTERONE; DEXAMETHASONE; EPLERENONE; GLUCOCORTICOID; GLYCYRRHETINIC ACID; GLYCYRRHIZIC ACID; HYDROCORTISONE; HYDROXYSTEROID DEHYDROGENASE; INCB 13739; KETOCONAZOLE; METHYLPREDNISOLONE; MIFEPRISTONE; MINERALOCORTICOID RECEPTOR; OXYSTEROL; PREDNISOLONE; SPIRONOLACTONE; SULFONAMIDE; TRIAZOLE DERIVATIVE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; 11BETA HYDROXYSTEROID DEHYDROGENASE; GLUCOCORTICOID RECEPTOR;

ANOVULATION; ARTERY INTIMA PROLIFERATION; ATHEROGENESIS; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM; CLINICAL TRIAL; CUSHING SYNDROME; DELAYED PUBERTY; DRUG DOSE COMPARISON; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG MEGADOSE; ENDOTHELIUM CELL; HEART FUNCTION; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE TREATMENT; LOW DRUG DOSE; MACROPHAGE; NONHUMAN; OBESITY; OSTEOPOROSIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RESTENOSIS; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; SMOOTH MUSCLE FIBER; ANIMAL; ANTIBODY SPECIFICITY; BLOOD VESSEL; DRUG ANTAGONISM; DRUG POTENTIATION; HEART MUSCLE; INTIMA; METABOLISM; PATHOLOGY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; VASCULAR SMOOTH MUSCLE;

11-BETA-HYDROXYSTEROID DEHYDROGENASES; ANIMALS; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BLOOD VESSELS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; GLUCOCORTICOIDS; HUMANS; MUSCLE, SMOOTH, VASCULAR; MYOCARDIUM; ORGAN SPECIFICITY; RECEPTORS, GLUCOCORTICOID; RECEPTORS, MINERALOCORTICOID; TUNICA INTIMA;

EID: 66949181228     PISSN: 00071188     EISSN: 14765381     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2008.00047.x     Document Type: Review

References (327)

1. Adamson AC, Tillman WG (1955). Hydrocortisone. Br Med J ii : 1501.
2. Adlersberg D, Schaefer L, Drachman SR (1950a). Development of hypercholesteremia during cortisone and Acth therapy. JAMA 144 : 909 914.
3. Adlersberg D, Schaefer LE, Dritch R (1950b). Effect of cortisone, adrenocorticotropic hormone (Acth), and desoxycorticosterone acetate (Doca) on serum lipids. J Clin Invest 29 : 795.
4. Adlersberg D, Schaefer LE, Dritch R (1950c). Studies on hormonal control of serum lipid partition in man. J Clin Endocrinol 10 : 814 815.
5. Akao T, Akao T, Hattori M, Namba T, Kobashi K (1992). Inhibitory effects of glycyrrhetic acid and its related-compounds on 3-alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase of rat-liver cytosol. Chem Pharm Bull 40 : 1208 1210.
6. Alberts P, Engblom L, Edling N, Forsgren M, Klingstrom G, Larsson C et al. (2002). Selective inhibition of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 decreases blood glucose concentrations in hyperglycaemic mice. Diabetologia 45 : 1528 1532.
7. Alberts P, Nilsson C, Selen G, Engblom LO, Edling NH, Norling S et al. (2003). Selective inhibition of 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 improves hepatic insulin sensitivity in hyperglycemic mice strains. Endocrinology 144 : 4755 4762.
8. Alevizaki M, Cimponeriu A, Lekakis J, Papamichael C, Chrousos GP (2007). High anticipatory stress plasma cortisol levels and sensitivity to glucocorticoids predict severity of coronary artery disease in subjects undergoing coronary angiography. Metabolism 56 : 222 226.
9. Alexander SPH, Mathie A, Peters JA (2008). Guide to Receptors and Channels (GRAC), 3rd edition (2008 revision). Br J Pharmacol 153 (Suppl. 2 S1 S209.
10. Alisky JM (2006). Dexamethasone could improve myocardial infarction outcomes and provide new therapeutic options for non-interventional patients. Med Hypotheses 67 : 53 56.
11. Alzamora R, Michea L, Marusic ET (2000). Role of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in nongenomic aldosterone effects in human arteries. Hypertension 35 : 1099 1104.
12. Amelung D, Huebner HJ, Roka L, Meyerheim G (1953). Conversion of cortisone to compound F. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 13 : 1125.
13. Andrews RC, Walker BR (1999). Glucocorticoids and insulin resistance: old hormones, new targets. Clin Sci 96 : 513 523.
14. Armstrong KA, Hiremagalur B, Haluska BA, Campbell SB, Hawley CM, Marks L et al. (2005). Free fatty acids are associated with obesity, insulin resistance, and atherosclerosis in renal transplant recipients. Transplantation 80 : 937 944.
15. Arriza JL, Weinberger C, Cerelli G (1987). Cloning of human mineralocorticoid receptor complementary DNA; structural and functional kinship with the glucocorticoid receptor. Science 237 : 268 275.
16. Asai K, Funaki C, Hayashi T, Yamada K, Naito M, Kuzuya M et al. (1993). Dexamethasone-induced suppression of aortic atherosclerosis in cholesterol-fed rabbits - possible mechanisms. Arterioscler Thromb 13 : 892 899.
17. Ashton N, Cook C (1952). In vivo observations of the effects of cortisone upon blood vessels in rabbit ear chambers. Br J Exp Pathol 33 : 445 450.
18. Atanasov AG, Nashev LG, Schweizer RA, Frick C, Odermatt A (2004). Hexose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase determines the reaction direction of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 as an oxoreductase. FEBS Lett 571 : 129 133.
19. Bailey JM, Butler J (1985). Anti-inflammatory drugs in experimental atherosclerosis.6. combination therapy with steroid and non-steroid agents. Atherosclerosis 54 : 205 212.
20. Barker DJP, Bull AR, Osmond C, Simmonds SJ (1990). Fetal and placental size and risk of hypertension in adult life. Br Med J 301 : 259 262. (Pubitemid 20241224)
21. Barreto-Chaves ML, Heimann A, Krieger JE (2000). Stimulatory effect of dexamethasone on angiotensin-converting enzyme in neonatal rat cardiac myocytes. Braz J Med Biol Res 33 : 661 664.
22. Bartholome B, Spies CM, Gaber T, Schuchmann S, Berki T, Kunkel D et al. (2004). Membrane Glucocorticoid Receptors (MGCR) are expressed in normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells and up-regulated after in vitro stimulation and in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. FASEB J 18 : 70 80.
23. Beentjes JAM, Van Tol A, Sluiter WJ, Dullaart RPF (2000). Decreased plasma cholesterol esterification and cholesteryl ester transfer in hypopituitary patients on glucocorticoid replacement therapy. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 60 : 189 198.
24. Beggah AT, Escoubet B, Puttini S, Cailmail S, Delage V, Ouvrard-Pascaud A et al. (2002). Reversible cardiac fibrosis and heart failure induced by conditional expression of an antisense MRNA of the mineralocorticoid receptor in cardiomyocytes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99 : 7160 7165.
25. Benediktsson R, Lindsay RS, Noble J, Seckl JR, Edwards CRW (1993). Glucocorticoid exposure in utero: new model for adult hypertension. Lancet 341 : 339 341.
26. Berk BC, Vallega G, Griendling KK, Gordon JB, Cragoe EJ, Canessa M et al. (1988). Effects of glucocorticoids on Na/H exchange and growth in cultured vascular smooth muscle cells. J Cell Physiol 137 : 391 401.
27. Berthiaume M, Laplante M, Festuccia W, Gelinas Y, Poulin S, Lalonde J et al. (2007a). Depot-specific modulation of rat intraabdominal adipose tissue lipid metabolism by pharmacological inhibition of 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1. Endocrinology 148 : 2391 2397.
28. Berthiaume M, Laplante M, Festuccia WT, Cianflone K, Turcotte LP, Joanisse DR et al. (2007b). 11 Beta-HSD1 inhibition improves triglyceridemia through reduced liver VLDL secretion and partitions lipids toward oxidative tissues. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 293 : E1045 E1052.
29. Best R, Nelson SM, Walker BR (1997). Dexamethasone and 11-dehydrodexamethasone as tools to investigate the isozymes of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in vitro and in vivo. J Endocrinol 153 : 41 48.
30. Bjorntorp P (1991). Visceral fat accumulation: the missing link between psychosocial factors and cardiovascular disease? J Intern Med 230 : 195 201.
31. Bray PJ, Du BH, Mejia VM, Hao SC, Deutsch E, Fu CZ et al. (1999). Glucocorticoid resistance caused by reduced expression of the glucocorticoid receptor in cells from human vascular lesions. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 19 : 1180 1189.
32. Brazelton TR, Adams B, Shorthouse R, Morris RE (1999). Chronic rejection: the result of uncontrolled remodelling of graft tissue by recipient mesenchymal cells? data from two rodent models and the effects of immunosupressive therapies. Inflamm Res 48 : S134 S135.
33. Brem AS, Bina RB, King T, Morris DJ (1995). Bidirectional activity of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in vascular smooth muscle cells. Steroids 60 : 406 410.
34. Brem AS, Bina RB, King T, Morris DJ (1997). 11betaOH-progesterone affects vascular glucocorticoid metabolism and contractile response. Hypertension 30 : 449 454.
35. Brem AS, Bina RB, King TC, Morris DJ (1998). Localization of 2 11beta-OH steroid dehydrogenase isoforms in aortic endothelial cells. Hypertension 31 : 459 462.
36. Brilla CG, Pick R, Tan LB, Janicki JS, Weber KT (1990a). Remodeling of the rat right and left ventricles in experimental hypertension. Circ Res 67 : 1355 1364.
37. Brilla CG, Pick R, Tan LB, Janicki JS, Weber KT (1990b). Remodeling of the rat right and left ventricles in experimental hypertension. Circ Res 67 : 1355 1364.
38. Brilla CG, Matsubara LS, Weber KT (1993). Anti-aldosterone treatment and the prevention of myocardial fibrosis in primary and secondary hyperaldosteronism. J Mol Cell Cardiol 25 : 563 575.
39. Brodie AMH (1993). Aromatase, its inhibitors and their use in breast-cancer-treatment. Pharmacol Ther 60 : 501 515.
40. Brotman DJ, Girod JP, Garcia MJ, Patel JV, Gupta M, Posch A et al. (2005). Effects of short-term glucocorticoids on cardiovascular biomarkers. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90 : 3202 3208.
41. Brotman DJ, Girod JP, Posch A, Jani JT, Patel JV, Gupta M et al. (2006). Effects of short-term glucocorticoids on hemostatic factors in healthy volunteers. Thromb Res 118 : 247 252.
42. Brown AJ, Watts GF, Burnett JR, Dean RT, Jessup W (2000). Sterol 27-hydroxylase acts on 7-ketocholesterol in human atherosclerotic lesions and macrophages in culture. J Biol Chem 275 : 27627 27633.
43. Brown RW, Diaz R, Robson AC, Kotelevtsev YV, Mullins JJ, Kaufman MH et al. (1996). The ontogeny of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 and mineralocorticoid receptor gene expression reveal intricate control of glucocorticoid action in development. Endocrinology 137 : 794 797.
44. Bujalska IJ, Kumar S, Stewart PM (1997). Does central obesity reflect 'Cushing's Disease of the Omentum'? Lancet 349 : 1210 1213.
45. Cai TQ, Wong BM, Mundt SS, Thieringer R, Wright SD, Hermanowski-Vosatka A (2001). Induction of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 but not type 2 in human aortic smooth muscle cells by inflammatory stimuli. J Steroid Biochem 77 : 117 122.
46. Caprio M, Newfell BG, la Sala A, Baur W, Fabbri A, Rosano G et al. (2008). Functional mineralocorticoid receptors in human vascular endothelial cells regulate intercellular adhesion molecule-1 expression and promote leukocyte adhesion. Circ Res 102 : 1359 1367.
47. Capron L, Heudes D, Chajara A, Bruneval P (1991). Effect of ramipril, an inhibitor of angiotensin converting enzyme, on the response of rat thoracic aorta to injury with a balloon catheter. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 18 : 207 211.
48. Cavallero C, Ditondo U, Mingazzini PL, Nicosia R, Pericoli MN, Sarti P et al. (1976). Cell-proliferation in atherosclerotic plaques of cholesterol-fed rabbits.3. histological and autoradiographic observations on glucocorticoids-treated rabbits. Atherosclerosis 25 : 145 152.
49. Chapman KE, Coutinho A, Gray M, Gilmour JS, Savill JS, Seckl JR (2006). Local amplification of glucocorticoids by 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 and its role in the inflammatory response. Ann NY Acad Sci 1088 : 265 273.
50. Christy C, Hadoke PWF, Paterson JM, Mullins JJ, Seckl JR, Walker BR (2003). 11 Beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 in mouse aorta - localization and influence on response to glucocorticoids. Hypertension 42 : 580 587.
51. Clark AF, Tandler B, Vignos PJ, Jr. (1982). Glucocorticoid-induced alterations in the rabbit heart. Lab Invest 47 : 603 610.
52. Colao A, Pivonello R, Spiezia S, Faggiano A, Ferone D, Filippella M et al. (1999). Persistence of increased cardiovascular risk in patients with Cushing's disease after five years of successful cure. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84 : 2664 2672.
53. Conn JW, Rovner DR, Cohen EL (1968). Licorice-induced pseudoaldosteronism. JAMA 205 : 495 496.
54. Constantinides P, Hospes D, Gutmannauersperg N, Williams K (1962). Estriol and prednisolone in rabbit atherosclerosis. Arch Pathol 73 : 277.
55. Costenbader KH, Liang MH, Chibnik LB, Aizer J, Kwon H, Gall V et al. (2007). A pravastatin dose-escalation study in systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatol Int 27 : 1071 1077. (Pubitemid 47246586)
56. Crum R, Szabo S, Folkman J (1985). A new class of steroids inhibits angiogenesis in the presence of heparin or a heparin fragment. Science 230 : 1375 1378.
57. Csonka GW, Murray M (1971). Clinical evaluation of carbenoxolone in balanitis. Br J Vener Dis 47 : 179 181.
58. Dallman MF, Strack AM, Akana SF, Bradbury MJ, Hanson ES, Scribner KA et al. (1993). Feast and famine: critical role of glucocorticoids with insulin in daily energy flow. Front Neuroendocrinol 14 : 303 347.
59. Davis EA, Morris DJ (1991). Medicinal uses of licorice through the millenia: the good and plenty of it. Mol Cell Endocrinol 78 : 1 6.
60. Davis JM, Kremers HM, Crowson CS, Nicola PJ, Ballman KV, Therneau TM et al. (2007). Glucocorticoids and cardiovascular events in rheumatoid arthritis - a population-based cohort study. Arthritis Rheum 56 : 820 830.
61. Deitemeyer D, Yunker RL, Ashraf M, Subbiah MTR (1985). Effect of glucocorticoid administration early in life on aortic prostaglandin synthesis and morphology in atherosclerosis-susceptible pigeons. Exp Clin Endocrinol 85 : 147 154.
62. Dhawan L, Liu B, Blaxall BC, Taubman MB (2007). A novel role for the glucocorticoid receptor in the regulation of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 MRNA stability. J Biol Chem 282 : 10146 10152.
63. Dodic M, May CN, Wintour EM, Coghlan JP (1998). An early prenatal exposure to excess glucocorticoid leads to hypertensive offspring in sheep. Clin Sci 94 : 149 155.
64. Dodic M, Samuel C, Moritz K, Wintour EM, Morgan J, Grigg L et al. (2001). Impaired cardiac functional reserve and left ventricular hypertrophy in adult sheep after prenatal dexamethasone exposure. Circ Res 89 : 623 629.
65. Dover AR, Hadoke PWF, Macdonald LJ, Miller E, Newby DE, Walker BR (2007). Intravascular glucocorticoid metabolism during inflammation and injury in mice. Endocrinology 148 : 166 172.
66. Edwards CRW, Stewart PM, Burt D, Brett L, McIntyre MA, Sutanto WS et al. (1988). Localisation of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase- tissue specific protector of the mineralocorticoid receptor Lancet ii : 986 989.
67. Edwards G, Feletou M, Gardener MJ, Thollon C, Vanhoutte PM, Weston AH (1999). Role of gap junctions in the responses to EDHF in rat and guinea-pig small arteries. Br J Pharmacol 128 : 1788 1794.
68. Engelhardt D, Weber MM (1994). Therapy of Cushings-syndrome with steroid-biosynthesis inhibitors. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 49 : 261 267.
69. Etheridge EM, Hochligeti C (1952). Lipid deposition in aortas in younger age groups following cortisone and adrenocorticotrophic hormone. Am J Pathol 28 : 315 319.
70. Etxabe J, Vazquez JA (1994). Morbidity and mortality in cushings-disease - an epidemiologic approach. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 40 : 479 484.
71. Faggiano A, Pivonello R, Spiezia S, De Martino MC, Filippella M, Di Somma C et al. (2003). Cardiovascular risk factors and common carotid artery caliber and stiffness in patients with Cushing's disease during active disease and 1 year after disease remission. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88 : 2527 2533.
72. Fardet L, Flahault A, Kettaneh A, Tiev KP, Généreau T, Tolédano C, Lebbé C, Cabane J (2007). Corticosteroid-induced clinical adverse events: frequency, risk factors and patient's opinion. Brit J Dematol 157 : 142 148.
73. Fasshauer M, Klein J, Kralisch S, Klier M, Lossner U, Bluher M et al. (2004). Monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 expression is stimulated by growth hormone and interleukin-6 in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 317 : 598 604.
74. Ferrero V, Ribichini F, Pesarini G, Brunelleschi S, Vassanelli C (2007a). Glucocorticoids in the prevention of restenosis after coronary angioplasty - therapeutic potential. Drugs 67 : 1243 1255.
75. Ferrero V, Ribichini F, Rognoni A, Marino P, Brunelleschi S, Vassanelli C (2007b). Comparison of efficacy and safety of lower-dose to higher-dose oral prednisone after percutaneous coronary interventions (the IMPRESS-LD Study). Am J Cardiol 99 : 1082 1086.
76. Fischer-Betz R, Beer S, Schneider M (2005). Considering systemic lupus erythematosus as example for accelerated atherosclerosis in rheumatoid diseases - what is the consequence? Z Rheumatol 64 : 229 238.
77. Fishel RS, Eisenberg S, Shai SY, Redden RA, Bernstein KE, Berk BC (1995). Glucocorticoids induce angiotensin-converting enzyme expression in vascular smooth-muscle. Hypertension 25 : 343 349.
78. Folkman J, Ingber DE (1987). Angiostatic steroids. Method of discovery and mechanism of action. Ann Surg 206 : 374 383.
79. Folkman J, Langer R, Linhardt RJ, Haudenschild C, Taylor S (1983). Angiogenesis inhibition and tumor regression caused by heparin or a heparin fragment in the presence of cortisone. Science 221 : 719 725.
80. Fujiyama J, Kuriyama M, Arima S, Shibata Y, Nagata K, Takenaga S et al. (1991). Atherogenic risk-factors in cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis. Clin Chim Acta 200 : 1 11.
81. Funder J, Myles K (1996). Exclusion of corticosterone from epithelial mineralocorticoid receptors is insufficient for selectivity of aldosterone action: in vivo binding studies. Endocrinol 137 : 5264 5268.
82. Funder JW, Pearce PT, Smith R, Smith AI (1988). Mineralocorticoid action: target tissue specificity is enzyme, not receptor, mediated. Science 242 : 583 585.
83. Gao H-B, Ge R-S, Lakshmi V, Marandici AN, Hardy P (1997). Hormonal regulation of oxidative and reductive activities of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in rat leydig cells. Endocrinology 138 : 156 161.
84. Gao Y, Zhou H, Raj JU (1996). Antenatal betamethasone therapy potentiates nitric oxide-mediated relaxation of preterm ovine coronary arteries. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 270 : H538 H554.
85. Gerritsen ME, Rosenbaum RM (1985). Regulation of rabbit coronary microvessel endothelial cell (rcme) prostaglandin synthesis by glucocorticoids. Microvasc Res 29 : 222.
86. Gilmour JS, Coutinho AE, Cailhier JF, Man TY, Clay M, Thomas G et al. (2006). Local amplification of glucocorticoids by 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 promotes macrophage phagocytosis of apoptotic leukocytes. J Immunol 176 : 7605 7611.
87. Goldberg GS, Moreno AP, Bechberger JF, Hearn SS, Shivers RR, MacPhee DJ et al. (1996). Evidence that disruption of connexon particle arrangements in gap junction plaques is associated with inhibition of gap junctional communication by a glycyrrhetinic acid derivative. Exp Cell Res 222 : 48 53.
88. Golestaneh N, Klein C, Valamanesh F, Suarez G, Agarwal MK, Mirshahi M (2001). Mineralocorticoid receptor-mediated signaling regulates the ion gated sodium channel in vascular endothelial cells and requires an intact cytoskeleton. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 280 : 1300 1306.
89. Goncharova EA, Billington CK, Irani C, Vorotnikov AV, Tkachuk VA, Penn RB et al. (2003). Cyclic AMP-mobilizing agents and glucocorticoids modulate human smooth muscle cell migration. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 29 : 19 27.
90. Gonzalez-Juanatey C, Lorez Diaz MJ, Martin J, Llorca J, Gonzalez-Gay MA (2007). Atherosclerosis in patients with biopsy-proven giant cell artertis. Arthritis Rheum 57 : 1481 1486. (Pubitemid 350308847)
91. Gordon D, Kobernick SD, Mcmillan GC, Duff GL (1954). The effect of cortisone on the serum lipids and on the development of experimental cholesterol atherosclerosis in the rabbit. J Exp Med 99 : 371 386.
92. Guzman LALV, Song CX, Jang YS, Lincoff AM, Levy R, Topol EJ (1996). Local intraluminal infusion of biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles - a novel approach for prolonged drug delivery after balloon angioplasty. Circulation 94 : 1441 1448.
93. Hadoke PW, Macdonald L, Logie JJ, Small GR, Dover AR, Walker BR (2006). Intra-vascular glucocorticoid metabolism as a modulator of vascular structure and function. Cell Mol Life Sci 63 : 565 578.
94. Hadoke PWF, Christy C, Kotelevtsev YV, Williams BC, Kenyon CJ, Seckl JR et al. (2001). Endothelial cell dysfunction in mice after transgenic knockout of type 2, but not type 1, 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. Circulation 104 : 2832 2837.
95. Hafezi-Moghadam A, Simoncini T, Yang E, Limbourg FP, Plumier JC, Rebsamen MC et al. (2002). Acute cardiovascular protective effects of corticosteroids are mediated by non-transcriptional activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Nat Med 8 : 473 479.
96. Hafstrom I, Rohani M, Deneberg S, Wornert M, Jogestrand T, Frostegard J (2007). Effects of low-dose prednisolone on endothelial function, atherosclerosis, and traditional risk factors for atherosclerosis in patients with rheumatoid arthritis - a randomized study. J Rheumatol 34 : 1810 1816.
97. Hammami MM, Siiteri PK (1991). Regulation of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity in human skin fibroblasts: enzymatic modulation of glucocorticoid action. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 73 : 326 334.
98. Hammond GL, Smith CL, Paterson NAM, Sibbald WJ (1990). A role for corticosteroid-binding globulin in delivery of cortisol to activated neutrophils. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 71 : 34 39.
99. Harada E, Yoshimura M, Yasue H, Nakagawa O, Nakagawa M, Harada M et al. (2001). Aldosterone induces angiotensin-converting-enzyme gene expression in cultured neonatal rat cardiocytes. Circulation 104 : 137 139.
100. Hasan Q, Tan ST, Gush J, Peters SG, Davis PF (2000). Steroid therapy of a proliferating hemangioma: histochemical and molecular changes. Pediatrics 105 : 117 120.
101. Hasan Q, Tan ST, Xu B, Davis PF (2003). Effects of five commonly used glucocorticoids on haemangioma in vitro. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 30 : 140 144.
102. Hatakeyama H, Miyamori I, Fujita T, Takeda Y, Takeda R, Yamamoto H (1994a). Vascular aldosterone - biosynthesis and a link to angiotensin-ii- induced hypertrophy of vascular smooth-muscle cells. J Biol Chem 269 : 24316 24320.
103. Hatakeyama H, Miyamori I, Fujita T, Takeda Y, Takeda R, Yamamoto H (1994b). Vascular aldosterone - biosynthesis and a link to angiotensin-ii- induced hypertrophy of vascular smooth-muscle cells. J Biol Chem 269 : 24316 24320.
104. Hatakeyama H, Inaba S, Miyamori I (1999). 11Beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in cultured human vascular cells: possible role in the development of hypertension. Hypertension 33 : 1179 1184.
105. Hatanaka E, Furlaneto CJ, Ribeiro FP, Souza GM, Campa A (2004). Serum amyloid a-induced MRNA expression and release of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) in human neutrophils. Immunol Lett 91 : 33 37.
106. Heasman SJ, Giles KM, Ward C, Rossi AG, Haslett C, Dransfield I (2003). Glucocorticoid-mediated regulation of granulocyte apoptosis and macrophage phagocytosis of apoptotic cells: implications for the resolution of inflammation. J Endocrinol 178 : 29 36.
107. Hermanowski-Vosatka A, Gerhold D, Mundt SS, Loving VA, Lu M, Chen Y et al. (2000). PPARalpha agonists reduce 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 in the liver. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 279 : 330 336.
108. Hermanowski-Vosatka A, Balkovec JM, Cheng K, Chen HY, Hernandez M, Koo GC et al. (2005). 11 Beta-HSD1 inhibition ameliorates metabolic syndrome and prevents progression of atherosclerosis in mice. J Exp Med 202 : 517 527.
109. Hoffmann R, Radke P, Weber C, Ortlepp J, Blindt R, Haager P et al. (2004a). Failure of a high-dose dexamethasone-eluting stent to inhibit neointimal hyperplasia and restenosis. Eur Heart J 25 : 525 526.
110. Hoffmann R, Langenberg R, Radke P, Franke A, Blindt R, Ortlepp J et al. (2004b). Evaluation of a high-dose dexamethasone-eluting stent. Am J Cardiol 94 : 193 195.
111. Hosfield DJ, Wu YQ, Skene RJ, Hilgers M, Jennings A, Snell GP et al. (2005). Conformational flexibility in crystal structures of human 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type I provide insights into glucocorticoid interconversion and enzyme regulation. J Biol Chem 280 : 4639 4648.
112. Hubener HJ, Fukushima DK, Gallagher TF (1956). Substrate specificity of enzymes reducing the 11-keto and 20-keto groups of steroids. J Biol Chem 220 : 499 511.
113. Hughes KA, Webster SP, Walker BR (2008). 11-Beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11 beta-HSD1) inhibitors in type 2 diabetes mellitus and obesity. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 17 : 481 496.
114. Hult M, Elleby B, Shafqat N, Svensson S, Rane A, Jornvall H et al. (2004a). Human and rodent type 1 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases are 7 beta-hydroxycholesterol dehydrogenases involved in oxysterol metabolism. Cell Mol Life Sci 61 : 992 999.
115. Hult M, Elleby B, Shafqat N, Svensson S, Rane A, Jornvall H et al. (2004b). Human and rodent type 1 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases are 7beta-hydroxycholesterol dehydrogenases involved in oxysterol metabolism. Cell Mol Life Sci 61 : 992 999.
116. Inoue H, Umesono K, Nishimori T, Hirata Y, Tanabe T (1999). Glucocorticoid-mediated suppression of the promoter activity of the cyclooxygenase-2 gene is modulated by expression of its receptor in vascular endothelial cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 254 : 292 298.
117. Ishii T, Masuzaki H, Tanaka T, Arai N, Yasue S, Kobayashi N et al. (2007). Augmentation of 11 beta-hydroxysteroid LPS-activated J774.1 macrophages dehydrogenase type 1 in - role of 11 beta-HSD1 in pro-inflammatory properties in macrophages. Febs Lett 581 : 349 354.
118. Iuchi T, Akaike M, Mitsui T, Ohshima Y, Shintani Y, Azuma H et al. (2003). Glucocorticoid excess induces superoxide production in vascular endothelial cells and elicits vascular endothelial dysfunction. Circ Res 92 : 81 87.
119. Jain S, Pick R, Katz LN (1965). Benefit from testosterone and hydrocortisone on coronary atherogenesis in cockerels on a low protein atherogenic diet. Circ Res 17 : 492.
120. Jamieson PM, Chapman KE, Edwards CRW, Seckl JR (1995). 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase is an exclusive 11β-reductase in primary cultures of rat hepatocytes: effect of physicochemical and hormonal manipulations. Endocrinology 136 : 4754 4761.
121. Jamieson PM, Fuchs E, Flugge G, Seckl JR (1997). Attenuation of hippocampal 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 by chronic psychosocial stress in the tree shrew. Stress 2 : 123 132.
122. Jamieson PM, Walker BR, Chapman KE, Rossiter S, Seckl JR (2000). 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 is a predominant 11-reductase in the intact perfused rat liver. J Endocrinol 175 : 685 692.
123. Jeremy JY, Dandona P (1986). Inhibition by hydrocortisone of prostacyclin synthesis by rat aorta and its reversal with Ru486. Endocrinology 119 : 661 665.
124. Jilma B, Blann AD, Stohlawetz P, Eichler HG, Kautzky-Willer A, Wagner OF (2000). Dexamethasone lowers circulating E-selectin and ICAM-1 in healthy men. J Lab Clin Med 135 : 270 274.
125. Johns DG, Dorrance AM, Tramontini NL, Webb RC (2001). Glucocorticoids inhibit tetrahydrobiopterin-dependent endothelial function. Exp Biol Med 226 : 27 31.
126. Jun SS, Chen Z, Pace MC, Shaul PW (1999). Glucocorticoids downregulate cyclooxygenase-1 gene expression and prostacyclin synthesis in fetal pulmonary artery endothelium. Circ Res 84 : 193 200.
127. Kakio T, Matsumori A, Ohashi N, Yamada T, Saito T, Kawamoto A et al. (2004). Hydrocortisone reduces restenosis after stenting of small coronary arteries. J Interv Cardiol 17 : 295 300.
128. Kanat M, Sipahioglu M, Arinc H, Serin E, Yildiz O, Tunckale A et al. (2007). Is lipid lowering treatment aiming for very low LDL levels safe in terms of the synthesis of steroid hormones? Med Hypotheses 69 : 104 112.
129. Kardon T, Senesi S, Marcolongo P, Legeza B, Banhegyi G, Mandl J et al. (2008). Maintenance of luminal NADPH in the endoplasmic reticulum promotes the survival of human neutrophil granulocytes. Febs Lett 582 : 1809 1815.
130. Karim MA, Frizzell S, Inman S, Shinn L, Miller M (1997). In vivo role of glucocorticoids in barotrauma, vascular repair and fibrosis. J Mol Cell Cardiol 29 : 1111 1122.
131. Kato H, Hayashi T, Koshino Y, Oida K, Kutsumi Y, Nakai T et al. (1995). Autocrine production of endothelin-1 participates in the glucocorticoid-induced Ca2+ influx into vascular smooth-muscle cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 208 : 82 88.
132. Kawai Y, Hayashi T, Eguchi K, Asazuma K, Masamura K, Iwamuro A et al. (1998). Effects of brief glucocorticoid exposure on growth of vascular smooth muscle cells in culture. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 245 : 493 496.
133. Khan IY, Dekou V, Douglas G, Jensen R, Hanson MA, Poston L et al. (2005). A high-fat diet during rat pregnancy or suckling induces cardiovascular dysfunction in adult offspring. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 288 : R127 R133.
134. Kim KW, Wang ZL, Busby J, Tsuruda T, Chen M, Hale C et al. (2006a). The role of tyrosine 177 in human 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 in substrate and inhibitor binding: an unlikely hydrogen bond donor for the substrate. Biochim Biophys Acta 1764 : 824 830.
135. Kim WJ, Bae EM, Kang YJ, Bae HU, Hong SH, Lee JY et al. (2006b). Glucocorticoid-induced tumour necrosis factor receptor family related protein (GITR) mediates inflammatory activation of macrophages that can destabilize atherosclerotic plaques. Immunology 119 : 421 429.
136. Konishi A, Tazawa C, Miki Y, Darnel AD, Suzuki T, Ohta Y et al. (2003). The possible roles of mineralocorticoid receptor and 11 beta-hydroxy steroid dehydrogenase type 2 in cardiac fibrosis in the spontaneously hypertensive rat. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 85 : 439 442.
137. Kornel L, Ramsay C, Kanamarlapudi N, Travers T, Packer W (1982). Evidence for the presence in arterial-walls of intracellular-molecular mechanism for action of mineralocorticoids. Clin Exp Hypertens A 4 : 1561 1582.
138. Kotelevtsev YV, Holmes MC, Burchell A, Houston PM, Scholl D, Jamieson PM et al. (1997). 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 knockout mice show attenuated glucocorticoid inducible responses and resist hyperglycaemia on obesity and stress. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94 : 14924 14929.
139. Kotelevtsev YV, Brown RW, Fleming S, Edwards CRW, Seckl JR, Mullins JJ (1999). Hypertension in mice caused by inactivation of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2. J Clin Invest 103 : 683 689.
140. Kremers HM, Reinalda MS, Crowson CS, Davis JM, Hunder GG, Gabriel SE (2007). Glucocorticoids and cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events in polymyalgia rheumatica. Arthritis Rheum 57 : 279 286.
141. Krozowski ZS, Funder JW (1983). Renal mineralocorticoid receptors and hippocampal corticosterone-binding species have identical intrinsic steroid specificity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 80 : 6056 6060.
142. La Mear NS, MacGilvray SS, Myers TF (1997). Dexamethasone-induced myocardial hypertrophy in neonatal rats. Biol Neonate 72 : 175 180.
143. Lakshmi V, Monder C (1988). Purification and characterization of the corticosteroid 11β-dehydrogenase component of the rat liver 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase complex. Endocrinology 123 : 2390 2398.
144. Lamireau D, Nuyt AM, Hou X, Bernier S, Beauchamp M, Gobeil F et al. (2002). Altered vascular function in fetal programming of hypertension. Stroke 33 : 2992 2998.
145. Langford HG, Snavely JR (1959). Effect of DCA on development of renoprival hypertension. Am J Physiol 196 : 449 450.
146. Latif SA, Hartman LR, Souness GW, Morris DJ (1994). Possible endogenous regulators of steroid inactivating enzymes and glucocorticoid-induced Na+ retention. Steroids 59 : 352 356.
147. Lee CW, Chae JK, Lim HY, Hong MK, Kim JJ, Park SW et al. (1999). Prospective randomized trial of corticosteroids for the prevention of restenosis after intracoronary stent implantation. Am Heart J 138 : 60 63.
148. Lefer AM (1968). Influence of corticosteroids on mechanical performance of isolated rat papillary muscles. Am J Physiol 214 : 518 524.
149. Lesage J, Blondeau B, Grino M, Breant B, Dupouy JP (2001). Maternal undernutrition during late gestation induces foetal over-exposure to glucocorticoids and intra-iuterine growth retardation, and disturbs the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal axis in the newborn rat. Endocrinology 142 : 1692 1702.
150. Li KZ, Obeyesekere VR, Krozowski ZS, Ferrari P (1997). Oxoreductase and dehydrogenase activities of the human and rat 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 enzyme. Endocrinology 138 : 2948 2952.
151. Libby P, Ridker PM, Maseri A (2002). Inflammation and atherosclerosis. Circulation 105 : 1135 1143.
152. Lijnen P, Petrov V (2000). Induction of cardiac fibrosis by aldosterone. J Mol Cell Cardiol 32 : 865 879.
153. Lijnen PJ, Petrov VV, Fagard RH (2000). Induction of cardiac fibrosis by angiotensin II. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol 22 : 709 723.
154. Lim HY, Muller N, Herold MJ, van den Brandt J, Reichardt HM (2007). Glucocorticoids exert opposing effects on macrophage function dependent on their concentration. Immunology 122 : 47 53.
155. Lima DSN, Sato EI, Lima VC, Miranda F, Hatta FH (2002). Brachial endothelial function is impaired in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Journal of Rheumatology 29 : 292 297.
156. Lincoff AM, Furst JG, Ellis SG, Tuch RJ, Topol EJ (1997). Sustained local delivery of dexamethasone by a novel intravascular eluting stent to prevent restenosis in the porcine coronary injury model. J Am Coll Cardiol 29 : 808 816.
157. Lister K, Autelitano DJ, Jenkins A, Hannan RD, Sheppard KE (2006). Cross
158. Liu X, De Scheerder I, Desmet W (2004). Dexamethasone-eluting stent: an anti-inflammatory approach to inhibit coronary restenosis. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther 2 : 653 660.
159. Liu XS, Huang YM, Hanet C, Vandormael M, Legrand V, Dens J et al. (2003). Study of antirestenosis with the biodivysio dexamethasone-eluting stent (STRIDE): a first-in-human multicenter pilot trial. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 60 : 172 178.
160. Lombes M, Oblin MF, Gasc JM, Baulieu FE, Farman N, Bonvalet JP (1992). Immunohistochemical and biochemical evidence for a cardiovascular mineralocorticoid receptor. Circ Res 71 : 503 510.
161. Lombes M, Alfaidy N, Eugene E, Lessana A, Farman N, Bonvalet J-P (1995). Prerequisite for cardiac aldosterone action: mineralocorticoid receptor and 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in the human hear. Circulation 92 : 175 182.
162. Longenecker JP, Kilty LA, Johnson LK (1982). Glucocorticoid influence on growth of vascular wall cells in culture. J Cell Physiol 113 : 197 202.
163. Longenecker JP, Kilty LA, Johnson LK (1984). Glucocorticoid inhibition of vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation: influence of homologous extracellular matrix and serum mitogens. J Cell Biol 98 : 534 540.
164. Low SC, Moisan M-P, Edwards CRW, Seckl JR (1994a). Glucocorticoids regulate 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity and gene expression in vivo in the rat. J Neuroendocrinol 6 : 285 290.
165. Low SC, Chapman KE, Edwards CRW, Wells T, Robinson ICAF, Seckl JR (1994b). Sexual dimorphism of hepatic 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in the rat: the role of growth hormone patterns. J Endocrinol 143 : 541 548.
166. Mccabe PM, Gonzales JA, Zaias J, Szeto A, Kumar M, Herron AJ et al. (2002). Social environment influences the progression of atherosclerosis in the Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbit. Circulation 105 : 354 359.
167. McColl A, Michlewska S, Dransfield I, Rossi AG (2007). Effects of glucocorticoids on apoptosis and clearance of apoptotic cells. ScientificWorldJournal 7 : 1165 1181.
168. McEwan PE, Gray GA, Sherry L, Webb DJ, Kenyon CJ (1998). Differential effects of angiotensin II on cardiac cell proliferation and intramyocardial perivascular fibrosis in vivo 3. Circulation 98 : 2765 2773.
169. McInnes KJ, Kenyon CJ, Chapman KE, Livingstone DEW, Macdonald LJ, Walker BR et al. (2004). 5 Alpha-reduced glucocorticoids, novel endogenous activators of the glucocorticoid receptor. J Biol Chem 279 : 22908 22912.
170. Maddali KK, Korzick DH, Turk JR, Bowles DK (2005). Lsoform-specific modulation of coronary artery PKC by glucocorticoids. Vascul Pharmacol 42 : 153 162.
171. Makheja AN, Bloom S, Muesing R, Simon T, Bailey JM (1989). Anti-inflammatory drugs in experimental atherosclerosis. VII. spontaneous atherosclerosis in WHHL rabbits and inhibition by cortisone acetate. Atherosclerosis 76 : 155 161.
172. Mangos G, Walker BR, Kelly JJ, Lawson J, Webb DJ, Whitworth JA (2000). Cortisol inhibits cholinergic dilatation in the human forearm: towards an explanation for glucocorticoid-induced hypertension. Am J Hypertens 13 : 1155 1160.
173. Marumo T, Schini-Kerth VB, Brandes RP, Busse R (1998). Glucocorticoids inhibit superoxide anion production and p22 phox MRNA expression in human aortic smooth muscle cells. Hypertension 32 : 1083 1088.
174. Masuzaki H, Paterson J, Shinyama H, Morton NM, Mullins JJ, Seckl JR et al. (2001). A transgenic model of visceral obesity and the metabolic syndrome. Science 294 : 2166 2170.
175. Masuzaki H, Yamamoto H, Kenyon CJ, Elmquist JK, Morton NM, Paterson JM et al. (2003). Transgenic amplification of glucocorticoid action in adipose tissue causes high blood pressure in mice. J Clin Invest 112 : 83 90.
176. Mendelsohn FAO, Lloyd CJ, Kachel C, Funder JW (1982). Induction by glucocorticoids of angiotensin converting enzyme production from bovine endothelial cells in culture and rat lung in vivo. J Clin Invest 70 : 684 692. (Pubitemid 12054595)
177. Metcalf BW, Levy MA, Holt DA (1989). Inhibitors of steroid 5 alpha-reductase in benign prostatic hyperplasia, male pattern baldness and acne. Trends Pharmacol Sci 10 : 491 495.
178. Meyer WJ, Nicholls NR (1981). Mineralocorticoid binding on cultured smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts from rat aorta. J Steroid Biochem 14 : 1157 1168.
179. Michael LH, Ballantyne CM, Zachariah JP, Gould KE, Pocius JS, Taffet GE et al. (1999). Myocardial infarction and remodeling in mice: effect of reperfusion. Am J Physiol 277 : H660 H668.
180. Miller AM, McPhaden AR, Wadsworth RM, Wainwright CL (2001). Inhibition of leukocyte depletion of neointima formation after balloon angioplasty in a rabbit model of restenosis. Cardiovasc Res 49 : 838 850.
181. Miller JW, Crapo L (1993). The medical-treatment of Cushings-syndrome. Endocr Rev 14 : 443 458.
182. Mitsuya N, Kishi R, Suzuki N, Tamura M, Imai Y, Tanaka O et al. (2004). Efficacy of steroid therapy for pacing failure in a patient with chronic myocarditis. Intern Med 43 : 213 217.
183. Molnar GA, Lindschau C, Dubrovska G, Mertens PR, Kirsch T, Quinkler M et al. (2008). Glucocorticoid-related signaling effects in vascular smooth muscle cells. Hypertension 51 : 1372 1378.
184. Monder C, Lakshmi V (1989). Evidence for kinetically distinct forms of corticosteroid 11β-dehydrogenase in rat liver microsomes. J Steroid Biochem 32 : 77 83.
185. Montrella-Waybill M, Clore JN, Schoolwerth AC, Watlington CO (1991). Evidence that high dose cortisol-induced Na+ retention in man is not mediated by the mineralocorticoid receptor. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 72 : 1060 1066.
186. Mori K, Shioi A, Jono S, Nishizawa Y, Morii H (1999). Dexamethasone enhances in vitro vascular calcification by promoting osteoblastic differentiation of vascular smooth muscle cells. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 19 : 2112 2118.
187. Morin C, Asselin C, Boudreau F, Provencher PH (1998). Transcriptional regulation of pre-pro-endothelin-1 gene by glucocorticoids in vascular smooth muscle cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 244 : 583 587.
188. Morris DJ, Souness GW (1996). Endogenous 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase inhibitors and their role in glucocorticoid Na+ retention and hypertension. Endocr Res 22 : 793 801.
189. Morris DJ, Brem AS, Ge RS, Jellinck PH, Sakai RR, Hardy MP (2003). The functional roles of 11 beta-HSD1: vascular tissue, testis and brain. Mol Cell Endocrinol 203 : 1 12.
190. Morton NM, Holmes MC, Fievet C, Staels B, Tailleux A, Mullins JJ et al. (2001). Improved lipid and lipoprotein profile, hepatic insulin sensitivity, and glucose tolerance in 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 null mice. J Biol Chem 276 : 41293 41300.
191. Murphy BEP, Clark SJ, Donald IR, Pinsky M, Vedady D (1974). Conversion of maternal cortisol to cortisone during placental transfer to human fetus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 118 : 538 541.
192. Nagata D, Hirata Y (2007). Molecular mechanism of cardiovascular damage induced by aldosterone. Yakugaku Zasshi 127 : 1339 1346.
193. Naito M, Yasue M, Asai K, Yamada K, Hayashi T, Kuzuya M et al. (1992). Effects of dexamethasone on experimental atherosclerosis in cholesterol-fed rabbits. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol 38 : 255 264.
194. Nakano T, Raines EW, Abraham JA, Wenzel FG, Higashiyama S, Klagsbrun M et al. (1993). Glucocorticoid inhibits thrombin-induced expression of platelet-derived growth-factor a-chain and heparin-binding epidermal growth factor-like growth-factor in human aortic smooth-muscle cells. J Biol Chem 268 : 22941 22947.
195. Narayanan N, Yang C, Xu A (2004). Dexamethasone treatment improves sarcoplasmic reticulum function and contractile performance in aged myocardium. Mol Cell Biochem 266 : 31 36.
196. Neumann S, Huse K, Semrau R, Diegeler A, Gebhardt R, Buniatian GH et al. (2002). Aldosterone and D-glucose stimulate the proliferation of human cardiac myofibroblasts in vitro. Hypertension 39 : 756 760.
197. Newton CJ, Ran G, Xie YX, Bilko D, Burgoyne CH, Adams I et al. (2002). Statin-induced apoptosis of vascular endothelial cells is blocked by dexamethasone. J Endocrinol 174 : 7 16.
198. Nicosia RF, Ottinetti A (1990). Growth of microvessels in serum-free matrix culture of rat aorta. A quantitative assay of angiogenesis in vitro. Lab Invest 63 : 115 122.
199. Nuotio-Antar AM, Hachey DL, Hasty AH (2007). Carbenoxolone treatment attenuates symptoms of metabolic syndrome and atherogenesis in obese, hyperlipidemic mice. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 293 : E1517 E1528.
200. Oberleithner H, Schneider SW, Albermann L, Hillebrand U, Ludwig T, Riethmuller C et al. (2003). Endothelial cell swelling by aldosterone. J Membr Biol 196 : 163 172.
201. Odermatt A, Arnold P, Frey FJ (2001). The intracellular localization of the mineralocorticoid receptor is regulated by 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2. J Biol Chem 276 : 28484 28492.
202. Ohtani T, Ohta M, Yamamoto K, Mano T, Sakata Y, Nishio M et al. (2007). Elevated cardiac tissue level of aldosterone and mineralocorticoid receptor in diastolic heart failure: beneficial effects of mineralocorticoid receptor blocker. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 292 : R946 R954.
203. Oppenheim E, Bruger M (1952). Experimental cholesterol atherosclerosis.11. studies with vitamin-A. AMA Arch Pathol 53 : 520 522.
204. Ortsater H, Alberts P, Warpman U, Engblom LOM, Abrahmsen L, Bergsten P (2005). Regulation of 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 and glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in pancreatic islets of langerhans. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 21 : 359 366.
205. Oterdoom LH, de Vries APJ, Gansevoort RT, van Son WJ, van der Heide JJH, Ploeg RJ et al. (2007). Determinants of insulin resistance in renal transplant recipients. Transplantation 83 : 29 35.
206. Otto C, Reichardt HM, Schutz G (1997). Absence of glucocorticoid receptor-beta in mice. J Biol Chem 272 : 26665 26668.
207. Ouvrard-Pascaud A, Sainte-Marie Y, Benitah JP, Perrier R, Soukaseum C, Cat AN et al. (2005). Conditional mineralocorticoid receptor expression in the heart leads to life-threatening arrhythmias. Circulation 111 : 3025 3033.
208. Painson JC, Thorner MO, Krieg RJ, Tannenbaum GS (1992). Short-term adult exposure to estradiol feminizes the male pattern of spontaneous and growth hormone-releasing factor-stimulated growth-hormone secretion in the rat. Endocrinology 130 : 511 519.
209. Paterson JM, Morton NM, Fievet C, Kenyon CJ, Holmes MC, Staels B et al. (2004). Metabolic syndrome without obesity: hepatic overexpression of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 in transgenic mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101 : 7088 7093.
210. Penefsky ZJ, Kahn M (1971). Inotropic effects of dexamethasone in mammalian heart muscle1. Eur J Pharmacol 15 : 259 266.
211. Pepine CJ, Hirshfeld JW, Macdonald RG, Henderson MA, Bass TA, Goldberg S et al. (1990). A controlled trial of corticosteroids to prevent restenosis after coronary angioplasty. Circulation 81 : 1753 1761.
212. Perschel FH, Buhler H, Hierholzer K (1991). Bile acids and their amidates inhibit 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase obtained from rat kidney. Pflug Arch 418 : 538 543.
213. Petrichenko IE, Daret D, Kolpakova GV, Shakov YA, Larrue J (1997). Glucocorticoids stimulate cholesteryl ester formation in human smooth muscle cells. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 17 : 1143 1151.
214. Petrik PV, Law MMMWSC, Quinones-Baldrich W, Gelabert HA (1998). Dexamethasone and enalapril suppress intimal hyperplasia individually but have no synergistic effect. Ann Vasc Surg 12 : 216 220.
215. Pitt B, Zannad F, Remme WJ, Cody R, Castaigne A, Perez A et al. (1999). The effect of spironolactone on morbidity and mortality in patients with severe heart failure. Randomized aldactone evaluation study investigators. N Engl J Med 341 : 709 717.
216. Pitt B, Remme W, Zannad F, Neaton J, Martinez F, Roniker B et al. (2003). Eplerenone, a selective aldosterone blocker, in patients with left ventricular dysfunction after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 348 : 1309 1321.
217. Pitzalis C, Pipitone N, Perretti M (2002). Regulation of leukocyte-endothelial interactions by glucocorticoids. Ann NY Acad Sci 966 : 108 118.
218. Poon M, Gertz SD, Fallon JT, Wiegman P, Berman JW, Sarembock IJ et al. (2001). Dexamethasoneinhibits macrophage accumulation after balloon arterial injury in cholesterol-fed rabbits. Atherosclerosis 155 : 371 380.
219. Powell JS, Clozel JP, Muller RKM, Kuhn H, Hefti F, Hosang M, Baumgartner HR (1989). Inhibitors of angiotensin-converting enzyme prevent myointimal proliferation after vascular injury. Science 245 : 186 188.
220. Prescott MF, Mcbride CK, Court M (1989). Development of intimal lesions after leukocyte migration into the vascular wall. Am J Pathol 135 : 835 846.
221. Pujols L, Mullol J, Roca-Ferrer J, Torrego A, Xaubet A, Cidlowski JA et al. (2002). Expression of glucocorticoid receptor alpha- and beta-isoforms in human cells and tissues. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 283 : C1324 C1331.
222. Rab ST, Roubin GS, Carlin S, Hearn JA, Douglas JS (1991). Coronoary aneurysms after stent placement - a suggestion of altered vessel wall healing in the presence of anti-inflammatory agents. J Am Coll Cardiol 18 : 1525 1528.
223. Rabasseda X, Silvestre J, Castaner J (1999). Eplerenone: antihypertensive treatment of heart failure aldosterone antagonist. Drugs Future 24 : 488 501.
224. Radke PW, Weber C, Kaiser A, Schober A, Hoffmann R (2004). Dexamethasone and restenosis after coronary stent implantation: new indication for an old drug? Curr Pharm Des 10 : 349 355.
225. Radomski MW, Palmer RMJ, Moncada S (1990). Glucocorticoids inhibit the expression of an inducible, but not the constitutive, nitric oxide synthase in vascular endothelial cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 87 : 10043 10047.
226. Raff H (1987). Glucocorticoid inhibition of neurohypophysial vasopressin secretion. Am J Physiol 252 : R635 R644.
227. Rajan V, Edwards CRW, Seckl JR (1996). 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in cultured hippocampal cells reactivates inert 11-dehydrocorticosterone, potentiating neurotoxicity. J Neurosci 16 : 65 70.
228. Ramires FJ, Sun Y, Weber KT (1998). Myocardial fibrosis associated with aldosterone or angiotensin II administration: attenuation by calcium channel blockade. J Mol Cell Cardiol 30 : 475 483.
229. Reimers B, Moussa I, Akiyama T, Kobayashi Y, Albiero R, Di Francesco L et al. (1998). Persistent high restenosis after local intrawall delivery of long-acting steroids before coronary stent implantation. J Invasive Cardiol 10 : 323 331.
230. Ribichini F, Joner M, Ferrero V, Finn AV, Crimins J, Nakazawa G et al. (2007a). Effects of oral prednisone after stenting in a rabbit model of established atherosclerosis. J Am Coll Cardiol 50 : 176 185.
231. Ribichini F, Tomai F, Paloscia L, Di Sciascio G, Carosio G, Romano M et al. (2007b). Steroid-eluting stents in patients with acute coronary syndrome: the dexamethasone eluting stent Italian registry. Heart 93 : 598 600.
232. Ricketts ML, Shoesmith KJ, Hewison M, Strain A, Eggo MC, Stewart PM (1998). Regulation of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 in primary cultures of rat and human hepatocytes. J Endocrinol 156 : 159 168.
233. del Rincon I, O'Leary DH, Haas RW, Escalante A (2004). Effect of glucocorticoids on the arteries in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 50 : 3813 3822.
234. Risau W (1997). Mechanisms of angiogenesis. Nature 386 : 671 674.
235. Robert V, Heymes C, Silvestre JS, Sabri A, Swynghedauw B, Delcayre C (1999). Angiotensin AT1 receptor subtype as a cardiac target of aldosterone: role in aldosterone-salt-induced fibrosis. Hypertension 33 : 981 986.
236. Roberts CP, Murphy AA, Santanam N, Parthasarathy S (1998). Regulation of monocyte to macrophage differentiation by antiglucocorticoids and antioxidants. Am J Obstet Gynecol 179 : 354 361.
237. Roghair RD, Segar JL, Sharma RV, Zimmerman MC, Jagadeesha DK, Segar EM et al. (2005). Newborn lamb coronary artery reactivity is programmed by early gestation dexamethasone before the onset of systemic hypertension. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 289 : R1169 R1176.
238. Ross R (1999). Mechanisms of disease - atherosclerosis - an inflammatory disease. N Engl J Med 340 : 115 126.
239. Rougier JS, Muller O, Berger S, Centeno G, Schutz G, Firsov D et al. (2008). Mineralocorticoid receptor is essential for corticosteroid-induced up-regulation of L-type calcium currents in cultured neonatal cardiomyocytes. Pflugers Arch 456 : 407 412.
240. Ruetten H, Thiemermann C (1997). Endothelin-1 stimulates the biosynthesis of tumour necrosis factor in macrophages: ET-receptors, signal transduction and inhibition by dexamethasone. J Physiol Pharmacol 48 : 675 688.
241. Sainte-Marie Y, Cat AND, Perrier R, Mangin L, Soukaseum C, Peuchmaur M et al. (2007). Conditional glucocorticoid receptor expression in the heart induces atrio-ventricular block. FASEB J 21 : 3133 3141. (Pubitemid 47565533)
242. Sakai M, Biwa T, Matsumura T, Takemura T, Matsuda H, Anami Y et al. (1999). Glucocorticoid inhibits oxidized LDL-induced macrophage growth by suppressing the expression of granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 19 : 1726 1733.
243. Sarkissian T, Beyenne J, Feldman B, Adeli K, Silverman E (2006). The complex nature of the interaction between disease activity and therapy on the lipid profile in patients with pediatric systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 54 : 1283 1290.
244. Sarkissian T, Beyene J, Feldman B, McCrindle B, Silverman ED (2007). Longitudinal examination of lipid profiles in pediatric systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 56 : 631 638. (Pubitemid 46271989)
245. Sartorato P, Zulian E, Benedini S, Mariniello B, Schiavi F, Bilora F et al. (2007). Cardiovascular risk factors and ultrasound evaluation of intima-media thickness at common carotids, carotid bulbs, and femoral and abdominal aorta arteries in patients with classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92 : 1015 1018.
246. Schaaf MJM, Champagne D, van Laanen IHC, van Wijk DCWA, Meijer AH, Meijer OC et al. (2008). Discovery of a functional glucocorticoid receptor beta-isoform in zebrafish. Endocrinology 149 : 1591 1599.
247. Schepers A, Pires NMM, Eefting D, de Vries MR, van Bockel JH, Quax PHA (2006). Short-term dexamethasone treatment inhibits vein graft thickening in hypcrcholcstcrolemic ApoE3Leiden transgenic mice. J Vasc Surg 43 : 809 815.
248. Schleimer RP (1991). Potential regulation of inflammation in the lung by local metabolism of hydrocortisone. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 4 : 166 173.
249. Schroepfer GJ (2000). Oxysterols: modulators of cholesterol metabolism and other processes. Physiol Rev 80 : 361 554.
250. Schweizer RA, Zurcher M, Balazs Z, Dick B, Odermatt A (2004a). Rapid metabolism of 7-ketocholesterol by 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 in the liver. FASEB J 18 : C264.
251. Schweizer RAS, Zurcher M, Balazs Z, Dick B, Odermatt A (2004b). Rapid hepatic metabolism of 7-ketocholesterol by 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 - species-specific differences between the rat, human, and hamster enzyme. J Biol Chem 279 : 18415 18424.
252. Scott BA, Lawrence B, Nguyen HH, Meyer WJ (1987). Aldosterone and dexamethasone binding in human arterial smooth muscle cells. J Hypertens 5 : 739 744.
253. Seckl JR, Meaney MJ (2004). Glucocorticoid programming. Ann NY Acad Sci 1032 : 63 84.
254. Seckl JR, Walker BR (2001). 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 - a tissue-specific amplifier of glucocorticoid action. Endocrinology 142 : 1371 1376.
255. Shakhov Y, Petrichenko I, Fuki I (1993). Reduced sensitivity of cultured skin fibroblasts from familial hypercholesterolemic patients to glucocorticoids. Life Sci 53 : 1617 1624.
256. Shakhov YA, Petrichenko IE, Chepurnenko NV, Sokolova MA, Medvedeva LA (1989). The hypercholesterolemia-associated decrease in cell sensitivity to glucocorticoid hormones. Biokhimiya 54 : 1772 1779.
257. Shields PP, Dixon JE, Glembotski CC (1988). The secretion of atrial natriuretic factor(99-126) by cultured cardiac myocytes is regulated by glucocorticoids. J Biol Chem 263 : 12619 12628.
258. Shively CA, Williams JK, Laber-Laird K, Anton RF (2002). Depression and coronary artery atherosclerosis and reactivity in female cynomolgus monkeys. Psychosom Med 64 : 699 706.
259. Sihvonen S, Korpela M, Mustonen J, Huhtala H, Karstila K, Pasternack A (2006). Mortality in patients with rheumatoid arthritis treated with low-dose oral glucocorticoids. A population-based cohort study. J Rheumatol 33 : 1740 1746.
260. Simmons WW, Ungureanu-Longrois D, Smith GK, Smith TW, Kelly RA (1996). Glucocorticoids regulate inducible nitric oxide synthase by inhibiting tetrahydrobiopterin synthesis and L-arginine transport. J Biol Chem 271 : 23928 23937.
261. Simoncini T, Maffei S, Basta G, Barsacchi G, Genazzani AR, Liao JK et al. (2000). Estrogens and glucocorticoids inhibit endothelial vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 expression by different transcriptional mechanisms. Circ Res 87 : 19 25.
262. +-dependent 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in the human heart. J Mol Cell Cardiol 28 : 781 787.
263. Small GR, Hadoke PWF, Sharif I, Dover AR, Armour D, Kenyon CJ, et al. (2005). Preventing local regeneration of glucocorticoids by 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 enhances angiogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102 : 12165 12170.
264. Solakidi S, Psarra AM, Sekeris C (2007). Differential distribution of glucocorticoid and estrogen receptor isoforms: localization of GR beta and ER alpha in nucleoli and GR alpha and ER beta in the mitochondria of human osteosarcoma SaOS-2 and hepatocarcinoma HepG2 cell lines. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact 7 : 240 245.
265. Solomon DH, Avorn J, Katz JN, Weinblatt ME, Setoguchi S, Levin R et al. (2006). Immunosuppressive medications and hospitalization for cardiovascular events in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 54 : 3790 3798.
266. Son JW, Koh KK, Ahn JY, Jin DK, Park GS, Kim DS et al. (2003). Effects of statin on plaque stability and thrombogenicity in hypercholesterolemic patients with coronary artery disease. Int J Cardiol 88 : 77 82.
267. Sonino N (1987). Drug-therapy - the use of ketoconazole as an inhibitor of steroid-production. N Engl J Med 317 : 812 818.
268. Souness GW, Latif SA, Laurenzo JL, Morris DJ (1995). 11alpha- and 11beta-hydroxyprogesterone, potent inhibitors of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (isoforms 1 and 2), confer marked mineralocorticoid activity on corticosterone in the ADX rat. Endocrinology 136 : 1809 1812.
269. Souverein PC, Berard A, van Staa TP, Cooper C, Egberts AC, Leufkens HG et al. (2004). Use of oral glucocorticoids and risk of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease in a population based case-control study. Heart 90 : 859 865.
270. Spitz IM, Bardin CW (1993). Drug-therapy - mifepristone (Ru-486) - a modulator of progestin and glucocorticoid action. N Engl J Med 329 : 404 412.
271. Stamler J, Johnson P, Ellis A (1954). Estrogen inhibition of corticoid hypertension in chickens. Circulation 10 : 896 901.
272. Stewart PM, Krozowski ZS (1999). 11Beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. Vitam Horm 57 : 249 324.
273. Stewart PM, Rogerson FM, Mason JI (1995). Type 2 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase messenger RNA and activity in human placenta and fetal membranes: its relationship to birth weight and putative role in fetal steroidogenesis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80 : 885 890. Ref Type: Journal (Full).
274. Stockand JD, Meszaros JG (2003). Aldosterone stimulates proliferation of cardiac fibroblasts by activating Ki-RasA and MAPK1/2 signaling. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 284 : H176 H184.
275. Stone GW, Rutherford BD, Mcconahay DR, Johnson WL, Giorgi LV, Ligon RW et al. (1989). A randomized trial of corticosteroids for the prevention of restenosis in 102 patients undergoing repeat coronary angioplasty. Cathet Cardiovasc Diagn 18 : 227 231.
276. Strecker EP, Gabelmann A, Boos I, Lucas CXZY, Haberstroh J, Freudenberg N et al. (1998). Effect on intimal hyperplasia of dexamethasone released from coated metal stents compared with non-coated stents in canine femoral arteries. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 21 : 487 496.
277. Stumpf HH, Wilens SL (1954). Inhibitory effect of cortisone hyperlipemia on arterial lipid deposition in cholesterol-fed rabbits. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 86 : 219 223.
278. Sugiyama T, Yoshimoto T, Tsuchiya K, Gochou N, Hirono Y, Tateno T et al. (2005). Aldosterone induces angiotensin converting enzyme gene expression via a JAK2-dependent pathway in rat endothelial cells. Endocrinology 146 : 3900 3906.
279. Sun Y, Zhang J, Lu L, Chen SS, Quinn MT, Weber KT (2002). Aldosterone-induced inflammation in the rat heart: role of oxidative stress1. Am J Pathol 161 : 1773 1781.
280. Swade C, Metcalfe M, Coppen A, Mendlewicz J, Linkowski P (1987). Seasonal variations in the dexamethasone suppression test. J Affect Disord 13 : 9 11. (Pubitemid 17138083)
281. Szeto A, Gonzales JA, Spitzer SB, Levine JE, Zaias J, Saab PG et al. (2004). Circulating levels of glucocorticoid hormones in WHHL and NZW rabbits: circadian cycle and response to repeated social encounter. Psychoneuroendocrinology 29 : 861 866.
282. Takeda Y, Miyamori I, Yoneda T, Ito Y, Takeda R (1994). Expression of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase MRNA in rat vascular smooth muscle cells. Life Sci 54 : 281 285.
283. Thieringer R, Le Grand CB, Carbin L, Cai TQ, Wong B, Wright SD et al. (2001). 11 Beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 is induced in human monocytes upon differentiation to macrophages. J Immunol 167 : 30 35.
284. Tomlinson JW, Walker EA, Bujalska IJ, Draper N, Lavery GG, Cooper MS et al. (2004). 11Beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1: a tissue-specific regulator of glucocorticoid response. Endocr Rev 25 : 831 866.
285. Troxler RG, Sprague EA, Albanese RA, Fuchs R, Thompson AJ (1977). Association of elevated plasma cortisol and early atherosclerosis as demonstrated by coronary angiography. Atherosclerosis 26 : 151 162.
286. Ullian ME (1999). The role of corticosteroids in the regulation of vascular tone. Cardiovasc Res 41 : 55 64.
287. Valledor AF, Ricote M (2004). Nuclear receptor signaling in macrophages. Biochem Pharmacol 67 : 201 212.
288. Van Put DJM, Van Hove CE, DeMeyer GRY, Wuyts F, Herman AG, Bult H (1995). Dexamethasone influences intimal thickening and vascular reactivity in the rabbit collared carotid artery. Eur J Pharmacol 294 : 753 761.
289. Varas-Lorenzo C, Rodriguez LAG, Maguire A, Castellsague J, Perez-Gutthann S (2007). Use of oral corticosteroids and the risk of acute myocardial infarction. Atherosclerosis 192 : 376 383.
290. Versaci F, Gaspardone A, Tomai F, Ribichini F, Russo P, Proietti I et al. (2002). Immunosuppressive therapy for the prevention of restenosis after coronary artery stent implantation (IMPRESS Study). J Am Coll Cardiol 40 : 1935 1942.
291. Villa AE, Guzman LA, Chen W, Golomb G, Levy RJ, Topol EJ (1994). Local delivery of dexamethasone for prevention of neointimal proliferation in a rat model of balloon angioplasty. J Clin Invest 93 : 1243 1249.
292. Vlachoyiannopoulos PG, Kanellopoulos PG, Ioannidis JPA, Tektonidou MG, Mastorakou I, Moutsopoulos HM (2003). Atherosclerosis in premenopausal women with antiphospholipid syndrome and systemic lupus erythematosus: a controlled study. Rheumatology 42 : 645 651.
293. Voisard R, Seitzer U, Baur R, Dartsch PC, Osterhues H, Hoher M et al. (1994). Corticosteroid agents inhibit proliferation of smooth-muscle cells from human atherosclerotic arteries in-vitro. Int J Cardiol 43 : 257 267.
294. de Vries WB, van der Leij FR, Bakker JM, Kamphuis PJ, van Oosterhout MF, Schipper ME et al. (2002). Alterations in adult rat heart after neonatal dexamethasone therapy. Pediatr Res 52 : 900 906.
295. Waddell BJ, Benediktsson R, Brown RW, Seckl JR (1998). Tissue-specific messenger ribonucleic acid expression of 11beta- hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase types 1 and 2 and the glucocorticoid receptor within rat placenta suggests exquisite local control of glucocorticoid action. Endocrinology 139 : 1517 1523.
296. Wainwright CL, Miller AM, Wadsworth RM (2001). Inflammation as a key event in the development of neointima formation following vascular balloon injury. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 28 : 891 895.
297. Walker BR (2007a). Glucocorticoids and cardiovascular disease. Eur J Endocrinol 157 : 545 559.
298. Walker BR (2007b). Extra-adrenal regeneration of glucocorticoids by 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1: physiological regulator and pharmacological target for energy partitioning. Proc Nutr Soc 66 : 1 8.
299. Walker BR, Edwards CRW (1994). Licorice-induced hypertension and syndromes of apparent mineralocorticoid excess. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Amer 23 (2 359 377.
300. Walker BR, Williams BC (1992). Corticosteroids and vascular tone: mapping the messenger maze. Clin Sci 82 : 597 605.
301. Walker BR, Yau JL, Brett LP, Seckl JR, Monder C, Williams BC et al. (1991). 11β-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in vascular smooth muscle and heart: implications for cardiovascular responses to glucocorticoids. Endocrinology 129 : 3305 3312.
302. Walker BR, Connacher AA, Webb DJ, Edwards CRW (1992). Glucocorticoids and blood pressure: a role for the cortisol/cortisone shuttle in the control of vascular tone in man. Clin Sci 83 : 171 178.
303. Walker BR, Williams BC, Edwards CRW (1994). Regulation of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity by the hypothalamic-pituitary- adrenal axis in the rat. J Endocrinol 141 : 467 472.
304. Walker BR, Phillips DIW, Noon JP, Panarelli M, Best R, Edwards HE et al. (1998). Increased glucocorticoid activity in men with cardiovascular risk factors. Hypertension 31 : 891 895.
305. Wallerath T, Witte K, Schafer SC, Schwartz PM, Prelwitz W, Wohlfart P et al. (1999). Down-regulation of the expression of endothelial NO synthase is likely to contribute to glucocorticoid-mediated hypertension. Proc Natnl Acad Sci USA 92 : 13357 13362.
306. Wamil M, Seckl JR (2007). Inhibition of 11B-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 as a promising therapeutic target. Drug Discov Today 12 : 504 520.
307. 2+ current in neonatal mice. Circ Res 85 : 168 173.
308. Wang XL, Herzog B, Waltner-Law M, Hall RK, Shiota M, Granner DK (2004). The synergistic effect of dexamethasone and all-trans-retinoic acid on hepatic phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase gene expression involves the coactivator P300. J Biol Chem 279 : 34191 34200.
309. Webster SP, Pallin TD (2007). 11 Beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 inhibitors as therapeutic agents. Expert Opin Ther Pat 17 : 1407 1422.
310. Wei L, MacDonald TM, Walker BR (2004). Taking glucocorticoids by prescription is associated with subsequent cardiovascular disease. Ann Intern Med 141 : 764 770.
311. Weissberg PL (2000). Atherogenesis: current understanding of the causes of atheroma. Heart 83 : 247 252.
312. Werner JC, Sicard RE, Hansen TW, Solomon E, Cowett RM, Oh W (1992). Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy associated with dexamethasone therapy for bronchopulmonary dysplasia. J Pediatr 120 : 286 291.
313. Wheller SK, Perretti M (1997). Dexamethasone inhibits cytokine-induced intercellular adhesion molecule-1 up-regulation on endothelial cell lines. Eur J Pharmacol 331 : 65 71.
314. Whitehurst RM Jr., Zhang M, Bhattacharjee A, Li M (1999). Dexamethasone-induced hypertrophy in rat neonatal cardiac myocytes involves an elevated L-type Ca(2+) current. J Mol Cell Cardiol 31 : 1551 1558.
315. Wirtz PH, von Kanel R, Kunz-Ebrecht S, Ehlert U, Fischer JE (2004a). Reduced glucocorticoid sensitivity of monocyte interleukin-6 release in male employees with high plasma levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Life Sci 75 : 1 10.
316. Wirtz PH, von Kanel R, Frey K, Ehlert U, Fischer JE (2004b). Glucocorticoid sensitivity of circulating monocytes in essential hypertension. Am J Hypertens 17 : 489 494.
317. Woodall SM, Johnston BM, Breier BH, Gluckman PD (1996). Chronic maternal undernutrition in the rat leads to delayed postnatal growth and elevated blood pressure of offspring. Pediatr Res 40 : 438 443.
318. Yamada K, Naito M, Hayashi T, Asai K, Yoshimine N, Iguchi A (1993). Effects of dexamethasone on migration of human monocytes in response to oxidized beta-very low-density-lipoprotein. Artery 20 : 253 267.
319. Yamamoto Y, Ishizu A, Ikeda H, Otsuka N, Yoshiki T (2004). Dexamethasone increased plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 expression on human umbilical vein endothelial cells: an additive effect to tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Pathobiology 71 : 295 301.
320. Yang L, Yang JB, Chen J, Yu GY, Zhou P, Lei L et al. (2004). Enhancement of human ACAT1 gene expression to promote the macrophage-derived foam cell formation by dexamethasone. Cell Res 14 : 315 323.
321. Yeager MP, Guyre PM, Munck AU (2004). Glucocorticoid regulation of the inflammatory response to injury. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 48 : 799 813.
322. Ylaherttuala S, Lipton BA, Rosenfeld ME, Sarkioja T, Yoshimura T, Leonard EJ et al. (1991). Expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 in macrophage-rich areas of human and rabbit atherosclerotic lesions. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88 : 5252 5256.
323. Young MJ (2008). Mechanisms of mineralocorticoid receptor-mediated cardiac fibrosis and vascular inflammation. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 17 : 174 180.
324. Zacharieva S, Atanassova I, Orbetzova M, Kirilov G, Nachev E, Kalinov K et al. (2004). Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF), prostaglandin E-2(PGE(2)) and active renin in hypertension of adrenal origin. J Endocrinol Invest 27 : 742 746.
325. Zecca E, Papacci P, Maggio L, Gallini F, Elia S, De RG et al. (2001). Cardiac adverse effects of early dexamethasone treatment in preterm infants: a randomized clinical trial. J Clin Pharmacol 41 : 1075 1081.
326. Zhang TY, Ding XH, day nes RA (2005a). The expression of 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type I by lymphocytes provides a novel means for intracrine regulation of glucocorticoid activities. J Immunol 174 : 879 889.
327. Zhang JD, Osslund TD, Plant MH, Clogston CL, Nybo RE, Xiong F et al. (2005b). Crystal structure of murine 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 1: an important therapeutic target for diabetes. Biochemistry 44 : 6948 6957.