Environmental risk factors for heart disease

Reviews on Environmental Health

Volumn 23, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 167-202

  O'Toole, Timothy E ^a   Conklin, Daniel J ^a   Bhatnagar, Aruni ^a  

^a University of Louisville School of Medicine   (United States)

Author keywords

Cardiovascular pathology; Endothelial dysfunction; Pollution; Toxin

Indexed keywords

ALDEHYDE DERIVATIVE; METAL; POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBON; TOBACCO SMOKE; TOXIN;

AIR POLLUTION; ANEURYSM; ATHEROGENESIS; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BIRTH DEFECT; BLOOD PRESSURE REGULATION; CARDIOTOXICITY; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CHRONIC STRESS; CONGENITAL HEART MALFORMATION; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE SEVERITY; ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION; ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS; FIBRINOLYSIS; FOOD COMPOSITION; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HEART DISEASE; HEART MUSCLE ISCHEMIA; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; INCIDENCE; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; NONHUMAN; NUTRITIONAL HEALTH; PARTICULATE MATTER; POLLUTANT; POLLUTION; POPULATION RESEARCH; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; SMOKING; THROMBOCYTE ACTIVATION; THROMBOCYTE ADHESION; THROMBOCYTE AGGREGATION; THROMBOSIS; VASOSPASM;

ANIMALIA; NICOTIANA TABACUM;

EID: 56849114813     PISSN: 00487554     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1515/REVEH.2008.23.3.167     Document Type: Review

References (277)

1. Rosamond W, Flegal K, Furie K, Go A, Greenlund K, Haase N, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics - 2008 update: a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation 2008;117(4):e25-146.
2. Levi F, Lucchini F, Negri E, La Vecchia C. Trends in mortality from cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases in Europe and other areas of the world. Heart 2002;88(2):119-24.
3. Pekka P, Pirjo P, Ulla U. Influencing public nutrition for non-communicable disease prevention: from community intervention to national programme - experiences from Finland. Public Health Nutr 2002;5(1A):245-511.
4. Zatonski WA, Willett W. Changes in dietary fat and declining coronary heart disease in Poland: population based study. BMJ 2005;331(7510): 187-8.
5. Worth RM, Kato H, Rhoads GG, Kagan K, Syme SL. Epidemiologic studies of coronary heart disease and stroke in Japanese men living in Japan, Hawaii and California: mortality. Am J Epidemiol. 1975;102(6):481-90.
6. Bhatnagar D, Anand IS, Durrington PN, Patel DJ, Wander GS, Mackness MI, et al. Coronary risk factors in people from the Indian subcontinent living in west London and their siblings in India. Lancet. 1995;345(8947):405-9.
7. Patel JV, Vyas A, Cruickshank JK, Prabhakaran D, Hughes E, Reddy KS, et al. Impact of migration on coronary heart disease risk factors: comparison of Gujaratis in Britain and their contemporaries in villages of origin in India. Atherosclerosis. 2006;185(2):297-306.
8. Wilson PW, D'Agostino RB, Levy D, Belanger AM, Silbershatz H, Kannel WB. Prediction of coronary heart disease using risk factor categories. Circulation. 1998;97(18):1837-47.
9. Khot UN, Khot MB, Bajzer CT, Sapp SK, Ohman EM, Brener SJ, et al. Prevalence of conventional risk factors in patients with coronary heart disease. JAMA. 2003;290(7):898-904.
10. Greenland P, Knoll MD, Stamler J, Neaton JD, Dyer AR, Garside DB, et al. Major risk factors as antecedents of fatal and nonfatal coronary heart disease events. JAMA. 2003;290(7):891-7.
11. Nemetz PN, Roger VL, Ransom JE, Bailey KR, Edwards WD, Leibson CL. Recent trends in the prevalence of coronary disease: a population-based autopsy study of nonnatural deaths. Arch Intern Med. 2008;168(3):264-70.
12. Willett WC. Balancing life-style and genomics research for disease prevention. Science 2002; 296:695-698.
13. Ezzati M, Lopez AD. Estimates of global mortality attributable to smoking in 2000. Lancet. 2003;362(9387):847-52.
14. Law MR, Morris JK, Wald NJ. Environmental tobacco smoke exposure and ischaemic heart disease: an evaluation of the evidence. BMJ. 1997;315(7114):973-80.
15. Barnoya J, Glantz SA. Cardiovascular effects of secondhand smoke: nearly as large as smoking. Circulation. 2005;111(20):2684-98.
16. Hankey GJ, Norman PE, Eikelboom JW. Medical treatment of peripheral arterial disease. JAMA. 2006;295(5):547-53.
17. Wolf PA, D'Agostino RB, Kannel WB, Bonita R, Belanger AJ. Cigarette smoking as a risk factor for stroke. The Framingham Study. JAMA. 1988;259(7):1025-9.
18. Hankey GJ. Smoking and risk of stroke. J Cardiovasc Risk. 1999 Aug;6(4):207-11.
19. Shinton R, Beevers G. Meta-analysis of relation between cigarette smoking and stroke. BMJ. 1989;298(6676):789-94.
20. Engström G, Hedblad B, Janzon L, Juul-Möller S. Ventricular arrhythmias during 24-h ambulatory ECG recording: incidence, risk factors and prognosis in men with and without a history of cardiovascular disease. J Intern Med. 1999;246(4): 363-72.
21. Peters RW, Brooks MM, Todd L, Liebson PR, Wilhelmsen L. Smoking cessation and arrhythmic death: the CAST experience. The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST) Investigators. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1995;26(5):1287-92.
22. Rosen BD, Saad MF, Shea S, Nasir K, Edvardsen T, Burke G, et al. Hypertension and smoking are associated with reduced regional left ventricular function in asymptomatic: individuals the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006 Mar 21;47(6):1150-8.
23. He J, Ogden LG, Bazzano LA, Vupputuri S, Loria C, Whelton PK. Risk factors for congestive heartfailure in US men and women: NHANES I epidemiologic follow-up study. Arch Intern Med. 2001;161:996-1002.
24. Maida V, Howlett GJ. Effects of cigarette smoking and dietary lipids on rat lipoprotein metabolism. Atherosclerosis. 1990;80:209-216.
25. Moffatt RJ, Chelland SA, Pecott DL, Stamford BA. Acute exposure to environmental tobacco smoke reduces HDL-C and HDL2-C. Prev Med. 2004;38:637-641.
26. Moffatt RJ, Stamford BA, Biggerstaff KD. Influence of worksite environmental tobacco smoke on serum lipoprotein profiles of female nonsmokers. Metabolism. 1995;44:1536-1539.
27. Yokode M, Kita T, Arai H, Kawai C, Narumiya S, Fujiwara M. Cholesteryl ester accumulation in macrophages incubated with low density lipoprotein pretreated with cigarette smoke extract. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1988;85:2344-48.
28. McCall MR, Tang JY, Bielicki JK, Forte TM. Inhibition of lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase and modification of HDL apolipoproteins by aldehydes. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1995; 15:1599-1606.
29. Ueyama K, Yokode M, Arai H, Nagano Y, Li ZX, Cho M et al. Cholesterol efflux effect of high density lipoprotein is impaired by whole cigarette smoke extracts through lipid peroxidation. Free Radic Biol Med. 1998;24:182-190.
30. Craig WY, Palomaki GE, Haddow JE. Cigarette smoking and serum lipid and lipoprotein concentrations: an analysis of published data. BMJ. 1989; 298:784-788.
31. Gairola CG, Drawdy ML, Block AE, Daugherty A. Sidestream cigarette smoke accelerates atherogenesis in apolipoprotein E-/- mice. Atherosclerosis 2001;156:49-55.
32. Knight-Lozano CA, Young CG, Burow DL, Hu ZY, Uyeminami D, Pinkerton KE et al. Cigarette smoke exposure and hypercholesterolemia increase mitochondrial damage in cardiovascular tissues. Circulation. 2002;105:849-854.
33. Zhu BQ, Sun YP, Sievers RE, Isenberg WM, Glantz SA, Parmley WW. Passive smoking increases experimental atherosclerosis in cholesterol-fed rabbits. J Am Coll Cardiol 1993;21(1):225-32.
34. Zhu BQ, Sun YP, Sievers RE, Glantz SA, Parmley WW, Wolfe CL. Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke increases myocardial infarct size in rats. Circulation 89(3):1282-90. 1994;
35. Bylock A, Bondjers G, Jansson I, Hansson HA. Surface ultrastructure of human arteries with special reference to the effects of smoking. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand [A]. 1979;87A:201-209.
36. Asmussen I, Kjeldsen K. Intimal ultrastructure of human umbilical arteries. Observations on arteries from newborn children of smoking and nonsmoking mothers. Circ Res. 1975;36:579-589.
37. Pittilo RM, Mackie IJ, Rowles PM, Machin SJ, Woolf N. Effects of cigarette smoking on the ultrastructure of rat thoracic aorta and its ability to produce prostacyclin. Thromb Haemost. 1982;48: 173-176.
38. Blann AD, Kirkpatrick U, Devine C, Naser S, McCollum CN. The influence of acute smoking on leucocytes, platelets and the endothelium. Atherosclerosis. 1998;141:133-139.
39. Barua RS, Ambrose JA, Eales-Reynolds LJ, DeVoe MC, Zervas JG, Saha DC. Dysfunctional endothelial nitric oxide biosynthesis in healthy smokers with impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilatation. Circulation. 2001;104:1905-1910.
40. Heitzer T, Brockhoff C, Mayer B, Warnholtz A, Mollnau H, Henne S et al. Tetrahydrobiopterin improves endothelium-dependent vasodilation in chronic smokers: evidence for a dysfunctional nitric oxide synthase. Circ Res. 2000;86:E36-E41.
41. Beckman JA, Liao JK, Hurley S, Garrett LA, Chui D, Mitra D et al. Atorvastatin restores endothelial function in normocholesterolemic smokers independent of changes in low-density lipoprotein. Circ Res. 2004;95:217-223.
42. Kiowski W, Linder L, Stoschitzky K, Pfisterer M, Burckhardt D, Burkart F et al. Diminished vascular response to inhibition of endothelium-derived nitric oxide and enhanced vasoconstriction to exogenously administered endothelin-1 in clinically healthy smokers. Circulation. 1994; 90:27-34.
43. Motoyama T, Kawano H, Kugiyama K, Hirashima O, Ohgushi M, Yoshimura M et al. Endothelium-dependent vasodilation in the brachial artery is impaired in smokers: effect of vitamin C. Am J Physiol. 1997;273:H1644-H1650.
44. Ueda S, Matsuoka H, Miyazaki H, Usui M, Okuda S, Imaizumi T. Tetrahydrobiopterin restores endothelial function in long-term smokers. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;35:71-75.
45. Zeiher AM, Schachinger V, Minners J. Long-term cigarette smoking impairs endothelium-dependent coronary arterial vasodilator function. Circulation. 1995;92:1094-1100.
46. Campisi R, Czernin J, Schoder H, Sayre JW, Marengo FD, Phelps ME et al. Effects of long-term smoking on myocardial blood flow, coronary vasomotion, and vasodilator capacity. Circulation. 1998;98:119-125.
47. Freischlag JA, Johnson D, Farooq MM, Doty J, Cambria RA, Seabrook GR et al. Cigarette smoke impairs endothelium-dependent relaxation in rabbit superficial femoral veins. J Surg Res. 1999;81:77-80.
48. Hutchison SJ, Sudhir K, Chou TM, Sievers RE, Zhu BQ, Sun YP et al. Testosterone worsens endothelial dysfunction associated with hypercholesterolemia and environmental tobacco smoke exposure in male rabbit aorta. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;29:800-807.
49. Mays BW, Freischlag JA, Eginton MT, Cambria RA, Seabrook GR, Towne JB. Ascorbic acid prevents cigarette smoke injury to endothelium-dependent arterial relaxation. J Surg Res. 1999;84: 35-39.
50. Torok J, Gvozdjakova A, Kucharska J, Balazovjech I, Kysela S, Simko F et al. Passive smoking impairs endothelium-dependent relaxation of isolated rabbit arteries. Physiol Res. 2000;49: 135-141.
51. Raij L, DeMaster EG, Jaimes EA. Cigarette smoke-induced endothelium dysfunction: role of superoxide anion. J Hypertens. 2001;19:891-897.
52. Ota Y, Kugiyama K, Sugiyama S, Ohgushi M, Matsumura T, Doi H et al. Impairment of endothelium-dependent relaxation of rabbit aortas by cigarette smoke extract - role of free radicals and attenuation by captopril. Atherosclerosis. 1997;131:195-202.
53. Lehr HA, Kress E, Menger MD, Friedl HP, Hubner C, Arfors KE et al. Cigarette smoke elicits leukocyte adhesion to endothelium in hamsters: inhibition by CuZn-SOD. Free Radic Biol Med. 1993;14:573-581.
54. Kalra VK, Ying Y, Deemer K, Natarajan R, Nadler JL, Coates TD. Mechanism of cigarette smoke condensate induced adhesion of human monocytes to cultured endothelial cells. J Cellular Physiology 160(1):154-62. 1994;
55. Newby DE, Wright RA, Labinjoh C, Ludlam CA, Fox KA, Boon NA et al. Endothelial dysfunction, impaired endogenous fibrinolysis, and cigarette smoking: a mechanism for arterial thrombosis and myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1999;99:1411-1415.
56. Newby DE, McLeod AL, Uren NG, Flint L, Ludlam CA, Webb DJ et al. Impaired coronary tissue plasminogen activator release is associated with coronary atherosclerosis and cigarette smoking: direct link between endothelial dysfunction and atherothrombosis. Circulation. 2001; 103:1936-41.
57. Antoniades C, Tousoulis D, Tentolouris C, Toutouza M, Marinou K, Goumas G et al. Effects of antioxidant vitamins C and E on endothelial function and thrombosis/fibrinolysis system in smokers. Thrombosis & Haemostasis 89(6):990-5. 2003;
58. Landmesser U, Hornig B, Drexler H. Endothelial function: a critical determinant in atherosclerosis? Circulation. 2004;109:II27-II33.
59. Puranik R, Celermajer DS. Smoking and endothelial function. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2003;45: 443-458.
60. Schachinger V, Britten MB, Zeiher AM. Prognostic impact of coronary vasodilator dysfunction on adverse long-term outcome of coronary heart disease. Circulation. 2000;101: 1899-1906.
61. Halcox JP, Schenke WH, Zalos G, Mincemoyer R, Prasad A, Waclawiw MA et al. Prognostic value of coronary vascular endothelial dysfunction. Circulation. 2002;106:653-658.
62. Schectman G, Byrd JC, Gruchow HW. The influence of smoking on vitamin C status in adults. Am J Public Health. 1989;79:158-162.
63. Bachi A, Zuccato E, Baraldi M, Fanelli R, Chiabrando C. Measurement of urinary 8-Epiprostaglandin F2alpha, a novel index of lipid peroxidation in vivo, by immunoaffinity extraction/gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Basal levels in smokers and nonsmokers. Free Radic Biol Med. 1996;20:619-624.
64. Harman SM, Liang L, Tsitouras PD, Gucciardo F, Heward CB, Reaven PD et al. Urinary excretion of three nucleic acid oxidation adducts and isoprostane F(2)alpha measured by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry in smokers, ex-smokers, and nonsmokers. Free Radic Biol Med. 2003;35: 1301-1309.
65. Reilly M, Delanty N, Lawson JA, FitzGerald GA. Modulation of oxidant stress in vivo in chronic cigarette smokers. Circulation. 1996;94:19-25.
66. Barua RS, Ambrose JA, Srivastava S, DeVoe MC, Eales-Reynolds LJ. Reactive oxygen species are involved in smoking-induced dysfunction of nitric oxide biosynthesis and upregulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase: an in vitro demonstration in human coronary artery endothelial cells. Circulation. 2003;107:2342-2347.
67. Barbera JA, Peinado VI, Santos S, Ramirez J, Roca J, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Reduced expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase in pulmonary arteries of smokers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;164:709-713.
68. Fennessy F, Casey RG, Bouchier-Hayes D. Peripheral and central arterial haemodynamic interactions are early abnormalities in young male cigarette smokers. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2003;25:152-158.
69. Cass CR, Hughes LA, Bhave P, Kleeman MJ, Allen JO, Salmon LG. The chemical composition of atmospheric ultrafine particles. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A. 2000;358:2581-2592.
70. Morawska L, Salthammer T. Airborne Particles and Settled Dust in the Indoor Enviornment. 2003;
71. Bhatnagar A. Cardiovascular pathophysiology of environmental pollutants. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2004;286:H479-H485.
72. Bhatnagar A. Environmental cardiology: studying mechanistic links between pollution and heart disease. Circ Res. 2006;99:692-705.
73. Brook RD, Franklin B, Cascio W, Hong Y, Howard G, Lipsett M et al. Air pollution and cardiovascular disease: a statement for healthcare professionals from the Expert Panel on Population and Prevention Science of the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2004;109:2655-2671.
74. Pope CA, III, Dockery DW. Health effects of fine particulate air pollution: lines that connect. J Air Waste Manag Assoc. 2006;56:709-742.
75. Dockery DW, Pope CA, III, Xu X, Spengler JD, Ware JH, Fay ME et al. An association between air pollution and mortality in six U.S. cities. N Engl J Med. 1993;329:1753-1759.
76. Laden F, Schwartz J, Speizer FE, Dockery DW. Reduction in fine particulate air pollution and mortality: Extended follow-up of the Harvard Six Cities study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2006; 173:667-672.
77. Pope CA, III, Burnett RT, Thun MJ, Calle EE, Krewski D, Ito K et al. Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution. JAMA. 2002;287: 1132-41.
78. Pope CA, III, Burnett RT, Thurston GD, Thun MJ, Calle EE, Krewski D et al. Cardiovascular mortality and long-term exposure to particulate air pollution: epidemiological evidence of general pathophysiological pathways of disease. Circulation. 2004;109:71-77.
79. Hoek G, Brunekreef B, Goldbohm S, Fischer P, van den Brandt PA. Association between mortality and indicators of traffic-related air pollution in the Netherlands: a cohort study. Lancet. 2002;360:1203-1209.
80. Pope CA, III. Respiratory disease associated with community air pollution and a steel mill, Utah Valley. Am J Public Health. 1989;79:623-628.
81. Clancy L, Goodman P, Sinclair H, Dockery DW. Effect of air-pollution control on death rates in Dublin, Ireland: an intervention study. Lancet. 2002;360:1210-1214.
82. Miller KA, Siscovick DS, Sheppard L, Shepherd K, Sullivan JH, Anderson GL et al. Long-term exposure to air pollution and incidence of cardiovascular events in women. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:447-458.
83. Reiss R, Anderson EL, Cross CE, Hidy G, Hoel D, McClellan R et al. Evidence of health impacts of sulfate-and nitrate-containing particles in ambient air. Inhal Toxicol. 2007;19:419-449.
84. Feron VJ, Til HP, de VF, Woutersen RA, Cassee FR, van Bladeren PJ. Aldehydes: occurrence, carcinogenic potential, mechanism of action and risk assessment. Mutat Res. 1991;259:363-385.
85. Mills NL, Tornqvist H, Gonzalez MC, Vink E, Robinson SD, Soderberg S et al. Ischemic and thrombotic effects of dilute diesel-exhaust inhalation in men with coronary heart disease. New Engl J Med 357(11):1075-82. 2007;
86. Hoffmann B, Moebus S, Stang A, Beck EM, Dragano N, Mohlenkamp S et al. Residence close to high traffic and prevalence of coronary heart disease. Eur Heart J. 2006;27:2696-2702.
87. Tonne C, Melly S, Mittleman M, Coull B, Goldberg R, Schwartz J. A case-control analysis of exposure to traffic and acute myocardial infarction. Environ Health Perspect. 2007;115:53-57.
88. Peters A, von KS, Heier M, Trentinaglia I, Hormann A, Wichmann HE et al. Exposure to traffic and the onset of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 2004;351:1721-30.
89. Riediker M, Cascio WE, Griggs TR, Herbst MC, Bromberg PA, Neas L et al. Particulate matter exposure in cars is associated with cardiovascular effects in healthy young men. Am J Resp Crit Care Medicine 2004;169(8):934-40.
90. Riediker M. Cardiovascular effects of fine particulate matter components in highway patrol officers. Inhal Toxicol. 2007;19 Suppl 1:99-105.
91. Stewart PA, Schairer C, Blair A. Comparison of jobs, exposures, and mortality risks for short-term and long-term workers. J Occup Med. 1990;32: 703-708.
92. Levine RJ, Andjelkovich DA, Shaw LK. The mortality of Ontario undertakers and a review of formaldehyde-related mortality studies. J Occup Med. 1984;26:740-746.
93. Walrath J, Fraumeni JF, Jr. Cancer and other causes of death among embalmers. Cancer Res. 1984;44:4638-4641.
94. Guberan E, Raymond L. Mortality and cancer incidence in the perfumery and flavour industry of Geneva. Br J Ind Med. 1985;42:240-245.
95. Srivastava S, D'Souza SE, Sen U, States JC. In utero arsenic exposure induces early onset of atherosclerosis in ApoE-/- mice. Reprod Toxicol. 2007;23:449-456.
96. Yang Z, Harrison CM, Chuang GC, Ballinger SW. The role of tobacco smoke induced mitochondrial damage in vascular dysfunction and atherosclerosis. Mutat Res. 2007;621:61-74.
97. Glass CK, Witztum JL. Atherosclerosis: the road ahead. Cell. 2001;104:503-516.
98. Reiss AB, Glass AD. Atherosclerosis: immune and inflammatory aspects. J Invest Med. 2006;54: 123-131.
99. Suwa T, Hogg JC, Quinlan KB, Ohgami A, Vincent R, van Eeden SF. Particulate air pollution induces progression of atherosclerosis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002; 39(6):935-42
100. Sun Q, Wang A, Jin X, Natanzon A, Duquaine D, Brook RD et al. Long-term air pollution exposure and acceleration of atherosclerosis and vascular inflammation in an animal model. JAMA 2005; 294:3003-3010.
101. Araujo JA, Barajas B, Kleinman M, Wang X, Bennett BJ, Gong KW et al. Ambient particulate pollutants in the ultrafine range promote early atherosclerosis and systemic oxidative stress. Circ Res. 2008;102:589-596.
102. Kunzli N, Jerrett M, Mack WJ, Beckerman B, LaBree L, Gilliland F et al. Ambient air pollution and atherosclerosis in Los Angeles. Environ Health Perspect. 2005;113:201-206.
103. Botti TP, Amin H, Hiltscher L, Wissler RW. A comparison of the quantitation of macrophage foam cell populations and the extent of apolipoprotein E deposition in developing atherosclerotic lesions in young people: high and low serum thiocyanate groups as an indication of smoking. PDAY Research Group. Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth. Atherosclerosis. 1996;124:191-202.
104. Tracy RP, Psaty BM, Macy E, Bovill EG, Cushman M, Cornell ES et al. Lifetime smoking exposure affects the association of C-reactive protein with cardiovascular disease risk factors and subclinical disease in healthy elderly subjects. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1997;17(10): 2167-76.
105. Ridker PM, Rifai N, Stampfer MJ, Hennekens CH. Plasma concentration of interleukin-6 and the risk of future myocardial infarction among apparently healthy men. Circulation. 2000;101: 1767-1772.
106. Engel RR, Smith AH. Arsenic in drinking water and mortality from vascular disease: an ecologic analysis in 30 counties in the United States. Arch Environ Health. 1994;49:418-427.
107. Engel RR, Hopenhayn-Rich C, Receveur O, Smith AH. Vascular effects of chronic arsenic exposure: a review. Epidemiol Rev. 1994;16:184-209.
108. Chen CJ, Chiou HY, Chiang MH, Lin LJ, Tai TY. Dose-response relationship between ischemic heart disease mortality and long-term arsenic exposure. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1996; 16:504-510.
109. Chiou HY, Huang WI, Su CL, Chang SF, Hsu YH, Chen CJ. Dose-response relationship between prevalence of cerebrovascular disease and ingested inorganic arsenic. Stroke. 1997;28:1717-1723.
110. Tseng CH, Chong CK, Chen CJ, Tai TY. Dose-response relationship between peripheral vascular disease and ingested inorganic arsenic among residents in blackfoot disease endemic villages in Taiwan. Atherosclerosis. 1996;120:125-133.
111. Wang CH, Jeng JS, Yip PK, Chen CL, Hsu LI, Hsueh YM et al. Biological gradient between long-term arsenic exposure and carotid atherosclerosis. Circulation. 2002;105:1804-1809.
112. Wu MM, Kuo TL, Hwang YH, Chen CJ. Dose-response relation between arsenic concentration in well water and mortality from cancers and vascular diseases. Am J Epidemiol. 1989;130: 1123-32.
113. Chen CJ, Hsueh YM, Lai MS, Shyu MP, Chen SY, Wu MM et al. Increased prevalence of hypertension and long-term arsenic exposure. Hypertension. 1995;25:53-60.
114. Rahman M, Tondel M, Ahmad SA, Chowdhury IA, Faruquee MH, Axelson O. Hypertension and arsenic exposure in Bangladesh. Hypertension. 1999;33:74-78.
115. Hsueh YM, Wu WL, Huang YL, Chiou HY, Tseng CH, Chen CJ. Low serum carotene level and increased risk of ischemic heart disease related to long-term arsenic exposure. Atherosclerosis. 1998;141:249-257.
116. Tseng CH, Chong CK, Tseng CP, Hsueh YM, Chiou HY, Tseng CC et al. Long-term arsenic exposure and ischemic heart disease in arseniasis-hyperendemic villages in Taiwan. Toxicol Lett. 2003;137:15-21.
117. Frost FJ, Muller T, Petersen HV, Thomson B, Tollestrup K. Identifying US populations for the study of health effects related to drinking water arsenic. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 2003; 13:231-239.
118. Bunderson M, Brooks DM, Walker DL, Rosenfeld ME, Coffin JD, Beall HD. Arsenic exposure exacerbates atherosclerotic plaque formation and increases nitrotyrosine and leukotriene biosynthesis. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2004; 201:32-39.
119. Simeonova PP, Hulderman T, Harki D, Luster MI. Arsenic exposure accelerates atherogenesis in apolipoprotein E(-/-) mice. Environ Health Perspect. 2003;111:1744-1748.
120. Gawaz M, Langer H, May AE. Platelets in inflammation and atherogenesis. J Clin Invest 115 (12):3378-84. 2005;
121. Ross R. The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis - an update. N Engl J Med 1986;314(8):488-500.
122. Peters A, Dockery DW, Muller JE, Mittleman MA. Increased particulate air pollution and the triggering of myocardial infarction. Circulation 103(23):2810-5. 2001;
123. Poloniecki JD, Atkinson RW, de Leon AP, Anderson HR. Daily time series for cardiovascular hospital admissions and previous day's air pollution in London, UK. Occup Environ Med 54(8):535-40. 1997;
124. Schwartz J. Air pollution and hospital admissions for heart disease in eight U.S. counties. Epidemiology 1999;10(1):17-22.
125. Davis JW, Shelton L, Watanabe IS, Arnold J. Passive smoking affects endothelium and platelets. Arch Intern Med 149(2):386-9. 1989;
126. Rival J, Riddle JM, Stein PD. Effects of chronic smoking on platelet function. Thromb Res 45(1):75-85. 1987;
127. Fusegawa Y, Goto S, Handa S, Kawada T, Ando Y. Platelet spontaneous aggregation in platelet-rich plasma is increased in habitual smokers. Thromb Res 93(6):271-8. 1999;
128. Folts JD, Gering SA, Laibly SW, Bertha BG, Bonebrake FC, Keller JW. Effects of cigarette smoke and nicotine on platelets and experimental coronary artery thrombosis. Adv Exp Med Biol 1990;273:339-58.
129. Blache D. Involvement of hydrogen and lipid peroxides in acute tobacco smoking-induced platelet hyperactivity. Am J Physiol 1995;268(2 Pt 2):H679-85.
130. Burghuber OC, Punzengruber C, Sinzinger H, Haber P, Silberbauer K. Platelet sensitivity to prostacyclin in smokers and non-smokers. Chest. 1986;90:34-38.
131. Benowitz NL, Fitzgerald GA, Wilson M, Zhang Q. Nicotine effects on eicosanoid formation and hemostatic function: comparison of transdermal nicotine and cigarette smoking. J Am Coll Cardiol 22(4):1159-67. 1993;
132. Imaizumi T, Satoh K, Yoshida H, Kawamura Y, Hiramoto M, Takamatsu S. Effect of cigarette smoking on the levels of platelet-activating factor-like lipid(s) in plasma lipoproteins. Atherosclerosis 87(1):47-55. 1991;
133. Schmid P, Karanikas G, Kritz H, Pirich C, Stamatopoulos Y, Peskar BA et al. Passive smoking and platelet thromboxane. Thromb Res 1996;81(4):451-60.
134. Kritz H, Sinzinger H. Passive smoking, platelet function and atherosclerosis. Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift 1996;108(18):582-8.
135. Peters A, Doring A, Wichmann HE, Koenig W. Increased plasma viscosity during an air pollution episode: a link to mortality? Lancet 1997;349 (9065):1582-7.
136. Cozzi E, Wingard CJ, Cascio WE, Devlin RB, Miles JJ, Bofferding AR et al. Effect of ambient particulate matter exposure on hemostasis. Transl Res 2007;149(6):324-32.
137. Nemmar A, Hoet PH, Dinsdale D, Vermylen J, Hoylaerts MF, Nemery B. Diesel exhaust particles in lung acutely enhance experimental peripheral thrombosis. Circulation 107(8):1202-8. 2003;
138. von KS, Peters A, Aalto P, Bellander T, Berglind N, D'Ippoliti D et al. Ambient air pollution is associated with increased risk of hospital cardiac readmissions of myocardial infarction survivors in five European cities. Circulation 2005;112(20): 3073-9.
139. Mann JK, Tager IB, Lurmann F, Segal M, Quesenberry CP, Jr., Lugg MM et al. Air pollution and hospital admissions for ischemic heart disease in persons with congestive heart failure or arrhythmia. Environ Health Perspect 2002;110(12):1247-52.
140. Le TA, Medina S, Samoli E, Forsberg B, Michelozzi P, Boumghar A et al. Short-term effects of particulate air pollution on cardiovascular diseases in eight European cities. J Epidemiol Community Health 2002;56(10):773-9.
141. Ruidavets JB, Cournot M, Cassadou S, Giroux M, Meybeck M, Ferrieres J. Ozone air pollution is associated with acute myocardial infarction. Circulation 2005;111(5):563-9.
142. Knaapen AM, Shi T, Borm PJ, Schins RP. Soluble metals as well as the insoluble particle fraction are involved in cellular DNA damage induced by particulate matter. Mol Cell Biochem 2002;234-235(1-2):317-26.
143. Goldsmith CA, Imrich A, Danaee H, Ning YY, Kobzik L. Analysis of air pollution particulate-mediated oxidant stress in alveolar macrophages. J Toxicol Environ Health Part A 1998;54(7):529-45.
144. Obone E, Chakrabarti SK, Bai C, Malick MA, Lamontagne L, Subramanian KS. Toxicity and bioaccumulation of nickel sulfate in Sprague-Dawley rats following 13 weeks of subchronic exposure. J Toxicol Environ Health Part A 1999; 57(6):379-401.
145. Frustaci A, Magnavita N, Chimenti C, Caldarulo M, Sabbioni E, Pietra R et al. Marked elevation of myocardial trace elements in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy compared with secondary cardiac dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999;33(6):1578-83.
146. Carmignani M, Boscolo P, Artese L, Del RG, Porcelli G, Felaco M et al. Renal mechanisms in the cardiovascular effects of chronic exposure to inorganic mercury in rats. Br J Ind Med 1992; 49(4):226-32.
147. Cheung WY. Calmodulin: its potential role in cell proliferation and heavy metal toxicity. Fed Proc 1984;43(15):2995-9.
148. Lee MY, Bae ON, Chung SM, Kang KT, Lee JY, Chung JH. Enhancement of platelet aggregation and thrombus formation by arsenic in drinking water: a contributing factor to cardiovascular disease. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2002;179(2):83-8.
149. al Dhaheri AH, el-Sabban F, Fahim MA. Chronic lead treatment accelerates photochemically induced platelet aggregation in cerebral microvessels of mice, in vivo. Environ Res 1995;69 (1):51-8.
150. Kostka B, Michalska M, Krajewska U, Wierzbicki R. Blood coagulation changes in rats poisoned with methylmercuric chloride (MeHg). Polish J Pharmacol Pharm 1989;41(2):183-9.
151. Radomski A, Jurasz P, onso-Escolano D, Drews M, Morandi M, Malinski T et al. Nanoparticle-induced platelet aggregation and vascular thrombosis. Br J Pharmacol 2005;146(6):882-93.
152. Kumar SV, Bhattacharya S. In vitro toxicity of mercury, cadmium, and arsenic to platelet aggregation: influence of adenylate cyclase and phosphodiesterase activity. In Vitro Mol Toxicol 2000;13(2):137-44.
153. Sawada M, Kishi Y, Numano F, Isobe M. Smokers lack morning increase in platelet sensitivity to nitric oxide. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 2002;40(4):571-6.
154. Ichiki K, Ikeda H, Haramaki N, Ueno T, Imaizumi T. Long-term smoking impairs platelet-derived nitric oxide release. Circulation 1996; 94(12):3109-14.
155. Zhu B, Sun Y, Sievers RE, Shuman JL, Glantz SA, Chatterjee K et al. L-arginine decreases infarct size in rats exposed to environmental tobacco smoke. Am Heart J 1996;132(1 Pt 1):91-100.
156. Matetzky S, Tani S, Kangavari S, Dimayuga P, Yano J, Xu H et al. Smoking increases tissue factor expression in atherosclerotic plaques: implications for plaque thrombogenicity. Circulation 2000;102(6):602-4.
157. Meade TW, Imeson J, Stirling Y. Effects of changes in smoking and other characteristics on clotting factors and the risk of ischaemic heart disease. Lancet 1987;2(8566):986-8.
158. Blann AD, Steele C, McCollum CN. The influence of smoking and of oral and transdermal nicotine on blood pressure, and haematology and coagulation indices. Thromb Haemost 1997;78 (3):1093-6.
159. Hioki H, Aoki N, Kawano K, Homori M, Hasumura Y, Yasumura T et al. Acute effects of cigarette smoking on platelet-dependent thrombin generation. Eur Heart J 2001;22(1):56-61.
160. Goodwin CA, Wheeler-Jones CP, Namiranian S, Bokkala S, Kakkar VV, Authi KS et al. Increased expression of procoagulant activity on the surface of human platelets exposed to heavy-metal compounds. Biochem J 1995;308 (Pt 1):15-21.
161. Caprino L, Togna AR, Cebo B, Dolci N, Togna G. In vitro effects of mercury on platelet aggregation, thromboxane and vascular prostacyclin production. Arch Toxicol Suppl 1983;6:48-51.
162. Miyaura S, Eguchi H, Johnston JM. Effect of a cigarette smoke extract on the metabolism of the proinflammatory autacoid, platelet-activating factor. Circ Res 1992;70(2):341-7.
163. Barua RS, Ambrose JA, Saha DC, Eales-Reynolds LJ. Smoking is associated with altered endothelial-derived fibrinolytic and antithrombotic factors: an in vitro demonstration. Circulation 2002;106(8):905-8.
164. Mills NL, Tornqvist H, Robinson SD, Gonzalez M, Darnley K, MacNee W et al. Diesel exhaust inhalation causes vascular dysfunction and impaired endogenous fibrinolysis. Circulation 2005; 112(25):3930-6.
165. Khandoga A, Stampfl A, Takenaka S, Schulz H, Radykewicz R, Kreyling W et al. Ultrafine particles exert prothrombotic but not inflammatory effects on the hepatic microcirculation in healthy mice in vivo. Circulation 2004;109(10):1320-5.
166. Gilmour PS, Morrison ER, Vickers MA, Ford I, Ludlam CA, Greaves M et al. The procoagulant potential of environmental particles (PM10). Occup Environ Med 2005;62(3):164-71.
167. Jiang SJ, Lin TM, Wu HL, Han HS, Shi GY. Decrease of fibrinolytic activity in human endothelial cells by arsenite. Thromb Res 2002; 105(1):55-62.
168. Zhu BQ, Sun YP, Sudhir K, Sievers RE, Browne AE, Gao L et al. Effects of second-hand smoke and gender on infarct size of young rats exposed in utero and in the neonatal to adolescent period. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997;30(7):1878-85.
169. Kuo WW, Wu CH, Lee SD, Lin JA, Chu CY, Hwang JM et al. Second-hand smoke-induced cardiac fibrosis is related to the Fas death receptor apoptotic pathway without mitochondria-dependent pathway involvement in rats. Environ Health Perspect 2005;113(10):1349-53.
170. Tsuji H, Venditti FJ, Jr., Manders ES, Evans JC, Larson MG, Feldman CL et al. Reduced heart rate variability and mortality risk in an elderly cohort. The Framingham Heart Study. Circulation. 1994; 90:878-883.
171. Tsuji H, Larson MG, Venditti FJ, Jr., Manders ES, Evans JC, Feldman CL et al. Impact of reduced heart rate variability on risk for cardiac events. The Framingham Heart Study. Circulation. 1996;94:2850-2855.
172. Felber DD, Schwartz J, Schindler C, Gaspoz JM, Barthelemy JC, Tschopp JM et al. Effects of passive smoking on heart rate variability, heart rate and blood pressure: an observational study. Int J Epidemiol. 2007;36:834-840.
173. Pope CA, III, Eatough DJ, Gold DR, Pang Y, Nielsen KR, Nath P et al. Acute exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and heart rate variability. Environ Health Perspect. 2001;109: 711-716.
174. Gold DR, Litonjua A, Schwartz J, Lovett E, Larson A, Nearing B et al. Ambient pollution and heart rate variability. Circulation. 2000;101:1267-1273.
175. Magari SR, Schwartz J, Williams PL, Hauser R, Smith TJ, Christiani DC. The association of particulate air metal concentrations with heart rate variability. Environ Health Perspect. 2002;110: 875-880.
176. Chan CC, Chuang KJ, Su TC, Lin LY. Association between nitrogen dioxide and heart rate variability in a susceptible population. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil. 2005;12:580-586.
177. Chuang KJ, Chan CC, Su TC, Lin LY, Lee CT. Associations between particulate sulfate and organic carbon exposures and heart rate variability in patients with or at risk for cardiovascular diseases. J Occup Environ Med. 2007;49:610-617.
178. Chuang KJ, Chan CC, Chen NT, Su TC, Lin LY. Effects of particle size fractions on reducing heart rate variability in cardiac and hypertensive patients. Environ Health Perspect. 2005;113: 1693-1697.
179. Sullivan JH, Schreuder AB, Trenga CA, Liu SL, Larson TV, Koenig JQ et al. Association between short term exposure to fine particulate matter and heart rate variability in older subjects with and without heart disease. Thorax. 2005;60:462-466.
180. Baccarelli A, Cassano PA, Litonjua A, Park SK, Suh H, Sparrow D et al. Cardiac autonomic dysfunction: effects from particulate air pollution and protection by dietary methyl nutrients and metabolic polymorphisms. Circulation. 2008;117: 1802-1809.
181. Magari SR, Hauser R, Schwartz J, Williams PL, Smith TJ, Christiani DC. Association of heart rate variability with occupational and environmental exposure to particulate air pollution. Circulation. 2001;104:986-991.
182. Chen JC, Stone PH, Verrier RL, Nearing BD, MacCallum G, Kim JY et al. Personal coronary risk profiles modify autonomic nervous system responses to air pollution. J Occup Environ Med. 2006;48:1133-1142.
183. Chen JC, Cavallari JM, Stone PH, Christiani DC. Obesity is a modifier of autonomic cardiac responses to fine metal particulates. Environ Health Perspect. 2007;115:1002-1006.
184. Pope CA, III, Muhlestein JB, May HT, Renlund DG, Anderson JL, Horne BD. Ischemic heart disease events triggered by short-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution. Circulation. 2006; 114:2443-2448.
185. Chen LC, Hwang JS. Effects of subchronic exposures to concentrated ambient particles (CAPs) in mice. IV. Characterization of acute and chronic effects of ambient air fine particulate matter exposures on heart-rate variability. Inhal Toxicol. 2005;17:209-216.
186. Tankersley CG, Campen M, Bierman A, Flanders SE, Broman KW, Rabold R. Particle effects on heart-rate regulation in senescent mice. Inhal Toxicol. 2004;16:381-390.
187. Chang CC, Hwang JS, Chan CC, Cheng TJ. Interaction effects of ultrafine carbon black with iron and nickel on heart rate variability in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Environ Health Perspect. 2007;115:1012-1017.
188. Ghelfi E, Rhoden CR, Wellenius GA, Lawrence J, Gonzalez-Flecha B. Cardiac oxidative stress and electrophysiological changes in rats exposed to concentrated ambient particles are mediated by TRP-dependent pulmonary reflexes. Toxicol Sci. 2008;102:328-336.
189. Sarnat SE, Suh HH, Coull BA, Schwartz J, Stone PH, Gold DR. Ambient particulate air pollution and cardiac arrhythmia in a panel of older adults in Steubenville, Ohio. Occup Environ Med. 2006; 63:700-706.
190. Rich DQ, Kim MH, Turner JR, Mittleman MA, Schwartz J, Catalano PJ et al. Association of ventricular arrhythmias detected by implantable cardioverter defibrillator and ambient air pollutants in the St Louis, Missouri metropolitan area. Occup Environ Med. 2006;63:591-596.
191. Thomas SR, Chen K, Keaney JF, Jr. Oxidative stress and endothelial nitric oxide bioactivity. Antioxid Redox Signal 2003;5(2):181-94.
192. Cai H, Harrison DG. Endothelial dysfunction in cardiovascular diseases: the role of oxidant stress. Circ Res 2000;87(10):840-4.
193. Brook RD, Brook JR, Urch B, Vincent R, Rajagopalan S, Silverman F. Inhalation of fine particulate air pollution and ozone causes acute arterial vaso-constriction in healthy adults. Circulation. 2002; 105:1534-1536.
194. Celermajer DS, Adams MR, Clarkson P, Robinson J, McCredie R, Donald A et al. Passive smoking and impaired endothelium-dependent arterial dilatation in healthy young adults. New Engl J Med 1996;334(3):150-4.
195. Ijzerman RG, Serne EH, van Weissenbruch MM, de Jongh RT, Stehouwer CD. Cigarette smoking is associated with an acute impairment of microvascular function in humans. Clin Sci 2003;104 (3):247-52.
196. Mayhan WG, Sharpe GM. Effect of cigarette smoke extract on arteriolar dilatation in vivo. J Appl Physiol 1996;81(5):1996-2003.
197. White KA, Marletta MA. Nitric oxide synthase is a cytochrome P-450 type hemoprotein. Biochemistry 1992;31(29):6627-31.
198. Durante W, Johnson FK, Johnson RA. Role of carbon monoxide in cardiovascular function. J Cell Mol Med 2006;10(3):672-86.
199. Gurgueira SA, Lawrence J, Coull B, Murthy GG, Gonzalez-Flecha B. Rapid increases in the steady-state concentration of reactive oxygen species in the lungs and heart after particulate air pollution inhalation. Environ Health Perspect 2002;110(8): 749-55.
200. Sharman JE, Coombes JS, Geraghty DP, Fraser DI. Exposure to automotive pollution increases plasma susceptibility to oxidation. Arch Environ Health 2002;57(6):536-40.
201. Hirano S, Furuyama A, Koike E, Kobayashi T. Oxidative-stress potency of organic extracts of diesel exhaust and urban fine particles in rat heart microvessel endothelial cells. Toxicology 2003; 187(2-3):161-70.
202. Gonzalez-Flecha B. Oxidant mechanisms in response to ambient air particles. Mol Aspects Med 2004;25(1-2):169-82.
203. Vaziri ND, Sica DA. Lead-induced hypertension: role of oxidative stress. Curr Hypertens Rep 2004;6(4):314-20.
204. Harlan WR. The relationship of blood lead levels to blood pressure in the U.S. population. Environ Health Perspect 1988;78:9-13.
205. Glenn BS, Stewart WF, Links JM, Todd AC, Schwartz BS. The longitudinal association of lead with blood pressure. Epidemiology 2003;14(1): 30-6.
206. Attri J, Dhawan V, Mahmood S, Pandhi P, Parwana HK, Nath R. Effect of vitamin C supplementation on oxidative DNA damage in an experimental model of lead-induced hypertension. Ann Nutr Metab 2003;47(6):294-301.
207. Malvezzi CK, Moreira EG, Vassilieff I, Vassilieff VS, Cordellini S. Effect of L-arginine, dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) and the association of L-arginine and DMSA on tissue lead mobilization and blood pressure level in plumbism. Brazilian J Med Biol Res 2001;34(10):1341-6.
208. Khalil-Manesh F, Gonick HC, Weiler EW, Prins B, Weber MA, Purdy R et al. Effect of chelation treatment with dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) on lead-related blood pressure changes. Environ Res 1994;65(1):86-99.
209. Lee MY, Jung BI, Chung SM, Bae ON, Lee JY, Park JD et al. Arsenic-induced dysfunction in relaxation of blood vessels. Environ Health Perspect 2003;111(4):513-7.
210. Pi J, Kumagai Y, Sun G, Yamauchi H, Yoshida T, Iso H et al. Decreased serum concentrations of nitric oxide metabolites among Chinese in an endemic area of chronic arsenic poisoning in inner Mongolia. Free Radic Biol Med 2000;28(7):1137-42.
211. Pi J, Horiguchi S, Sun Y, Nikaido M, Shimojo N, Hayashi T et al. A potential mechanism for the impairment of nitric oxide formation caused by prolonged oral exposure to arsenate in rabbits. Free Radic Biol Med 2003;35(1):102-13.
212. Oda M, Sakitani K, Kaibori M, Inoue T, Kamiyama Y, Okumura T. Vicinal dithiol-binding agent, phenylarsine oxide, inhibits inducible nitric-oxide synthase gene expression at a step of nuclear factor-kappaB DNA binding in hepatocytes. 2000;J Biol Chem 275(6):4369-73.
213. Wang TS, Kuo CF, Jan KY, Huang H. Arsenite induces apoptosis in Chinese hamster ovary cells by generation of reactive oxygen species. J Cell Physiol 1996;169(2):256-68.
214. Liu SX, Athar M, Lippai I, Waldren C, Hei TK. Induction of oxyradicals by arsenic: implication for mechanism of genotoxicity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001;98(4):1643-8.
215. Barchowsky A, Klei LR, Dudek EJ, Swartz HM, James PE. Stimulation of reactive oxygen, but not reactive nitrogen species, in vascular endothelial cells exposed to low levels of arsenite. Free Rad Biol Med 1999;27(11-12):1405-12.
216. Lynn S, Gurr JR, Lai HT, Jan KY. NADH oxidase activation is involved in arsenite-induced oxidative DNA damage in human vascular smooth muscle cells. Circ Res 2000;86(5):514-9.
217. Murase Y, Yamada Y, Hirashiki A, Ichihara S, Kanda H, Watarai M et al. Genetic risk and gene-environment interaction in coronary artery spasm in Japanese men and women. Eur Heart J. 2004; 25:970-977.
218. Miwa K, Fujita M, Sasayama S. Recent insights into the mechanisms, predisposing factors, and racial differences of coronary vasospasm. Heart Vessels. 2005;20:1-7.
219. Gerritsen ME. Genetic variations in vascular endothelial growth factor and endothelial nitric oxide synthase and their contributions to human disease. Microcirculation. 2005;12:129-140.
220. Nakayama M, Yoshimura M, Sakamoto T, Shimasaki Y, Nakamura S, Ito T et al. Synergistic interaction of T-786-->C polymorphism in the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene and smoking for an enhanced risk for coronary spasm. Pharmacogenetics. 2003;13:683-688.
221. Yoshimura M, Nakayama M, Shimasaki Y, Ogawa H, Kugiyama K, Nakamura S et al. A T-786-->C mutation in the 5′-flanking region of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene and coronary arterial vasomotility. Am J Cardiol. 2000;85(6):710-4.
222. Yoshimura M, Yasue H, Nakayama M, Shimasaki Y, Ogawa H, Kugiyama K et al. Genetic risk factors for coronary artery spasm: significance of endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene T-786-->C and missense Glu298Asp variants. J Investig Med. 2000;48:367-374.
223. Sawada T, Kishimoto T, Osaki Y, Okamoto M, Tahara A, Kaetu A et al. Relation of the Glu298Asp polymorphism of the nitric oxide synthase gene to hypertension and serum cholesterol in Japanese workers. Prev Med. 2008 Aug;47(2):167-71.
224. Nagib El-Kilany GE, Nayel E, Hazzaa S. Nitric oxide synthase gene G298 allele. Is it a marker for microvascular angina in hypertensive patients? Cardiovasc Radiat Med. 2004;5:113-118.
225. Chrysohoou C, Panagiotakos DB, Pitsavos C, Antoniades C, Skoumas J, Brown M et al. Evidence for association between endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene polymorphism (G894T) and inflammatory markers: the ATTICA study. Am Heart J. 2004;148:733-738.
226. Cook S, Hugli O, Egli M, Menard B, Thalmann S, Sartori C et al. Partial gene deletion of endothelial nitric oxide synthase predisposes to exaggerated high-fat diet-induced insulin resistance and arterial hypertension. Diabetes. 2004;53:2067-72.
227. Glueck CJ, Haque M, Winarska M, Dharashivkar S, Fontaine RN, Zhu B et al. Stromelysin-1 5A/6A and eNOS T-786C polymorphisms, MTHFR C677T and A1298C mutations, and cigarette-cannabis smoking: a pilot, hypothesis-generating study of gene-environment pathophysiological associations with Buerger's disease. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost. 2006;12:427-39.
228. Haddad JJ. Antioxidant and prooxidant mechanisms in the regulation of redox(y)-sensitive transcription factors. Cellular Signalling 2002;14 (11):879-97.
229. Valen G, Yan ZQ, Hansson GK. Nuclear factor kappa-B and the heart. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001;38 (2):307-14.
230. Goto Y, Ishii H, Hogg JC, Shih CH, Yatera K, Vincent R et al. Particulate matter air pollution stimulates monocyte release from the bone marrow. Am J Resp Crit Care Med 2004;170(8): 891-7.
231. Smith CJ, Fischer TH. Particulate and vapor phase constituents of cigarette mainstream smoke and risk of myocardial infarction. Atherosclerosis 158 (2):257-67. 2001;
232. van Eeden SF, Yeung A, Quinlam K, Hogg JC. Systemic response to ambient particulate matter: relevance to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Proc Am Thoracic Soc 2005;2(1):61-7.
233. Bermudez EA, Rifai N, Buring JE, Manson JE, Ridker PM. Relation between markers of systemic vascular inflammation and smoking in women. Am J Cardiol 2002;89(9):1117-9.
234. Tappia PS, Troughton KL, Langley-Evans SC, Grimble RF. Cigarette smoking influences cytokine production and antioxidant defences. Clin Sci 1995;88(4):485-9.
235. Peters A, Frohlich M, Doring A, Immervoll T, Wichmann HE, Hutchinson WL et al. Particulate air pollution is associated with an acute phase response in men; results from the MONICA-Augsburg Study. Eur Heart J 2001;22(14):1198-204.
236. Mazzone A, Cusa C, Mazzucchelli I, Vezzoli M, Ottini E, Ghio S et al. Cigarette smoking and hypertension influence nitric oxide release and plasma levels of adhesion molecules. Clin Chem Lab Med 2001;39(9):822-6.
237. Yanbaeva DG, Dentener MA, Creutzberg EC, Wesseling G, Wouters EF. Systemic effects of smoking. Chest 2007;131(5):1557-66.
238. Duthie GG, Wahle KJ. Smoking, antioxidants, essential fatty acids and coronary heart disease. Biochem Soc Trans 1990;18(6):1051-4.
239. Simeonova PP, Wang S, Toriuma W, Kommineni V, Matheson J, Unimye N et al. Arsenic mediates cell proliferation and gene expression in the bladder epithelium: association with activating protein-1 transactivation. Cancer Res 2000;60 (13):3445-53.
240. Raupach T, Schafer K, Konstantinides S, Andreas S. Secondhand smoke as an acute threat for the cardiovascular system: a change in paradigm. Eur Heart J 2006;27(4):386-92.
241. Tikkanen J, Heinonen OP. Congenital heart disease in the offspring and maternal habits and home exposures during pregnancy. Teratology. 1992;46:447-454.
242. Tikkanen J, Heinonen OP. Maternal exposure to chemical and physical factors during pregnancy and cardiovascular malformations in the offspring. Teratology. 1991;43:591-600.
243. Williams LJ, Correa A, Rasmussen S. Maternal lifestyle factors and risk for ventricular septal defects. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol. 2004;70:59-64.
244. Pierpont ME, Basson CT, Benson DW, Jr., Gelb BD, Giglia TM, Goldmuntz E et al. Genetic basis for congenital heart defects: current knowledge: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Congenital Cardiac Defects Committee, Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young: endorsed by the American Academy of Pediatrics. Circulation. 2007;115:3015-3038.
245. Srivastava D. Genetic regulation of cardiogenesis and congenital heart disease. Annu Rev Pathol. 2006;1:199-213.
246. Malik S, Cleves MA, Honein MA, Romitti PA, Botto LD, Yang S et al. Maternal smoking and congenital heart defects. Pediatrics. 2008;121: e810-6.
247. Botto LD, Lin AE, Riehle-Colarusso T, Malik S, Correa A. Seeking causes: Classifying and evaluating congenital heart defects in etiologic studies. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol. 2007;79:714-727.
248. Williams RG, Pearson GD, Barst RJ, Child JS, del NP, Gersony WM et al. Report of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Working Group on research in adult congenital heart disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;47:701-707.
249. Goldberg SJ, Lebowitz MD, Graver EJ, Hicks S. An association of human congenital cardiac malformations and drinking water contaminants. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1990;16:155-164.
250. Goldberg SJ, Dawson BV, Johnson PD, Hoyme HE, Ulreich JB. Cardiac teratogenicity of dichloroethylene in a chick model. Pediatr Res. 1992;32: 23-26.
251. Johnson PD, Dawson BV, Goldberg SJ. Cardiac teratogenicity of trichloroethylene metabolites. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998;32:540-545.
252. Johnson PD, Dawson BV, Goldberg SJ. A review: trichloroethylene metabolites: potential cardiac teratogens. Environ Health Perspect. 1998;106 Suppl 4:995-999.
253. Loeber CP, Hendrix MJ, ez De PS, Goldberg SJ. Trichloroethylene: a cardiac teratogen in developing chick embryos. Pediatr Res. 1988; 24:740-744.
254. Johnson PD, Goldberg SJ, Mays MZ, Dawson BV. Threshold of trichloroethylene contamination in maternal drinking waters affecting fetal heart development in the rat. Environ Health Perspect. 2003;111:289-292.
255. Zierler S, Theodore M, Cohen A, Rothman KJ. Chemical quality of maternal drinking water and congenital heart disease. Int J Epidemiol. 1988; 17:589-594.
256. Kuehl KS, Loffredo CA. A cluster of hypoplastic left heart malformation in Baltimore, Maryland. Pediatr Cardiol. 2006;27:25-31.
257. Kallen K. Maternal smoking and congenital heart defects. Eur J Epidemiol. 1999;15:731-737.
258. Shiono PH, Klebanoff MA, Berendes HW. Congenital malformations and maternal smoking during pregnancy. Teratology. 1986;34:65-71.
259. Wasserman CR, Shaw GM, O'Malley CD, Tolarova MM, Lammer EJ. Parental cigarette smoking and risk for congenital anomalies of the heart, neural tube, or limb. Teratology. 1996;53: 261-267.
260. Antkiewicz DS, Burns CG, Carney SA, Peterson RE, Heideman W. Heart malformation is an early response to TCDD in embryonic zebrafish. Toxicol Sci. 2005;84:368-377.
261. Chen J, Carney SA, Peterson RE, Heideman W. Comparative genomics identifies genes mediating cardiotoxicity in the embryonic zebrafish heart. Physiol Genomics. 2008;33:148-158.
262. Mehta V, Peterson RE, Heideman W. 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin exposure prevents cardiac valve formation in developing zebrafish. Toxicol Sci. 2008;104(2):303-11.
263. Loffredo CA. Epidemiology of cardiovascular malformations: prevalence and risk factors. Am J Med Genet. 2000;97:319-325.
264. Kuehl KS, Loffredo CA. Genetic and environmental influences on malformations of the cardiac outflow tract. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther. 2005; 3:1125-1130.
265. Shaw GM, Iovannisci DM, Yang W, Finnell RH, Carmichael SL, Cheng S et al. Risks of human conotruncal heart defects associated with 32 single nucleotide polymorphisms of selected cardiovascular disease-related genes. Am J Med Genet A. 2005;138:21-26.
266. Reilly JM, Tilson MD. Incidence and etiology of abdominal aortic aneurysms. Surg Clin North Am. 1989;69:705-711.
267. Verloes A, Sakalihasan N, Limet R, Koulischer L. Genetic aspects of abdominal aortic aneurysm. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1996;800:44-55.
268. Collin J, Araujo L, Walton J, Lindsell D. Oxford screening programme for abdominal aortic aneurysm in men aged 65 to 74 years. Lancet. 1988;2:613-615.
269. Limet R, Nusgens B, Verloes A, Sakalihasan N. Pathogenesis of abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) formation. Acta Chir Belg. 1998;98:195-198.
270. Boor PJ, Langford SD. Pathogenesis of chemically induced arterial lesions. 1997;309-332.
271. Langford SD, Trent MB, Balakumaran A, Boor PJ. Developmental vasculotoxicity associated with inhibition of semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1999;155:237-244.
272. Langford SD, Trent MB, Boor PJ. Semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase and extracellular matrix deposition by smooth-muscle cells. Cardiovasc Toxicol. 2002;2:141-150.
273. Nestmann ER, Lynch BS, Musa-Veloso K, Goodfellow GH, Cheng E, Haighton LA et al. Safety assessment and risk-benefit analysis of the use of azodicarbonamide in baby food jar closure technology: putting trace levels of semicarbazide exposure into perspective - a review. Food Addit Contam. 2005;22:875-891.
274. Gong B, Trent MB, Srivastava D, Boor PJ. Chemical-induced, nonlethal, developmental model of dissecting aortic aneurysm. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol. 2006;76:29-38.
275. Gong B, Sun J, Vargas G, Chang Q, Xu Y, Srivastava D et al. Nonlinear imaging study of extracellular matrix in chemical-induced, developmental dissecting aortic aneurysm: evidence for defective collagen type III. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol. 2008;82:16-24.
276. Conklin DJ, Trent MB, Boor PJ. The role of plasma semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase in allylamine and beta-aminopropionitrile cardiovascular toxicity: mechanisms of myocardial protection and aortic medial injury in rats. Toxicology. 1999;138:137-154.
277. Kumar D, Trent MB, Boor PJ. Allylamine and beta-aminopropionitrile induced aortic medial necrosis: mechanisms of synergism. Toxicology. 1998;125:107-115.