Investigations with cultured human microglia on pathogenic mechanisms of Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative diseases

Journal of Neuroscience Research

Volumn 81, Issue 3, 2005, Pages 412-425

  Walker, Douglas G ^a   Lue, L F ^a  

^a SUN HEALTH RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (United States)

Author keywords

Inflammation; Neurodegeneration; Phagocytosis; Tissue culture

Indexed keywords

COMPLEMENT; EXCITOTOXIN; GLUTAMIC ACID; HEPARIN; NITRIC OXIDE; PROTEINASE; QUINOLINIC ACID; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; UROKINASE RECEPTOR;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; CELL ACTIVATION; CELL CULTURE; CELL DEATH; CHEMOTAXIS; CLINICAL TRIAL; DEGENERATIVE DISEASE; DISEASE COURSE; GENE EXPRESSION; GLYCATION; HUMAN; MACROPHAGE; MICROGLIA; NONHUMAN; PARKINSON DISEASE; PHAGOCYTOSIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN DEGRADATION; REVIEW;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; ANIMALS; BRAIN; CELLS, CULTURED; ENDOPEPTIDASES; GENE EXPRESSION; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION; MICROGLIA; NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES; RECEPTORS, CELL SURFACE; SPECIES SPECIFICITY;

EID: 25444505871     PISSN: 03604012     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/jnr.20484     Document Type: Review

References (165)

1. Aisen PS, Schafer KA, Grundman M, Pfeiffer E, Sano M, Davis KL, Farlow MR, Jin S, Thomas RG, Thal LJ. 2003. Effects of rofecoxib or naproxen vs placebo on Alzheimer disease progression: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 289:2819-2826.
2. Akiyama H, Kawamata T, Dedhar S, McGeer PL. 1991. Immunohistochemical localization of vitronectin, its receptor and beta-3 integrin in Alzheimer brain tissue. J Neuroimmunol 32:19-28.
3. Akiyama H, Mori H, Saido T, Kondo H, Ikeda K, McGeer PL. 1999. Occurrence of the diffuse amyloid beta-protein (Abeta) deposits with numerous Abeta-containing glial cells in the cerebral cortex of patients with Alzheimer's disease. Glia 25:324-331.
4. Akiyama H, Schwab C, Kondo H, Mori H, Kametani F, Ikeda K, McGeer PL. 1996. Granules in glial cells of patients with Alzheimer's disease are immunopositive for C-terminal sequences of beta-amyloid protein. Neurosci Lett 206:169-172.
5. Andersen K, Launer LJ, Ott A, Hoes AW, Breteler MM, Hofman A. 1995. Do nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs decrease the risk for Alzheimer's disease? The Rotterdam Study. Neurology 45:1441-1445.
6. Barclay AN, Wright GJ, Brooke G, Brown MH. 2002. CD200 and membrane protein interactions in the control of myeloid cells. Trends Immunol 23:285-290.
7. Bard F, Cannon C, Barbour R, Burke RL, Games D, Grajeda H, Guido T, Hu K, Huang J, Johnson-Wood K, Khan K, Kholodenko D, Lee M, Lieberburg I, Motter R, Nguyen M, Soriano F, Vasquez N, Weiss K, Welch B, Seubert P, Schenk D, Yednock T. 2000. Peripherally administered antibodies against amyloid beta-peptide enter the central nervous system and reduce pathology in a mouse model of Alzheimer disease. Nat Med 6:916-919.
8. Becher B, Blain M, Antel JP. 2000. CD40 engagement stimulates IL-12 p70 production by human microglial cells: basis for Th1 polarization in the CNS. J Neuroimmunol 102:44-50.
9. Becher B, Fedorowicz V, Antel JP. 1996. Regulation of CD14 expression on human adult central nervous system-derived microglia. J Neurosci Res 45:375-381.
10. Beffert U, Arguin C, Poirier J. 1999. The polymorphism in exon 3 of the low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein gene is weakly associated with Alzheimer's disease. Neurosci Lett 259:29-32.
11. Beschorner R, Engel S, Mittelbronn M, Adjodah D, Dietz K, Schluesener HJ, Meyermann R. 2000. Differential regulation of the monocytic calcium-binding peptides macrophage-inhibiting factor related protein-8 (MRP8/S100A8) and allograft inflammatory factor-1 (AIF-1) following human traumatic brain injury. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 100:627-634.
12. Blasi FCarmeliet P. 2002. uPAR: a versatile signalling orchestrator. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 3:932-943.
13. Boje KM, Arora PK. 1992. Microglial-produced nitric oxide and reactive nitrogen oxides mediate neuronal cell death. Brain Res 587:250-256.
14. Bornemann KDStaufenbiel M. 2000. Transgenic mouse models of Alzheimer's disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci 908:260-266.
15. Breitner JC, Gau BA, Welsh KA, Plassman BL, McDonald WM, Helms MJ, Anthony JC. 1994. Inverse association of anti-inflammatory treatments and Alzheimer's disease: initial results of a co-twin control study. Neurology 44:227-232.
16. Breitner JC, Welsh KA, Helms MJ, Gaskell PC, Gau BA, Roses AD, Pericak-Vance MA, Saunders AM. 1995. Delayed onset of Alzheimer's disease with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory and histamine H2 blocking drugs. Neurobiol Aging 16:523-30.
17. Campbell IL, Abraham CR, Masliah E, Kemper P, Inglis JD, Oldstone MB, Mucke L. 1993. Neurologic disease induced in transgenic mice by cerebral overexpression of interleukin 6. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90:10061-10065.
18. Chan A, Seguin R, Magnus T, Papadimitriou C, Toyka KV, Antel JP, Gold R. 2003. Phagocytosis of apoptotic inflammatory cells by microglia and its therapeutic implications: termination of CNS autoimmune inflammation and modulation by interferon-beta. Glia 43:231-242.
19. Chao CC, Hu S, Ehrlich L, Peterson PK. 1995a. Interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha synergistically mediate neurotoxicity: involvement of nitric oxide and of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors. Brain Behav Immun 9:355-365.
20. Chao CC, Hu S, Molitor TW, Shaskan EG, Peterson PK. 1992. Activated microglia mediate neuronal cell injury via a nitric oxide mechanism. J Immunol 149:2736-2741.
21. Chao CC, Hu S, Peterson PK. 1995b. Modulation of human microglial cell superoxide production by cytokines. J Leukoc Biol 58:65-70.
22. Chiarugi AMoskowitz MA. 2003. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 activity promotes NF-kappaB-driven transcription and microglial activation: implication for neurodegenerative disorders. J Neurochem 85:306-317.
23. Choi HB, Hong SH, Ryu JK, Kim SU, McLarnon JG. 2003. Differential activation of subtype purinergic receptors modulates Ca(2+) mobilization and COX-2 in human microglia. Glia 43:95-103.
24. Colasanti M, Persichini T, Di Pucchio T, Gremo F, Lauro GM. 1995. Human ramified microglial cells produce nitric oxide upon Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide and tumor necrosis factor alpha stimulation. Neurosci Lett 200:144-146.
25. Colton C, Wilt S, Gilbert D, Chernyshev O, Snell J, Dubois-Dalcq M. 1996. Species differences in the generation of reactive oxygen species by microglia. Mol Chem Neuropathol 28:15-20.
26. Colton CA, Brown CM, Cook D, Needham LK, Xu Q, Czapiga M, Saunders AM, Schmechel DE, Rasheed K, Vitek MP. 2002. APOE and the regulation of microglial nitric oxide production: a link between genetic risk and oxidative stress. Neurobiol Aging 23:777-785.
27. Combs CK, Karlo JC, Kao SC, Landreth GE. 2001. beta-Amyloid stimulation of microglia and monocytes results in TNFalpha-dependent expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and neuronal apoptosis. J Neurosci 21:1179-1188.
28. Cuzner ML, Opdenakker G. 1999. Plasminogen activators and matrix metallo proteases, mediators of extracellular proteolysis in inflammatory demyelination of the central nervous system. J Neuroimmunol 94: 1-14.
29. Das P, Howard V, Loosbrock N, Dickson D, Murphy MP, Golde TE. 2003. Amyloid-beta immunization effectively reduces amyloid deposition in FcRgamma-/- knock-out mice. J Neurosci 23:8532-8538.
30. de Groot CJ, Hulshof S, Hoozemans JJ, Veerhuis R. 2001. Establishment of microglial cell cultures derived from postmortem human adult brain tissue: immunophenotypical and functional characterization. Microsc Res Tech 54:34-39.
31. de Groot CJ, Montagne L, Janssen I, Ravid R, van der Valk P, Veerhuis R. 2000. Isolation and characterization of adult microglial cells and oligodendrocytes derived from postmortem human brain tissue. Brain Res Brain Res Protoc 5:85-94.
32. 2 forming NADPH oxidase in microglia, monocytes and neutrophils. A possible inflammatory mechanism of neuronal damage in Alzheimer's disease. J Biol Chem 274:15493-15499.
33. DeMattos RB, Bales KR, Cummins DJ, Paul SM, Holtzman DM. 2002. Brain to plasma amyloid-beta efflux: a measure of brain amyloid burden in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Science 295:2264-2267.
34. Downen M, Amaral TD, Hua LL, Zhao ML, Lee SC. 1999. Neuronal death in cytokine-activated primary human brain cell culture: role of tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Glia 28:114-127.
35. Eikelenboom P, van Gool WA. 2004. Neuroinflammatory perspectives on the two faces of Alzheimer's disease. J Neural Transm 111:281-294.
36. Eriksen JL, Sagi SA, Smith TE, Weggen S, Das P, McLendon DC, Ozols VV, Jessing KW, Zavitz KH, Koo EH, Golde TE. 2003. NSAIDs and enantiomers of flurbiprofen target gamma-secretase and lower Abeta 42 in vivo. J Clin Invest 112:440-449.
37. Espey MG, Chernyshev ON, Reinhard JF Jr, Namboodiri MA, Colton CA. 1997. Activated human microglia produce the excitotoxin quinolinic acid. Neuroreport 8:431-434.
38. Flavin MP, Zhao G, Ho LT. 2000. Microglial tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) triggers neuronal apoptosis in vitro. Glia 29:347-354.
39. Franciosi S, Choi HB, Kim SU, McLarnon JG. 2002. Interferon-gamma acutely induces calcium influx in human microglia. J Neurosci Res 69:607-613.
40. Gan L, Ye S, Chu A, Anton K, Yi S, Vincent VA, Von Schack D, Chin D, Murray J, Lohr S, Patthy L, Gonzalez-Zulueta M, Nikolich K, Urfer R. 2004. Identification of cathepsin B as a mediator of neuronal death induced by Abeta-activated microglial cells using a functional genomics approach. J Biol Chem 279:5565-5572.
41. Gao HM, Hong JS, Zhang W, Liu B. 2002. Distinct role for microglia in rotenone-induced degeneration of dopaminergic neurons. J Neurosci 22:782-790.
42. Gao HM, Liu B, Hong JS. 2003. Critical role for microglial NADPH oxidase in rotenone-induced degeneration of dopaminergic neurons. J Neurosci 23:6181-6187.
43. Giulian D, Haverkamp LJ, Li J, Karshin WL, Yu J, Tom D, Li X, Kirkpatrick JB. 1995. Senile plaques stimulate microglia to release a neurotoxin found in Alzheimer brain. Neurochem Int 27:119-137.
44. Giulian D, Haverkamp LJ, Yu J, Karshin W, Tom D, Li J, Kazanskaia A, Kirkpatrick J, Roher AE. 1998. The HHQK domain of beta-amyloid provides a structural basis for the immunopathology of Alzheimer's disease. J Biol Chem 273:29719-29726.
45. Giulian D, Haverkamp LJ, Yu JH, Karshin W, Tom D, Li J, Kirkpatrick J, Kuo YM, Roher AE. 1996. Specific domains of beta-amyloid from Alzheimer plaque elicit neuron killing in human microglia. J Neurosci 16:6021-6037.
46. Goghari V, Franciosi S, Kim SU, Lee YB, McLamon JG. 2000. Acute application of interleukin-1beta induces Ca(2+) responses in human microglia. Neurosci Lett 281:83-86.
47. Gong Y, Chang L, Viola KL, Lacor PN, Lambert MP, Finch CE, Krafft GA, Klein WL. 2003. Alzheimer's disease-affected brain: presence of oligomeric A beta ligands (ADDLs) suggests a molecular basis for reversible memory loss. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:10417-10422.
48. Gorczynski R, Chen Z, Kai Y, Lee L, Wong S, Marsden PA. 2004. CD200 is a ligand for all members of the CD200R family of immunoregulatory molecules. J Immunol 172:7744-7749.
49. Gorczynski RM. 2001. Transplant tolerance modifying antibody to CD200 receptor, but not CD200, alters cytokine production profile from stimulated macrophages. Eur J Immunol 31:2331-2337.
50. Griffin WS, Sheng JG, Roberts GW, Mrak RE. 1995. Interleukin-1 expression in different plaque types in Alzheimer's disease: significance in plaque evolution. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 54:276-281.
51. Guillemin GJ, Brew BJ. 2002. Implications of the kynurenine pathway and quinolinic acid in Alzheimer's disease. Redox Rep 7:199-206.
52. Guillemin GJ, Smythe GA, Veas LA, Takikawa O, Brew BJ. 2003. Abeta1-42 induces production of quinolinic acid by human macrophages and microglia. Neuroreport 14:2311-2315.
53. Hatherley D, Barclay AN. 2004. The CD200 and CD200 receptor cell surface proteins interact through their N-terminal immunoglobulin-like domains. Eur J Immunol 34:1688-1694.
54. Hayes GM, Woodroofe MN, Cuzner ML. 1988. Characterisation of microglia isolated from adult human and rat brain. J Neuroimmunol 19:177-189.
55. Heyes MP, Achim CL, Wiley CA, Major EO, Saito K, Markey SP. 1996. Human microglia convert 1-tryptophan into the neurotoxin quinolinic acid. Biochem J 320:595-597.
56. Hirsch EC, Breidert T, Rousselet E, Hunot S, Hartmann A, Michel PP. 2003. The role of glial reaction and inflammation in Parkinson's disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci 991:214-228.
57. Hock C, Konietzko U, Streffer JR, Tracy J, Signorell A, Muller-Tillmanns B, Lemke U, Henke K, Moritz E, Garcia E, Wollmer MA, Umbricht D, de Quervain DJ, Hofmann M, Maddalena A, Papassotiropoulos A, Nitsch RM. 2003. Antibodies against beta-amyloid slow cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease. Neuron 38:547-554.
58. Hoek RM, Ruuls SR, Murphy CA, Wright GJ, Goddard R, Zurawski SM, Blom B, Homola ME, Streit WJ, Brown MH, Barclay AN, Sedgwick JD. 2000. Downregulation of the macrophage lineage through interaction with OX2 (CD200). Science 290:1768-1771.
59. Hofmann MA, Drury S, Fu C, Qu W, Taguchi A, Lu Y, Avila C, Kambham N, Bierhaus A, Nawroth P, Neurath MF, Slattery T, Beach D, McClary J, Nagashima M, Morser J, Stern D, Schmidt AM. 1999. RAGE mediates a novel proinflammatory axis: a central cell surface receptor for S100/calgranulin polypeptides. Cell 97:889-901.
60. Hoozemans JJ, Rozemuller AJ, Janssen I, de Groot CJ, Veerhuis R, Eikelenboom P. 2001. Cyclooxygenase expression in microglia and neurons in Alzheimer's disease and control brain. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 101:2-8.
61. Ishii K, Muelhauser F, Liebl U, Picard M, Kuhl S, Penke B, Bayer T, Wiessler M, Hennerici M, Beyreuther K, Hartmann T, Fassbender K. 2000. Subacute NO generation induced by Alzheimer's beta-amyloid in the living brain: reversal by inhibition of the inducible NO synthase. FASEB J 14:1485-1489.
62. Itagaki S, McGeer PL, Akiyama H, Zhu S, Selkoe D. 1989. Relationship of microglia and astrocytes to amyloid deposits of Alzheimer disease. J Neuroimmunol 24:173-182.
63. Janabi N, Peudenier S, Heron B, Ng KH, Tardieu M. 1995. Establishment of human microglial cell lines after transfection of primary cultures of embryonic microglial cells with the SV40 large T antigen. Neurosci Lett 195:105-108.
64. Janus C, Pearson J, McLaurin J, Mathews PM, Jiang Y, Schmidt SD, Chishti MA, Horne P, Heslin D, French J, Mount HT, Nixon RA, Mercken M, Bergeron C, Fraser PE, St George-Hyslop P, Westaway D. 2000. A beta peptide immunization reduces behavioural impairment and plaques in a model of Alzheimer's disease. Nature 408:979-982.
65. Kalback W, Watson MD, Kokjohn TA, Kuo YM, Weiss N, Luehrs DC, Lopez J, Brune D, Sisodia SS, Staufenbiel M, Emmerling M, Roher AE. 2002. APP transgenic mice Tg2576 accumulate Abeta peptides that are distinct from the chemically modified and insoluble peptides deposited in Alzheimer's disease senile plaques. Biochemistry 41:922-928.
66. Khoo C, Helm J, Choi HB, Kim SU, McLarnon JG. 2001. Inhibition of store-operated Ca(2+) influx by acidic extracellular pH in cultured human microglia. Glia 36:22-30.
67. Kim HJ, Ifergan I, Antel JP, Seguin R, Duddy M, Lapierre Y, Jalili F, Bar-Or A. 2004. Type 2 monocyte and microglia differentiation mediated by glatiramer acetate therapy in patients with multiple sclerosis. J Immunol 172:7144-7153.
68. Kim SU, Moretto G, Shin DH. 1985. Expression of Ia antigens on the surface of human oligodendrocytes and astrocytes in culture. J Neuroimmunol 10:141-149.
69. Klegeris A, Bissonnette CJ, McGeer PL. 2003. Reduction of human monocytic cell neurotoxicity and cytokine secretion by ligands of the cannabinoid-type CB2 receptor. Br J Pharmacol 139:775-786.
70. Klegeris A, Maguire J, McGeer PL. 2004. S- but not R-enantiomers of flurbiprofen and ibuprofen reduce human microglial and THP-1 cell neurotoxicity. J Neuroimmunol 152:73-77.
71. Klegeris A, McGeer PL. 2000. Interaction of various intracellular signaling mechanisms involved in mononuclear phagocyte toxicity toward neuronal cells. J Leukoc Biol 67:127-133.
72. Klegeris A, Walker DG, McGeer PL. 1994. Activation of macrophages by Alzheimer β amyloid peptide. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 199:984-991.
73. Klegeris A, Walker DG, McGeer PL. 1999. Toxicity of human THP-1 monocytic cells towards neuron-like cells is reduced by non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Neuropharmacology 38:1017-1025.
74. Knott C, Stern G, Wilkin GP. 2000. Inflammatory regulators in Parkinson's disease: iNOS, lipocortin-1, and cyclooxygenases-1 and -2. Mol Cell Neurosci 16:724-739.
75. Kuo YM, Beach TG, Sue LI, Scott S, Layne KJ, Kokjohn TA, Kalback WM, Luehrs DC, Vishnivetskaya TA, Abramowski D, Sturchler-Pierrat C, Staufenbiel M, Weller RO, Roher AE. 2001a. The evolution of A beta peptide burden in the APP23 transgenic mice: implications for A beta deposition in Alzheimer disease. Mol Med 7:609-618.
76. Kuo YM, Crawford F, Mullan M, Kokjohn TA, Emmerling MR, Weller RO, Roher AE. 2000. Elevated A beta and apolipoprotein E in A betaPP transgenic mice and its relationship to amyloid accumulation in Alzheimer's disease. Mol Med 6:430-439.
77. Kuo YM, Kokjohn TA, Beach TG, Sue LI, Brune D, Lopez JC, Kalback WM, Abramowski D, Sturchler-Pierrat C, Staufenbiel M, Roher AE. 2001b. Comparative analysis of A{beta} chemical structure and amyloid plaque morphology of transgenic mice and Alzheimer disease brains. J Biol Chem 211:2455-2461.
78. Lafortune L, Nalbantoglu J, Antel JP. 1996. Expression of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF alpha) and interleukin 6 (IL-6) mRNA in adult human astrocytes: comparison with adult microglia and fetal astrocytes. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 55:515-521.
79. Le W, Rowe D, Xie W, Ortiz I, He Y, Appel SH. 2001. Microglial activation and dopaminergic cell injury: an in vitro model relevant to Parkinson's disease. J Neurosci 21:8447-8455.
80. Lee SC, Dickson DW, Brosnan CF. 1995. Interleukin-1, nitric oxide and reactive astrocytes. Brain Behav Immun 9:345-354.
81. Lee SC, Dickson DW, Liu W, Brosnan CF. 1993a. Induction of nitric oxide synthase activity in human astrocytes by interleukin-1 beta and interferon-gamma. J Neuroimmunol 46:19-24.
82. Lee SC, Liu W, Brosnan CF, Dickson DW. 1992. Characterization of primary human fetal dissociated central nervous system cultures with an emphasis on microglia. Lab Invest 67:465-476.
83. Lee SC, Liu W, Dickson DW, Brosnan CF, Berman JW. 1993b. Cytokine production by human fetal microglia and astrocytes. Differential induction by lipopolysaccharide and IL-1 beta. J Immunol 150:2659-2667.
84. Lee YB, Nagai A, Kim SU. 2002. Cytokines, chemokines, and cytokine receptors in human microglia. J Neurosci Res 69:94-103.
85. Lee YB, Schrader JW, Kim SU. 2000. p38 map kinase regulates TNF-alpha production in human astrocytes and microglia by multiple mechanisms. Cytokine 12:874-880.
86. Lemere CA, Spooner ET, LaFrancois J, Malester B, Mori C, Leverone JF, Matsuoka Y, Taylor JW, DeMattos RB, Holtzman DM, Clements JD, Selkoe DJ, Duff KE. 2003. Evidence for peripheral clearance of cerebral Abeta protein following chronic, active Abeta immunization in PSAPP mice. Neurobiol Dis 14:10-18.
87. Liao A, Nitsch RM, Greenberg SM, Finckh U, Blacker D, Albert M, Rebeck GW, Gomez-Isla T, Clatworthy A, Binetti G, Hock C, Mueller-Thomsen T, Mann U, Zuchowski K, Beisiegel U, Staehelin H, Growdon JH, Tanzi RE, Hyman BT. 1998. Genetic association of an alpha2-macroglobulin (Val1000Ile) polymorphism and Alzheimer's disease. Hum Mol Genet 7:1953-1956.
88. Liu J, Zhao ML, Brosnan CF, Lee SC. 1996. Expression of type II nitric oxide synthase in primary human astrocytes and microglia: role of IL-1beta and IL-1 receptor antagonist. J Immunol 157:3569-3576.
89. Lombardi VR, Garcia M, Cacabelos R. 1998. Microglial activation induced by factor(s) contained in sera from Alzheimer-related ApoE genotypes. J Neurosci Res 54:539-553.
90. Lue LF, Brachova L, Walker DG, Rogers J. 1996. Characterization of glial cultures from rapid autopsies of Alzheimer's and control patients. Neurobiol Aging 17:421-429.
91. Lue LF, Rydel R, Brigham EF, Yang LB, Hampel H, Murphy GMJ, Brachova L, Yan SD, Walker DG, Shen Y, Rogers J. 2001a. Inflammatory repertoire of Alzheimer's disease and nondemented elderly microglia in vitro. Glia 35:72-79.
92. Lue LF, Walker DG. 2002. Modeling Alzheimer's disease immune therapy mechanisms: interactions of human postmortem microglia with antibody-opsonized amyloid beta peptide. J Neurosci Res 70:599-610.
93. Lue LF, Walker DG, Brachova L, Beach TG, Rogers J, Schmidt AM, Stern D, Yan S.D. 2001b. Involvement of microglial receptor for advanced glycation endproducts (RAGE) in Alzheimer's disease: identification of a cellular activation mechanism. Exp Neurol 171:29-45.
94. Lue LF, Walker DG, Rogers J. 2001c. Modeling microglial activation in Alzheimer's disease with human postmortem microglial cultures. Neurobiol Aging 22:945-956.
95. Masliah E, Rockenstein E, Veinbergs I, Mallory M, Hashimoto M, Takeda A, Sagara Y, Sisk A, Mucke L. 2000. Dopaminergic loss and inclusion body formation in alpha-synuclein mice: implications for neurodegenerative disorders. Science 287:1265-1269.
96. Matsuoka Y, Vila M, Lincoln S, McCormack A, Picciano M, LaFrancois J, Yu X, Dickson D, Langston WJ, McGowan E, Farrer M, Hardy J, Duff K, Przedborski S, Di Monte DA. 2001. Lack of nigral pathology in transgenic mice expressing human alpha-synuclein driven by the tyrosine hydroxylase promoter. Neurobiol Dis 8:535-539.
97. McDonald DR, Brunden KR, Landreth GE. 1997. Amyloid fibrils activate tyrosine kinase-dependent signaling and superoxide production in microglia. J Neurosci 17:2284-2294.
98. McGeer PL, Akiyama H, Itagaki S, McGeer EG. 1989. Activation of the classical complement pathway in brain tissue of Alzheimer patients. Neurosci Lett 107:341-346.
99. McGeer PL, Itagaki S, Boyes BE, McGeer EG. 1988a. Reactive microglia are positive for HLA-DR in the substantia nigra of Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease brains. Neurology 38:1285-1291.
100. McGeer PL, Itagaki S, Tago H, McGeer EG. 1988b. Occurrence of HLA-DR reactive microglia in Alzheimer's disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci 540:319-323.
101. McGeer PL, Kawamata T, Walker DG, Akiyama H, Tooyama I, McGeer EG. 1993. Microglia in degenerative neurological disease. Glia 7:84-92.
102. McGeer PL, McGeer EG. 1995. The inflammatory response system of brain: implications for therapy of Alzheimer and other neurodegenerative diseases. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 21:195-218.
103. McGeer PL, McGeer EG. 1999. Inflammation of the brain in Alzheimer's disease: implications for therapy. J Leukoc Biol 65:409-415.
104. McGeer PL, McGeer EG. 2002. Local neuroinflammation and the progression of Alzheimer's disease. J Neurovirol 8:529-538.
105. McGeer PL, Schulzer M, McGeer EG. 1996. Arthritis and anti-inflammatory agents as possible protective factors for Alzheimer's disease: a review of 17 epidemiologic studies. Neurology 47:425-432.
106. McLarnon JG, Choi HB, Lve L-F, Walker DG, Kim SU. 2005. Perturbations in calcium-mediated signal transduction in microglia from Alzheimer's disease patients. J Neurosci Res 81:426-435.
107. McLarnon JG, Franciosi S, Wang X, Bae JH, Choi HB, Kim SU. 2001. Acute actions of tumor necrosis factor-alpha on intracellular Ca(2+) and K(+) currents in human microglia. Neuroscience 104:1175-1184.
108. McLarnon JG, Zhang L, Goghari V, Lee YB, Walz W, Krieger C, Kim SU. 1999. Effects of ATP and elevated K+ on K+ currents and intracellular Ca2+ in human microglia. Neuroscience 91:343-352.
109. Melton LM, Keith AB, Davis S, Oakley AE, Edwardson JA, Morris CM. 2003. Chronic glial activation, neurodegeneration, and APP immunoreactive deposits following acute administration of double-stranded RNA. Glia 44:1-12.
110. Min HY, Semnani R, Mizukami IF, Watt K, Todd RF, Liu DY. 1992. cDNA for Mo3, a monocyte activation antigen, encodes the human receptor for urokinase plasminogen activator. J Immunol 148:3636-3642.
111. Munch G, Robinson SR. 2002. Alzheimer's vaccine: a cure as dangerous as the disease? J Neural Transm 109:537-539.
112. Nagai A, Nakagawa E, Hatori K, Choi HB, McLarnon JG, Lee MA, Kim SU. 2001. Generation and characterization of immortalized human microglial cell lines: expression of cytokines and chemokines. Neurobiol Dis 8:1057-1068.
113. Naidu A, Xu Q, Catalano R, Cordell B. 2002. Secretion of apolipoprotein E by brain glia requires protein prenylation and is suppressed by statins. Brain Res 958:100-111.
114. Neumann H. 2001. Control of glial immune function by neurons. Glia 36:191-199.
115. Neuroinflammation Working Group. 2000. Inflammation and Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 21:383-421.
116. Nicoll JA, Wilkinson D, Holmes C, Steart P, Markham H, Weller RO. 2003. Neuropathology of human Alzheimer disease after immunization with amyloid-beta peptide: a case report. Nat Med 9:448-452.
117. Pasinetti GM. 2002. From epidemiology to therapeutic trials with anti-inflammatory drugs in Alzheimer's disease: the role of NSAIDs and cyclooxygenase in beta-amyloidosis and clinical dementia. J Alzheimers Dis 4:435-445.
118. Passey RJ, Xu K, Hume DA, Geczy CL. 1999. S100A8: emerging functions and regulation. J Leukoc Biol 66:549-556.
119. Peudenier S, Hery C, Montagnier L, Tardieu M. 1991. Human microglial cells: characterization in cerebral tissue and in primary culture, and study of their susceptibility to HIV-1 infection. Ann Neurol 29:152-161.
120. Piani D, Spranger M, Frei K, Schaffner A, Fontana A. 1992. Macrophage-induced cytotoxicity of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor positive neurons involves excitatory amino acids rather than reactive oxygen intermediates and cytokines. Eur J Immunol 22:2429-2436.
121. Pola R, Flex A, Gaetani E, Proia AS, Papaleo P, Giorgio AD, Straface G, Pecorini G, Serricchio M, Pola P. 2004. Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) gene polymorphism and risk of Alzheimer's disease in Italians. Exp Gerontol 39:1249-1252.
122. Pola R, Flex A, Gaetani E, Santoliquido A, Serricchio M, Pola P, Bernabei R. 2003. Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 K469E gene polymorphism and Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 24:385-387.
123. Qin L, Liu Y, Wang T, Wei SJ, Block ML, Wilson B, Liu B, Hong JS. 2004. NADPH oxidase mediates lipopolysaccharide-induced neurotoxicity and proinflammatory gene expression in activated microglia. J Biol Chem 279:1415-1421.
124. Reynolds WF, Rhees J, Maciejewski D, Paladino T, Sieburg H, Maki RA, Masliah E. 1999. Myeloperoxidase polymorphism is associated with gender specific risk for Alzheimer's disease. Exp Neurol 155:31-41.
125. Robinson SR, Bishop GM, Lee HG, Munch G. 2004. Lessons from the AN 1792 Alzheimer vaccine: lest we forget. Neurobiol Aging 25:609-615.
126. Rogers J, Luber-Narod J, Styren SD, Civin WH. 1988. Expression of immune system-associated antigens by cells of the human central nervous system: relationship to the pathology of Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 9:339-349.
127. Roth J, Vogl T, Sorg C, Sunderkotter C. 2003. Phagocyte-specific S100 proteins: a novel group of proinflammatory molecules. Trends Immunol 24:155-158.
128. Satoh J, Lee YB, Kim SU. 1995. T-cell costimulatory molecules B7-1 (CD80) and B7-2 (CD86) are expressed in human microglia but not in astrocytes in culture. Brain Res 704:92-96.
129. Schenk D, Barbour R, Dunn W, Gordon G, Grajeda H, Guido T, Hu K, Huang J, Johnson-Wood K, Khan K, Kholodenko D, Lee M, Liao Z, Lieberburg I, Motter R, Mutter L, Soriano F, Shopp G, Vasquez N, Vandevert C, Walker S, Wogulis M, Yednock T, Games D, Seubert P. 1999. Immunization with amyloid-beta attenuates Alzheimer-disease-like pathology in the PDAPP mouse. Nature 400:173-177.
130. Schwab JM, Nguyen TD, Postler E, Meyermann R, Schluesener HJ. 2000. Selective accumulation of cyclooxygenase-1-expressing microglial cells/macrophages in lesions of human focal cerebral ischemia. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 99:609-614.
131. Sciacca FL, Ferri C, Licastro F, Veglia F, Biunno I, Gavazzi A, Calabrese E, Martinelli BF, Sorbi S, Mariani C, Franceschi M, Grimaldi LM. 2003. Interleukin-1B polymorphism is associated with age at onset of Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 24:927-931.
132. Seguin R, Biernacki K, Prat A, Wosik K, Kim HJ, Blain M, McCrea E, Bar-Or A, Antel JP. 2003. Differential effects of Th1 and Th2 lymphocyte supernatants on human microglia. Glia 42:36-45.
133. Sheng JG, Griffin WS, Royston MC, Mrak RE. 1998. Distribution of interleukin-1-immunoreactive microglia in cerebral cortical layers: implications for neuritic plaque formation in Alzheimer's disease. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 24:278-283.
134. Stewart WF, Kawas C, Corrada M, Metter EJ. 1997. Risk of Alzheimer's disease and duration of NSAID use. Neurology 48:626-632.
135. Streit WJ. 2004. Microglia and Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis. J Neurosci Res 77:1-8.
136. Teismann P, Tieu K, Cohen O, Choi DK, Wu DC, Marks D, Vila M, Jackson-Lewis V, Przedborski S. 2003. Pathogenic role of glial cells in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 18:121-129.
137. Van Muiswinkel FL, Raupp SF, de Vos NM, Smits HA, Verhoef J, Eikelenboom P, Nottet HS. 1999. The amino-terminus of the amyloid-beta protein is critical for the cellular binding and consequent activation of the respiratory burst of human macrophages. J Neuroimmunol 96:121-130.
138. Veerhuis R, Janssen I, de Groot CJ, Van Muiswinkel FL, Hack CE, Eikelenboom P. 1999. Cytokines associated with amyloid plaques in Alzheimer's disease brain stimulate human glial and neuronal cell cultures to secrete early complement proteins, but not C1-inhibitor. Exp Neurol 160:289-299.
139. Veerhuis R, Van Breemen MJ, Hoozemans JM, Morbin M, Ouladhadj J, Tagliavini F, Eikelenboom P. 2003. Amyloid beta plaque-associated proteins C1q and SAP enhance the Abeta1-42 peptide-induced cytokine secretion by adult human microglia in vitro. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 105:135-144.
140. Vila M, Jackson-Lewis V, Guegan C, Wu DC, Teismann P, Choi DK, Tieu K, Przedborski S. 2001. The role of glial cells in Parkinson's disease. Curr Opin Neurol 14:483-489.
141. Walker DG. 1998. Expression and regulation of complement C1q by human THP-1-derived macrophages. Mol Chem Neuropathol 34:197-218.
142. Walker DG, Kim SU, McGeer PL. 1995. Complement and cytokine gene expression in cultured microglia derived from postmortem human brains. J Neurosci Res 40:478-493.
143. Walker DG, Lue LF, Beach TG. 2001. Gene expression profiling of amyloid beta peptide-stimulated human post-mortem brain microglia. Neurobiol Aging 22:957-966.
144. Walker DG, Lue LF, Beach TG. 2002. Increased expression of the urokinase plasminogen-activator receptor in amyloid beta peptide-treated human brain microglia and in AD brains. Brain Res 926:69-79.
145. Walker DG, Yasuhara O, Patston PA, McGeer EG, McGeer PL. 1995c. Complement C1 inhibitor is produced by brain tissue and is cleaved in Alzheimer disease. Brain Res 675:75-82.
146. Wang Q, Rowan MJ, Anwyl R. 2004. Beta-amyloid-mediated inhibition of NMDA receptor-dependent long-term potentiation induction involves activation of microglia and stimulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase and superoxide. J Neurosci 24:6049-6056.
147. Wang X, Kim SU, van Breemen C, McLarnon JG. 2000. Activation of purinergic P2X receptors inhibits P2Y-mediated Ca2+ influx in human microglia. Cell Calcium 27:205-212.
148. Washington RA, Becher B, Balabanov R, Antel J, Dore-Duffy P. 1996. Expression of the activation marker urokinase plasminogen-activator receptor in cultured human central nervous system microglia. J Neurosci Res 45:392-399.
149. Weggen S, Eriksen JL, Sagi SA, Pietrzik CU, Golde TE, Koo EH. 2003a. Abeta42-lowering nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs preserve intramembrane cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and ErbB-4 receptor and signaling through the APP intracellular domain. J Biol Chem 278:30748-30754.
150. Weggen S, Eriksen JL, Sagi SA, Pietrzik CU, Ozols V, Fauq A, Golde TE, Koo EH. 2003b. Evidence that nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs decrease amyloid beta 42 production by direct modulation of gamma-secretase activity. J Biol Chem 278:31831-31837.
151. Williams K, Bar-Or A, Ulvestad E, Olivier A, Antel JP, Yong VW. 1992. Biology of adult human microglia in culture: comparisons with peripheral blood monocytes and astrocytes. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 51:538-549.
152. Williams K, Dooley N, Ulvestad E, Becher B, Antel JP. 1996. IL-10 production by adult human derived microglial cells. Neurochem Int 29:55-64.
153. Williams K, Ulvestad E, Antel J. 1994a. Immune regulatory and effector properties of human adult microglia studies in vitro and in situ. Adv Neuroimmunol 4:273-281.
154. Williams K, Ulvestad E, Waage A, Antel JP, McLaurin J. 1994b. Activation of adult human derived microglia by myelin phagocytosis in vitro. J Neurosci Res 38:433-443.
155. Wilms H, Rosenstiel P, Sievers J, Deuschl G, Zecca L, Lucius R. 2003.
156. Wright GJ, Cherwinski H, Foster-Cuevas M, Brooke G, Puklavec MJ, Bigler M, Song Y, Jenmalm M, Gorman D, McClanahan T, Liu MR, Brown MH, Sedgwick JD, Phillips JH, Barclay AN. 2003. Characterization of the CD200 receptor family in mice and humans and their interactions with CD200. J Immunol 171:3034-3046.
157. Xie Z, Wei M, Morgan TE, Fabrizio P, Han D, Finch CE, Longo VD. 2002. Peroxynitrite mediates neurotoxicity of amyloid beta-peptide1-42-and lipopolysaccharide-activated microglia. J Neurosci 22:3484-3492.
158. Yan SD, Roher A, Schmidt AM, Stern D. 1999. Cellular cofactors for amyloid β-peptide-induced cell stress. Am J Pathol 155:1403-1411.
159. Yan SD, Zhu H, Fu J, Yan SF, Roher A, Tourtellotte WW, Rajavashisth T, Chen X, Godman GC, Stern D, Schmidt AM. 1997. Amyloid-beta peptide-receptor for advanced glycation endproduct interaction elicits neuronal expression of macrophage-colony stimulating factor: a proinflammatory pathway in Alzheimer disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94:5296-5301.
160. Yan SD, Chen X, Fu J, Chen M, Zhu H, Roher A, Slattery T, Zhao L, Nagashima M, Morser J, Migheli A, Nawroth P, Stern D, Schmidt AM. 1996. RAGE and amyloid-beta peptide neurotoxicity in Alzheimer's disease. Nature 382:685-691.
161. Yong VW, Antel JP. 2001. Culture of glial cells from human brain biopsies. In: Fedoroff S, Richardson A, editors. Protocols for neural cell culture. Totawa, NJ: Humana Press, p 129-139.
162. Yoo AS, McLarnon JG, Xu RL, Lee YB, Krieger C, Kim SU. 1996. Effects of phorbol ester on intracellular Ca2+ and membrane currents in cultured human microglia. Neurosci Lett 218:37-40.
163. Younkin SG. 2001. Amyloid beta vaccination: reduced plaques and improved cognition. Nat Med 7:18-19.
164. Zhang L, McLarnon JG, Goghari V, Lee YB, Kim SU, Krieger C. 1998. Cholinergic agonists increase intracellular Ca24+ in cultured human microglia. Neurosci Lett 255:33-36.
165. Zhao ML, Liu JS, He D, Dickson DW, Lee SC. 1998. Inducible nitric oxide synthase expression is selectively induced in astrocytes isolated from adult human brain. Brain Res 813:402-405.