Orexins and appetite regulation

Neuropeptides

Volumn 36, Issue 5, 2002, Pages 303-325

  Rodgers, R John ^a   Ishii, Y ^a   Halford, J C G ^b   Blundell, J E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

1 (2 METHYL 6 BENZOXAZOLYL) 3 (1,5 NAPHTHYRIDIN 4 YL)UREA; 1 (2 METHYLBENZOXAZOL 6 YL) 3 [1,5]NAPHTHYRIDIN 4 YLUREA; NEUROPEPTIDE; OREXIN; OREXIN 1 RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; OREXIN A; OREXIN B; RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; SEROTONIN; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ALERTNESS; AROUSAL; BEHAVIOR; BIOCHEMISTRY; CLUSTER ANALYSIS; DRUG EFFECT; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM; FEEDING BEHAVIOR; FOOD INTAKE; FORAGING; GROOMING; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; HYPOTHALAMUS; INGESTION; INSULIN RELEASE; KNOCKOUT GENE; LOCOMOTION; MASTICATION; MEAL; MEDICAL LITERATURE; MEDICAL RESEARCH; MESENCEPHALON; NEUROANATOMY; NEUROPHYSIOLOGY; NONHUMAN; NUTRITION; ONSET AGE; PAIN THRESHOLD; PHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SATIETY; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SLEEP PATTERN;

ANIMALIA;

EID: 0036815815     PISSN: 01434179     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0143-4179(02)00085-9     Document Type: Review

References (166)

1. Ahima RS, Osei SY (2001) Molecular regulation of eating behavior: New insights and prospects for therapeutic strategies. Trends Molec Med 7: 205-213.
2. Alvarez CE, Sutcliffe JG (2002) Hypocretin is an early member of the incretin family. Neurosci Lett 324: 169-172.
3. Antin J, Gibbs J, Holt J, Young RC, Smith GP (1975) Cholecystokinin elicits the complete behavioral sequence of satiety in rats. J Comp Physiol Psychol 89: 748-760.
4. Arch JRS (2000) Orexins, feeding and the big picture. Br J Nutr 84: 1-4.
5. Arch JRS, Williams G, Wilson S (1999) Orexins and obesity. Neurosci News 2: 37-42.
6. Backberg M, Hervieu G, Wilson S, Meister B (2002) Orexin-receptor-1 (OX-R1) immunoreactivity in chemically identified neurons of the hypothalamus: Focus on orexin targets involved in control of food and water intake. Eur J Neurosci 15: 315-328.
7. Bandler R, Shipley MT (1994) Columnar organization in midbrain periaqueductal gray: Modules for emotional expression? Trends Neurosci 17: 379-389.
8. Barnett SA (1963) The Rat. A Study in Behaviour. Methuen, London.
9. Beck B (2000) Neuropeptides and obesity. Nutrition 16: 916-923.
10. Beck B (2001) KO's and organisation of peptidergic feeding behavior mechanisms. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 25: 143-158.
11. Beck B, Richy S, Stricker-Krongrad A (1999) Regulation of hypocretins/orexins and neuropeptide Y during leptin treatment, energy restriction and hyperphagia in rodents. Soc Neurosci Abstr 25: 214.9.
12. Bernardis LL, Bellinger LL (1996) The lateral hypothalamic area revisited: Ingestive behavior. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 20: 189-287.
13. Bindra D, Blond J (1958) A time sample method for measuring general activity and its components. Can J Psychol 12: 74-76.
14. Bingham S, Davey PT, Babbs AJ, Irving EA, Sammons MJ, Wyles M, Jeffrey P, Cutler L, Riba I, Johns A, Porter RA, Upton N, Hunter AJ, Parsons AA (2001) Orexin-A, an hypothalamic peptide with analgesic properties. Pain 92: 81-90.
15. Blanchard RJ, Yudko EB, Rodgers RJ, Blanchard DC (1993) Defense system psychopharmacology: An ethological approach to the pharmacology of fear and anxiety. Behav Brain Res 58: 155-165.
16. Blundell JE (1977) Is there a role for 5-HT (5-hydroxytryptamine) in feeding? Int J Obesity 1: 15-42.
17. Blundell JE (1986) Serotonin manipulations and the structure of feeding behaviour. Appetite 7: 39-56.
18. Blundell JE, Goodson S, Halford JCG (2001) Regulation of appetite: Role of leptin in signalling systems for drive and satiety. Int J Obesity 25 (Suppl 1): S29-534.
19. Blundell JE, Latham CJ (1979) Serotonergic influences on food intake: Effect of 5-HT on parameters of feeding behaviour in deprived and free-feeding rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 11: 431-437.
20. Bolles RC (1960) Grooming behavior in the rat. J Comp Physiol Psychol 53: 306-310.
21. Bray GA (2000) Afferent signals regulating food intake. Proc Nutr 59: 373-384.
22. Briski KP, Sylvester PW (2001) Hypothalamic orexin-A-immunopositive neurons express Fos in response to central glucopenia. Neuroendocrinology 12: 531-534.
23. Broberger C, de Lecca L, Sutcliffe JG, Hokfelt T (1998) Hypocretin/orexin- and melanocortin-concentrating hormone-expressing cells form distinct populations in the rodent lateral hypothalamus: Relationship to the neuropeptide Y and agouti gene-related protein systems. J Comp Neurol 402: 460-474.
24. Brown RE, Sergeeva O, Eriksson KS, Haas HL (2001) Orexin-A excites serotonergic neurons in the dorsal raphe nucleus of the rat. Neuropharmacology 40: 457-459.
25. Cai XJ, Evans ML, Lister CA, Leslie RA, Arch JRS, Wilson S, Williams G (2001) Hypoglycaemia activates orexin neurons and selectively increases hypothalamic orexin-B levels. Responses inhibited by feeding and possibly mediated by the nucleus of the solitary tract. Diabetes 50: 105-112.
26. Cai XJ, Liu XH, Evans M, Clapham JC, Wilson S, Arch JRS, Morris R, Williams G (2002) Orexins and feeding: Special occasions or everyday occurrence? Regul Pept 104: 1-9.
27. Cai XJ, Widdowson PS, Harrold J, Wilson S, Buckingham RE, Arch JRS, Tadayyon M, Clapham JC, Wilding J, Williams G (1999) Hypothalamic orexin expression: Modulation by blood glucose and feeding. Diabetes 48: 2132-2137.
28. Carpino PA (2000) Patent focus on new anti-obesity agents: September 1999 - February 2000. Exp Opin Ther Patents 10: 819-831.
29. Chamorro S, Della-Zuana O, Fauchere J-L, Feletou M, Galizzi J-P, Levels N (2002) Appetite suppression based on selective inhibition of NPY receptors. Int J Obesity 26: 281-298.
30. Chiesi M, Huppertz C, Hofbauer KG (2001) Pharmacotherapy of obesity: Targets and perspectives. Trends Pharmacol Sci 22: 247-254.
31. Clapham JC, Arch JRS, Tadayyon M (2001) Anti-obesity drugs: A critical review of current therapies and future opportunities. Pharm Ther 89: 81-121.
32. Clifton PG (2000) Meal patterning in rodents: Psychopharmacological and neuroanatomical studies. Neurosci Biobehav Revs 24: 213-222.
33. 1A receptor immunoreactivity in hypothalamic neurons involved in body weight control. NeuroReport 13: 945-951.
34. Collins P, Williams G (2001) Drug treatment of obesity: From past failures to future successes? Brit J Clin Pharmacol 51: 13-25.
35. Crawley JN (2000) What's Wrong with My Mouse? Wiley-Liss, New York.
36. Cutler DJ, Morris R, Sheridhar V, Wattam TAK, Holmes S, Patel S, Arch JRS, Wilson S, Buckingham RE, Evans ML, Leslie RA, Williams G (1999) Differential distribution of orexin-A and orexin-B immunoreactivity in the rat brain and spinal cord. Peptides 20: 1455-1470.
37. Date Y, Mondal MA, Matsuhura S, Ueta Y, Yamashita H, Kaiya H, Kangawa K, Nakazato M (2000) Distribution of orexin/hypocretin in the rat median eminence and pituitary. Mol Brain Res 76: 1-6.
38. Date Y, Ueta Y, Yamashita H, Yamaguchi H, Matsukura S, Kangawa K, Sakurai T, Yanagisawa M, Nakazato M (1999) Orexins, orexigenic hypothalamic peptides interact with autonomic, neuroendocrine and neuroregulatory systems. Proc Natl Acad Soc USA 96: 748-753.
39. de Lecea L, Kilduff TS, Peyron C, Gao X-B, Foye PE, Danielson PE, Fukuhara C, Battenberg ELF, Gautvik VT, Bartlett FS, Frankel WN, van den Pol AN, Bloom FE, Gautvik KM, Sutcliffe JG (1998) The hypocretins: Hypothalamus-specific peptides with neuroexcitatory activity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95: 322-327.
40. Dhillo WS, Bloom SR (2001) Hypothalamic peptides as drug targets for obesity. Curr Opin Pharmacol 1: 651-655.
41. Dourish CT (1999) New frontiers in obesity research. Neurosci News 2: 4.
42. Dube MG, Horvath TL, Kalra PS, Kalra SP (2000) Evidence of NPY Y5 receptor involvement in food intake elicited by orexin-A in sated rats. Peptides 21: 1557-1560.
43. Dube MG, Kalra SP, Kalra PS (1999) Food intake elicited by central administration of orexins/hypocretins: Identification of hypothalamic sites of action. Brain Res 842: 473-477.
44. Dun NJ, Dun SL, Chen C-T, Hwang LL, Kwok EH, Chang J-K (2000) Orexins: A role in medullary sympathetic outflow. Regul Pept 96: 65-70.
45. 2C receptor involvement. Psychopharmacology 153: 203-209.
46. Dyer CJ, Touchette KJ, Carroll JA, Allee GL, Matteri RJ (1999) Cloning of porcine prepro-orexin cDNA and effects of an intramuscular injection of synthetic porcine orexin-B on feed intake in young pigs. Domest Anim Endocrinol 16: 145-148.
47. Edwards CMB, Abusnana S, Sunter D, Murphy KG, Ghatel MA, Bloom SR (1999) The effect of orexins on food intake: Comparison with neuropeptide Y, melanin-concentrating hormone and galanin. J Endocrinol 160: R7-R12.
48. Elias CF, Saper CB, Maratos-Flier E, Tritos NA, Lee C, Kelly J, Tatro JB, Hoffmann GE, Ollmann MM, Barsh GS, Sakurai T, Yanagisawa M, Elmquist JK (1998) Chemically defined projections linking the mediobasal hypothalamus and the lateral hypothalamus. J Comp Neurol 402: 442-459.
49. Espana RA, Plahn S, Berridge CW (2002). Circadian-dependent and circadian-independent behavioral actions of hypcretin/orexin. Brain Res 943: 224-236.
50. Fadel J, Deutch AY (2002) Anatomical substrates of orexin-dopamine interactions: Lateral hypothalamic projections to the ventral tegmental area. Neuroscience 111: 379-387.
51. Finer N (1999) Obesity: The need for new therapies. Neurosci News 2: 5-11.
52. Friedman JM, Halaas JL (1998) Leptin and the regulation of bodyweight. Nature 372: 425-432.
53. Funahashi H, Hori T, Shimoda Y, Mizushima H, Ryushi T, Katoh S, Shioda S (2000) Morphological evidence for neural interactions between leptin and orexin in the hypothalamus. Regul Pept 92: 31-35.
54. Gehlert DR (1999) Role of hypothalamic neuropeptide Y in feeding and obesity. Neuropeptides 33: 329-338.
55. Greco MA, Shiromani PJ (2001) Hypocretin receptor protein and mRNA expression in the dorsolateral pons of rats. Molec Brain Res 88: 176-182.
56. Griffond B, Risold PY, Jacquemard C, Colard C, Fellman D (1999) Insulin-induced hypoglycemia increases prehypocretin (orexin) mRNA in the rat lateral hypothalamic area. Neurosci Lett 262: 77-80.
57. Guan J-L, Saotome T, Wang Q-P, Funahashi H, Hori T, Tanaka S, Shioda S (2001) Orexinergic innervation of POMC-containing neurons in the rat arcuate nucleus. NeuroReport 12: 547-551.
58. Hagan JJ, Leslie RA, Patel S, Evans ML, Wattam TA, Holmes S, Benham CD, Taylor SG, Routledge C, Hemmati P, Munton RP, Ashmeade TE, Shah AS, Hatcher JP, Hatcher PD, Jones DNC, Smith MI, Piper DC, Hunter AJ, Porter RA, Upton N (1999) Orexin A activates locus coeruleus cell firing and increases arousal in the rat. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96: 10911-10916.
59. Halford JCG, Wanninayake SCD, Blundell JE (1998) Behavioral satiety sequence (BSS) for the diagnosis of drug action on food intake. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 61: 159-168.
60. Hara J, Beuckmann CT, Nambu T, Willie JT, Chemelli RM, Sinton CM, Sugiyama F, Yagami K-I, Goto K, Yanagisawa M, Sakurai T (2001) Genetic ablation of orexin neurons in mice results in narcolepsy, hypophagia, and obesity. Neuron 30: 345-354.
61. Haynes AC, Chapman H, Taylor C, Moore GBT, Cawthorne MA, Clapham JC, Arch JRS (2002) Anorectic, thermogenic and anti-obesity activity of a selective orexin-1 receptor antagonist in ob/ob mice. Regul Pept 104: 153-159.
62. Haynes AC, Jackson B, Chapman H, Tadayyon M, Johns A, Porter RA, Arch JRS (2000) A selective orexin-1 receptor antagonist reduces food consumption in male and female rats. Regul Pept 96: 45-51.
63. Haynes AC, Jackson B, Overend P, Buckingham RE, Wilson S, Tadayyon M, Arch JRS (1999) Effects of single and chronic intracerebroventricular administration of the orexins on feeding in the rat. Peptides 20: 1099-1105.
64. Hervieu GJ, Cluderay JE, Harrison DC, Roberts JC, Leslie RA (2001) Gene expression and protein distribution of the orexin-1 receptor in the rat brain and spinal cord. Neuroscience 103: 777-797.
65. Hewitt KN, Lee MD, Dourish CT, Clifton PG (2002) Serotonin 2C receptor agonists and the behavioural satiety sequence in mice. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 71: 691-700.
66. Horst GJT, de Boer P, Luiten PGM, van Willingen JD (1989) Ascending projections from the solitary tract nucleus to the hypothalamus: A phaseolus vulgaris lectin tracing study in the rat. Neuroscience 31: 785-797.
67. Horvath TL, Diano S, van den Pol AN (1999) Synpatic interaction between hypocretin (orexin) and neuropeptide Y cells in the rodent and primate hypothalamus: A novel circuit implicated in metabolic and endocrine regulations. J Neurosci 19: 1072-1087.
68. Hungs M, Mignot E (2001) Hypocretin/orexin, sleep and narcolepsy. BioEssays 23: 397-408.
69. Ida T, Nakahara K, Katayama T, Murakami N, Nakazato M (1999) Effect of lateral cerebroventricular injection of the appetite-stimulating neuropeptides, orexin and neuropeptide Y, on the various behavioral activities of rats. Brain Res 821: 526-529.
70. Ida T, Nakahara K, Kuroiwa T, Fukui K, Nakazato M, Murakami T, Murakami N (2000) Both corticotropin releasing factor and neuropeptide Y are involved in the effect of orexin (hypocretin) on the food intake in rats. Neurosci Lett 293: 119-122.
71. Inui A (1999) Feeding and body-weight regulation by hypothalamic neuropeptides - Mediation of the actions of leptin. Trends Neurosci 22: 62-67.
72. Inui A (2000) Transgenic approach to the study of body weight regulation. Pharmacol Rev 52: 35-62.
73. Jain MR, Horvath TL, Kalra PS, Kalra SP (2000) Evidence that NPY Y1 receptors are involved in stimulation of feeding by orexins (hypocretins) in sated rats. Regul Pept 87: 19-24.
74. Jones DNC, Garlton J, Parker F, Taylor SG, Routledge C, Hemmati P, Munton RP, Ashmeade TE, Hatcher JP, Johns A, Porter RA, Hagan JJ, Hunter AJ, Upton N (2001) Effects of centrally administered orexin-B and orexin-A: A role for orexin-1 receptors in orexin-B-induced hyperactivity. Psychopharmacology 153: 210-218.
75. Kalra SP (1997) Appetite and body weight regulation: Is it all in the brain? Neuron 19: 227-230.
76. Kalra SP, Dube MG, Pu S, Xu B, Horvath TL, Kalra P (1999) Interacting appetite-regulating pathways in the hypothalamic regulation of body weight. Endocr Rev 20: 68-100.
77. Kavaliers M, Choleris E (2001) Antipredator responses and defensive behavior: Ecological and ethological approaches for the neurosciences. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 25: 577-586.
78. Keay KA, Bandler R (2001) Parallel circuits mediating distinct emotional coping reactions to different types of stress. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 25: 669-678.
79. Kopelman PG (2000) Obesity as a medical problem. Nature 404: 635-643.
80. Kotz CM, Teske JA, Levine JA, Wang CF (2001) Feeding and activity induced by orexin-A in the lateral hypothalamus in rats. Regu Pept 104: 27-32.
81. Kirchgessner AL (2002) Orexins in the brain-gut axis. Endocr Rev 23: 1-15.
82. Kirchgessner AL, Liu M-T (1999) Orexin synthesis and response in the gut. Neuron 24: 41-951.
83. Kunii K, Yamanaka A, Nambu T, Matsuzaki I, Goto K, Sakurai T (1999) Orexins/hypocretins regulate drinking behaviour. Brain Res 842: 256-261.
84. Kuru M, Ueta Y, Serino R, Nakazato M, Yamamoto Y, Shibuya I, Yamashita H (2000) Centrally administered orexin/hypocretin activates HPA axis in rats. NeuroReport 11: 1977-1980.
85. Lambert PD, Couceyro PR, McGirr KM, Dall Vechia SE, Smith Y, Kuhar MJ (1998) CART peptides in the central control of feeding and interactions with neuropeptide Y. Synapse 29: 293-298.
86. Lawrence CB, Turnbull AV, Rothwell NJ (1999) Hypothalamic control of feeding. Curr Opin Neurobiol 9: 778-783.
87. Lima SL (1998) Stress and decision-making under the risk of predation: Recent developments from behavioural, reproductive and ecological perspectives. Adv Study Behav 27: 215-290.
88. Lin Y, Matsumura K, Tsuchihashi T, Lida M (2002) Chronic central infusion of orexin-A increases arterial pressure in rats. Brain Res Bull 57: 619-622.
89. Lopez M, Senaris R, Gallego R, Garcia-Caballero T, Lago F, Seoane L, Casaneuva F, Dieguez C (1999) Orexin receptors are expressed in the adrenal medulla of the rat. Endocrinology 140: 5991-5994.
90. Lopez M, Seoane L, del Carmen Garcia M, Dieguez C, Seanaris R (2002). Neuropeptide-Y, but not agouti-related peptide or melanin-concentrating hormone, is a target peptide for orexin-A feeding actions in the rat hypothalamus. Neuroendocrinology 75: 34-44.
91. Lopez M, Seoane L, del Carmen Garcia M, Lago F, Casanueva FF, Senaris R, Dieguez C (2000) Leptin regulation of prepro-orexin and orexin receptor mRNA in the hypothalamus. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 269: 41-45.
92. Lu X-Y, Bagnol D, Burke S, Akil H, Watson SJ (2000) Differential distribution and regulation of orexin-1 and orexin2/hypocretin receptor messenger RNA in the brain upon fasting. Horm Behav 37: 335-344.
93. Lubkin M, Stricker-Krongrad A (1998) Independent feeding and metabolic actions of orexins in mice. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 253: 241-245.
94. Luo P, Moritani M, Dessem D (2001) Jaw-muscle spindle afferent pathways to the trigeminal motor nucleus in the rat. J Comp Neurol 435: 341-353.
95. Macdonald IA (2000) Obesity: Are we any closer to identiying causes and effective treatments? Trends Pharmacol Sci 21: 334-336.
96. Mantzoros CS (1999) The role of leptin in human obesity and disease: A review of current evidence. Ann Intern Med 130: 671-680.
97. Marcus JN, Aschkenasi CJ, Lee CE, Chemelli RM, Saper CB, Yanagisawa M, Elmquist JK (2001) Differential expression of orexin receptors 1 and 2 in the rat brain. J Comp Neurol 435: 6-25.
98. Marsh DJ, Hollopeter G, Huszar D, Laufer R, Yagaloff KA, Fisher SL, Burn P, Palmiter RD (1999) Response of melanocortin-4 receptor-deficient mice to anorectic and orexigenic peptides. Nat Genet 21: 119-122.
99. Matsuzaki I, Sakurai T, Kunii K, Nakamura T, Yanagisawa M, Goto K (2001) Involvement of the serotonergic system in orexin-induced behavioral alterations in rats. Regul Pept 104: 119-123.
100. McIntyre AM (1998) Burden of illness review of obesity: Are the true costs realised? J R Soc Health 118: 76-84.
101. Mercer JG, Speakman JR (2001) Hypothalamic neuropeptide mechanisms for regulating energy balance: From rodent models to human obesity. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 25: 101-116.
102. Mieda M, Yanagisawa M (2002) Sleep, feeding, and neuropeptides: Roles of orexins and orexin receptors. Curr Opin Neurobiol 12: 339-345.
103. Mogenson GJ, Stevenson JA (1967) Drinking induced by electrical stimulation of the lateral hypothalamus. Exp Neurol 17: 119-127.
104. Mondal MS, Nakazato M, Date Y, Murakami N, Yanagisawa M, Matsukura S (1999) Widespread distribution of orexin in rat brain and its regulation upon fasting. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 256: 495-499.
105. Moore RY, Speh JC, van den Pol AN (1998) Hypocretin localization in the human hypothalamus. Soc Neurosci Abstr 24: 762.1.
106. Moriguchi T, Sakurai T, Nambu T, Yanagisawa M, Goto K (1999) Neurons containing orexin in the lateral hypothalamic area of the adult rat brain are activated by insulin-induced hypoglycemia. Neurosci Lett 264: 101-104.
107. Mullett MA, Billington CJ, Levine AS, Kotz CM (2000) Hypocretin 1 in the lateral hypothalamus activates key feeding-regulatory brain sites. NeuroReport 11: 103-108.
108. Nakamura T, Uramura K, Nambu T, Yada T, Goto K, Yanagisawa M, Sakurai T (2000) Orexin-induced hyperlocomotion and sterotypy are mediated by the dopaminergic system. Brain Res 873: 181-187.
109. Nambu T, Sakurai T, Mizukami K, Hosoya Y, Yanagisawa M, Goto K (1999) Distribution of orexin neurons in the adult rat brain. Brain Res 827: 243-260.
110. Niimi M, Sato M, Taminato T (2001) Neuropeptide Y in central control of feeding and interactions with orexin and leptin. Endocrine 14: 269-273.
111. Nowak KW, Mackowiak P, Switonska MM, Fabis M, Malendowicz LK (2000) Acute orexin effects on insulin secretion in the rat: In vivo and in vitro studies. Life Sci 66: 449-454.
112. Oltmans GA, Harvey JA (1976) Lateral hypothalamic syndrome in rats: A comparison of the behavioral and neurochemical effects of lesions placed in the lateral hypothalamus and nigrostriatal bundle. J Comp Physiol Psychol 90: 1051-1062.
113. Oomura Y (1980) Input-output organisation in the hypothalamus relating to food intake behavior. In: Physiology of the Hypothalamus. Morgane PJ, Panksepp J, (eds). Handbook of the Hypothalamus, vol. 2. Marcel Dekker, New York pp. 557-620.
114. Orlando G, Brunetti L, Di Nisio C, Michelotto B, Recinella L, Ciabattoni G, Vacca M (2001) Effects of cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript peptide, leptin and orexins on hypothalamic serotonin release. Eur J Pharmacol 430: 269-272.
115. Overeem S, Lammers GJ, van Dijk JG (2002) Cataplexy: 'Tonic immobility' rather than 'REM-sleep atonia?' Sleep Med, in press.
116. Pavlov IP, Schumowa-Simanowskaja EO (1895) Beitrage zur physiologie der absonderungen die innervation der magenrusen beim hunde. Arch Anat Physiol (Lpz) Physiol Abt: 53-69.
117. Peyron C, Tighe DK, van den Pol AN, de Lecea L, Heller HC, Sutcliffe JG, Kilduff TS (1998) Neurons containing hypocretin (orexin) project to multiple neuronal systems. J Neurosci 18: 9996-10015.
118. Piper DC, Upton N, Smith MI, Hunter AJ (2000) The novel brain neuropeptide, orexin-A, modulates the sleep-wake cycle of rats. Eur J Neurosci 12: 726-730.
119. Porter RA, Chan WN, Coulton S, Johns A, Hadley MS, Widdowson K, Jerman JC, Brough SJ, Coldwell M, Smart D, Jewitt F, Jeffrey P, Austin N (2001) 1,3-Biarylureas as selective non-peptide antagonists of the orexin-1 receptor. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 11: 1907-1910.
120. Prescott-Clarke P, Primatesta P (1998) Health Survey for England 1996. HMSO, London.
121. Proietto J, Fam BC, Ainslie DA, Thorburn AW (2000) Novel anti-obesity drugs. Exp Opin Invest Drugs 9: 1317-1326.
122. Rauch M, Riediger T, Schmid HA, Simon E (2000) Orexin-A activates leptin-responsive neurons in the arcuate nucleus. Pflugers Arch-Eur J Physiol 440: 699-703.
123. Rodgers RJ, Halford JCG, Nunes de Souza RL, Canto de Souza AL, Piper DC, Arch JRS, Blundell JE (2000) Dose-response effects of orexin-A on food intake and the behavioural satiety sequence in rats. Regul Pept 96: 71-84.
124. Rodgers RJ, Halford JCG, Nunes de Souza RL, Canto de Souza AL, Piper DC, Arch JRS, Upton N, Porter RA, Johns A, Blundell JE (2001) SB-334867, a selective orexin-1 receptor antagonist, enhances behavioural satiety and blocks the hyperphagic effect of orexin-A in rats. Eur J Neurosci 13: 1444-1452.
125. Rodgers RJ, Haller J, Holmes A, Halasz J, Walton TJ, Brain PF (1999) Corticosterone response to the plus-maze: High correlation with risk assessment in rats and mice. Physiol Behav 68: 47-53.
126. Sahu A (2002) Interactions of neuropeptide, Y., hypocretin-I orexin-A and melanin-concentrating hormone on feeding in rats. Brain Res 944: 232-238.
127. Sakurai T (1999) Orexins and orexin receptors: Implication in feeding behavior. Regul Pept 85: 25-30.
128. Sakurai T (2002) Roles of orexins in regulation of feeding and wakefulness. NeuroReport 13: 987-995.
129. Sakurai T, Amemiya A, Ishii M, Matsuzaki I, Chemelli RM, Tanaka H, Williams SC, Richardson JA, Kozlowski GP, Wilson S, Arch JRS, Buckingham RE, Haynes AC, Carr SA, Annan RS, McNulty DE, Liu W-S, Terrett JA, Elshourbagy NA, Bergsma DJ, Yanagiswa M (1998) Orexins and orexin receptors: A family of hypothalamic neuropeptides and G protein-coupled receptors that regulate feeding. Cell 92: 573-585.
130. Sakurai T, Moriguchi T, Furuya K, Kajiwara N, Nakamura T, Yanagisawa M, Goto K (1999) Structure and function of human prepro-orexin gene. J Biol Chem 274: 17771-17776.
131. Salton SRJ, Hahm S, Mizuno TM (2000) Of mice and men: What transgenic models tell us about hypothalamic control of energy balance. Neuron 25: 265-268.
132. Samson WK, Gosnell B, Chang J-K, Resch ZT, Murphy TC (1999) Cardiovascular regulatory actions of the hypocretins in brain. Brain Res 831: 248-253.
133. Schwartz MW, Woods SC, Porte D, Seeley RJ, Baskin DG (2000) Central nervous system control of food intake. Nature 404: 661-671.
134. Shibahara M, Sakurai T, Nambu T, Takenouchi T, Iwaasa H, Egashira S, Ihara M, Goto K (1999) Structure, tissue distribution, and pharmacological characterisation of Xenopus orexins. Peptides 20: 1169-1176.
135. Shiraishi T, Oomura Y, Sasaki K, Wayner MJ (2000) Effects of leptin and orexin-A on food intake and feeding related hypothalamic neurons. Physiol Behav 71: 251-261.
136. Shirasaka T, Miyahara S, Kunitake T, Jin Q-H, Kato K, Takasaki M, Kannan H (2001) Orexin depolarizes rat hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus neurons. Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol 281: R1114-R1118.
137. Shirasaka T, Nakazato M, Matsukura S, Takasaki M, Kannan H (1999) Sympathetic and cardiovascular actions of orexins in conscious rats. Am J Physiol 277: R1780-R1785.
138. Simansky KJ (1996) Serotonergic control of the organisation of feeding and satiety. Behav Brain Res 73: 37-42.
139. Smart D, Haynes AC, Williams G, Arch JRS (2002) Orexins and the treatment of obesity. Eur J Pharmacol 440: 199-212.
140. Smart D, Jerman JC, Brough SJ, Neville WA, Jewitt F, Porter RA (2000) The hypocretins are weak agonists at recombinant human orexin-1 and orexin-2 receptors. Br J Pharmacol 129: 1289-1291.
141. Smart D, Jerman JC, Brough SJ, Rushton SL, Murdock PR, Jewitt F, Elshourbagy NA, Ellis CE, Middlemiss DN, Brown F (1999) Characterisation of recombinant human orexin receptor pharmacology in a Chinese hamster ovary cell line using FLIPR. Br J Pharmacol 128: 1-3.
142. Smart D, Sabido-David C, Brough SJ, Jewitt F, Johns A, Porter RA, Jerman JC (2001) SB-334867-A: The first selective orexin-1 receptor antagonist. Br J Pharmacol 132: 1179-1182.
143. Smith JC (2000) Microstructure of the rat's intake of food, sucrose and saccharin in24-hour tests. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 24: 199-212.
144. Smith SL, Fraser DC, Needham AM, Jackson HC, Cheetham SC, Heal DJ (2000) Effect of central injection of anti-orexin1 receptor antibody on food intake in rats. Int J Obesity 24 (Suppl. 1): S37, 102.
145. Stellar E (1954) The physiology of motivation. Psychol Rec 61: 5-22.
146. Sunter D, Morgan I, Edwards CMB, Dakin CL, Murphy KG, Gariner J, Taheri S, Rayes E, Bloom SR (2001) Orexins: Effects on behavior and localisation of orexin receptor 2 messenger ribonucleic acid in the rat brainstem. Brain Res 907: 27-34.
147. Sutcliffe JG, de Lecea L (2002) The hypocretins: Setting the arousal threshold. Nat Rev Neurosci 3: 339-349.
148. Sweet DC, Levine AS, Billington CJ, Kotz CM (1999) Feeding response to central orexins. Brain Res 821: 535-538.
149. Taheri S, Mahmoodi M, Opacka-Juffry J, Ghatei MA, Bloom SR (1999) Distribution and quantification of orexin A in rat tissues. FEBS Lett 457: 157-161.
150. Takahashi N, Okumura T, Yamada H, Kohogo Y (1999) Stimulation of gastric acid secretion by centrally administered orexin-A in conscious rats. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 254: 623-627.
151. Trayhurn P (1999) Leptin: Much more than an anti-obesity hormone Neurosci News 2: 29-32.
152. Treves A (2000) Theory and method in studies of vigilance and aggregation. Anim Behav 60: 711-722.
153. Trivedi P, Yu H, MacNeil DJ, van der Ploeg LHT, Guan X-M (1998) Distribution of orexin receptor mRNA in the rat brain. FEBS Lett 438: 71-75.
154. Vergoni AV, Schioth HB, Bertolini A (2000) Melanocortins and feeding behavior. Biomed Pharmacother 54: 129-134.
155. Volkoff H, Bjorklund JM, Peter RE (1999) Stimulation of feeding behavior and food consumption in the goldfish, Carassius auratus, by orexin-A and orexin-B. Brain Res 846: 204-209.
156. Volkoff H, Peter RE (2000) Effects of CART peptides on food consumption, feeding and associated behaviors in the goldfish, Carassius auratus; actions on neuropeptide Y- and orexin-induced feeding. Brain Res 887: 125-133.
157. WHO (world Health Organization) (1998) Obesity-preventing and managing the global epidemic. Report of a WHO consultation on obesity. Geneva 3-5 June 1997.
158. Willie JT, Chemelli RM, Sinton CM, Yanagisawa M (2001) To eat or to sleep? Orexin in the regulation of feeding and wakefulness. Annu Rev Neurosci 24: 429-458.
159. Wolf AM, Colditz GA (1998) Current estimates of the economic costs of obesity in the United States. Obesity Res 6: 97-106.
160. Yamada H, Okumura T, Motomura W, Kobayashi Y, Kohgo Y (2000) Inhibition of food intake by central injection of anti-orexin antibody in rats. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 267: 527-531.
161. Yamamoto Y, Ueta Y, Serino R, Nomura M, Shibuya I, Yamashita H (2000) Effects of food restriction on the hypothalamic prepro-orexin gene expression in genetically obese mice. Brain Res Bull 51: 515-521.
162. Yamanaka A, Kunii K, Nambu T, Tsujino N, Sakai A, Matsuzaki I, Miwa Y, Goto K, Sakurai T (2000) Orexin-induced food intake involves neuropeptide Y pathway. Brain Res 859: 404-409.
163. Yamanaka A, Sakurai T, Katsumoto T, Yanagisawa M, Goto K (1999) Chronic intracerebroventricular administration of orexin-A to rats increases food intake in daytime, but has no effect on body weight. Brain Res 849: 248-252.
164. Yoshimichi G, Yoshimatsu H, Masaki T, Sakata T (2001) Orexin-A regulates body temperature in coordination with arousal status. Exp Biol Med 226: 468-476.
165. Zbigniew KK, Berthoud HR, Burmeister MA, Hornby PJ (2001) Orexin-A in the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus potently increases gastric motor function via orexin-1 receptor in rats. Gastroenterology 120 (Suppl 1): A113.
166. Zhang J, Luo P (2002) Orexin B immunoreactive fibers and terminals innervate the sensory and motor neurons of jaw-elevator muscles in the rat. Synapse 44: 106-110.