Cell Survival and Death in Rheumatic Diseases

Kelley's Textbook of Rheumatology: Volume 1-2, Ninth Edition

Volumn 1, Issue , 2012, Pages 382-399

  Elkon, Keith B ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85141484367     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-4377-1738-9.00027-X     Document Type: Chapter

References (255)

1. AH Wyllie, RG Morris, AL Smith and D Dunlop (1984) Chromatin cleavage in apoptosis: association with condensed chromatin morphology and dependence on macromolecular synthesis. J Pathol 142 67-77
2. L Yu, A Alva, H Su, et al. (2004) Regulation of an ATG7-beclin 1 program of autophagic cell death by caspase-8. Science 304 1500-1502
3. X Qu, J Yu, G Bhagat, et al. (2003) Promotion of tumorigenesis by heterozygous disruption of the beclin 1 autophagy gene. J Clin Invest 112 1809-1820
4. JJ Lum, DE Bauer, M Kong, et al. (2005) Growth factor regulation of autophagy and cell survival in the absence of apoptosis. Cell 120 237-248
5. E Duvall and AH Wyllie (1986) Death and the cell. Immunol Today 7 115
6. M Leist, B Single, AF Castoldi, et al. (1997) Intracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP) concentration: a switch in the decision between apoptosis and necrosis. J Exp Med 185 1481-1486
7. L Aravind, VM Dixit and EV Koonin (1999) The domains of death: evolution of the apoptosis machinery. Trends Biochem Sci 24 47-53
8. B Huang, M Eberstadt, E Olejniczak, et al. (1996) NMR structure and mutagenesis of the Fas (APO-1/CD95) death domain. Nature 384 638-641
9. S Nagata (1997) Apoptosis by death factor. Cell 88 355-365
10. R Black, C Rauch, C Kozlosky, et al. (1997) A metalloproteinase disintegrin that releases tumor necrosis factor-α from cells. Nature 385 729-733
11. M Moss, S-LC Jin, M Milla, et al. (1997) Cloning of a disintegrin metalloproteinase that processes precursor tumor necrosis factor-α. Nature 385 733-736
12. ME Peter, RC Budd, J Desbarats, et al. (2007) The CD95 receptor: apoptosis revisited. Cell 129 447-450
13. SE Lamhamedi-Cherradi, S Zheng, RM Tisch and YH Chen (2003) Critical roles of tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes 52 2274-2278
14. EC Wang, A Thern, A Denzel, et al. (2001) DR3 regulates negative selection during thymocyte development. Mol Cell Biol 21 3451-3461
15. CS Schmidt, J Liu, T Zhang, et al. (2003) Enhanced B cell expansion, survival, and humoral responses by targeting death receptor 6. J Exp Med 197 51-62
16. M Raff (1992) Social controls on cell survival and cell death. Nature 356 397-400
17. AJ Levine (1997) P53, the cellular gatekeeper for growth and division. Cell 88 323-331
18. H Zou, W Henzel, Z Liu, et al. (1997) Apaf-1, a human protein homologous to C. elegans CED-4, participates in cytochrome c-dependent activation of caspase 3. Cell 90 405-413
19. SA Susin, HK Lorenzo, N Zamzami, et al. (1999) Molecular characterization of mitochondrial apoptosis-inducing factor. Nature 397 441-446
20. SW Muchmore, M Sattler, H Liang, et al. (1996) X-ray and NMR structure of human Bcl-xL, an inhibitor of programmed cell death. Nature 381 335-341
21. M Los, S Wesselborg and K Schulze-Osthoff (1999) The role of caspases in development, immunity, and apoptotic signal transduction: lessons from knockout mice. Immunity 10 629-639
22. M Enari, H Sakahira, H Yokoyama, et al. (1998) A caspase-activated DNase that degrades DNA during apoptosis, and its inhibitor ICAD. Nature 391 43-50
23. H Sakahira, M Enari and S Nagata (1998) Cleavage of CAD inhibitor in CAD activation and DNA degradation during apoptosis. Nature 391 96-99
24. RE Ellis, DM Jacobson and R Horvitz (1991) Genes required for the engulfment of cell corpses during programmed cell death in Caenorhabditis elegans. Genetics 129 79-94
25. B Verhoven, RA Schlegel and P Williamson (1995) Mechanisms of phosphatidylserine exposure, a phagocyte recognition signal, on apoptotic T lymphocytes. J Exp Med 182 1597-1601
26. Y Ren, RL Silverstein, J Allen and J Savill (1995) CD36 gene transfer confers capacity for phagocytosis of cells undergoing apoptosis. J Exp Med 181 1857-1862
27. SJ Gardai, KA McPhillips, SC Frasch, et al. (2005) Cell-surface calreticulin initiates clearance of viable or apoptotic cells through trans-activation of LRP on the phagocyte. Cell 123 321-334
28. NC Franc, J-L Dimarcq, M Lagueux, et al. (1996) Croquemort, a novel Drosophila hemocyte/macrophage receptor that recognizes apoptotic cells. Immunity 4 431-443
29. J Savill, N Dransfield Hogg and C Haslett (1990) Vitronectin receptor-mediated phagocytosis of cells undergoing apoptosis. Nature 343 170-173
30. M-F Luciani and G Chimini (1996) The ATP binding cassette transporter, ABC1, is required for the engulfment of corpses generated by apoptotic cell death. EMBO J 15 226-235
31. A Devitt, OD Moffatt, C Raykundalia, et al. (1998) Human CD14 mediates recognition and phagocytosis of apoptotic cells. Nature 392 505-509
32. RE Voll, M Herrmann, EA Roth, et al. (1997) Immunosuppressive effects of apoptotic cells. Nature 390 350-351
33. M Bellone, G Iezzi, P Rovere, et al. (1997) Processing of engulfed apoptotic bodies yields T cell epitopes. J Immunol 159 5391-5399
34. TW Du Clos (1996) The interaction of C-reactive protein and serum amyloid P component with nuclear antigens. Molec Biol Rep 23 253-260
35. I Vermes, C Haanen, H Steffens-Nakken and C Reutelingsperger (1995) A novel assay for apoptosis: flow cytometric detection of phosphatidylserine expression on early apoptotic cells using fluorescein-labeled Annexin V. J Immunol Methods 184 39-51
36. I Nicoletti, G Migliorati, MC Pagliacci, et al. (1991) A rapid and simple method for measuring thymocytes apoptosis by propidium iodide staining and flow cytometry. J Immunol Methods 139 1173-1181
37. Y Gavrieli, Y Sherman and SA Ben-Sasson (1992) Identification of programmed cell death in situ via specific labeling of nuclear DNA fragmentation. J Cell Biol 119 493-501
38. M Kanoh, G Takemura, J Misao, et al. (1999) Significance of myocytes with positive DNA in situ nick end-labeling (TUNEL) in hearts with dilated cardiomyopathy: not apoptosis but DNA repair. Circulation 99 2757-2764
39. T Wrone-Smith, RS Mitra, CB Thompson, et al. (1997) Keratinocytes derived from psoriatic plaques are resistant to apoptosis compared with normal skin. Am J Pathol 151 1321-1329
40. SD Khare, I Sarosi, XZ Xia, et al. (2000) Severe B cell hyperplasia and autoimmune disease in TALL-1 transgenic mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 97 3370-3375
41. KM Hull, N Shoham, JJ Chae, et al. (2003) The expanding spectrum of systemic autoinflammatory disorders and their rheumatic manifestations. Curr Opin Rheumatol 15 61-69
42. BE Price, J Rauch, MA Shia, et al. (1996) Antiphospholipid autoantibodies bind to apoptotic, but not viable, thymocytes in a beta2-glycoprotein I-dependent manner. J Immunol 157 2201-2208
43. W Emlen, J-A Niebur and R Kadera (1994) Accelerated in vitro apoptosis of lymphocytes from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Immunol 152 3685-3692
44. A Perniok, F Wedekind, M Herrmann, et al. (1998) High levels of circulating early apoptotic peripheral blood mononuclear cells in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 7 113-118
45. M Napirei, H Karsunky, B Zevnik, et al. (2000) Features of systemic lupus erythematosus in Dnase1-deficient mice [see comments]. Nat Genet 25 177-181
46. MJ Cantwell, T Hua, NJ Zvaifler and TJ Kipps (1997) Deficient Fas ligand expression by synovial lymphocytes from patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 40 1644-1652
47. A Kawakami, K Eguchi, N Matsuoka, et al. (1996) Thyroid-stimulating hormone inhibits Fas antigen-mediated apoptosis of human thyrocytes in vitro. Endocrinology 137 3163-3169
48. M Tsuboi, K Eguchi, A Kawakami, et al. (1996) Fas antigen expression on synovial cells was downregulated by interleukin 1. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 218 280-285
49. M Salmon, D Scheel-Toellner, AP Huissoon, et al. (1997) Inhibition of T cell apoptosis in the rheumatoid synovium. J Clin Invest 99 439-446
50. PP Tak, TJ Smeets, DL Boyle, et al. (1999) P53 overexpression in synovial tissue from patients with early and longstanding rheumatoid arthritis compared with patients with reactive arthritis and osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum 42 948-953
51. K Fujisawa, H Asahara, K Okamoto, et al. (1996) Therapeutic effect of the anti-Fas antibody on arthritis in HTLV-1 tax transgenic mice. J Clin Invest 98 271-278
52. K Song, Y Chen, R Goke, et al. (2000) Tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) is an inhibitor of autoimmune inflammation and cell cycle progression. J Exp Med 191 1095-1104
53. K Ichikawa, W Liu, M Fleck, et al. (2003) TRAIL-R2 (DR5) mediates apoptosis of synovial fibroblasts in rheumatoid arthritis. J Immunol 171 1061-1069
54. S Ohsako and KB Elkon (1999) Apoptosis in the effector phase of autoimmune diabetes, multiple sclerosis and thyroiditis. Cell Death Differ 6 13-21
55. L Behrens, A Bender, MA Johnson and R Hohlfeld (1997) Cytotoxic mechanisms in inflammatory myopathies: co-expression of Fas and protective Bcl-2 in muscle fibres and inflammatory cells. Brain 120 929-938
56. T Sugiura, Y Murakawa, A Nagai, et al. (1999) Fas and Fas ligand interaction induces apoptosis in inflammatory myopathies: CD4+ T cells injury in polymyositis. Arthritis Rheum 42 291-298
57. OM Howard, HF Dong, D Yang, et al. (2002) Histidyl-tRNA synthetase and asparaginyl-tRNA synthetase, autoantigens in myositis, activate chemokine receptors on T lymphocytes and immature dendritic cells. J Exp Med 196 781-791
58. C Yang, SW Li, HJ Helminen, et al. (1997) Apoptosis of chondrocytes in transgenic mice lacking collagen II. Exp Cell Res 235 370-373
59. N Okahashi, M Koide, E Jimi, et al. (1998) Caspases (interleukin-1beta-converting enzyme family proteases) are involved in the regulation of the survival of osteoclasts. Bone 23 33-41
60. RL Jilka, RS Weinstein, T Bellido, et al. (1998) Osteoblast programmed cell death (apoptosis): modulation by growth factors and cytokines. J Bone Miner Res 13 793-802
61. D Wang, N Muller, KG McPherson and HM Reichardt (2006) Glucocorticoids engage different signal transduction pathways to induce apoptosis in thymocytes and mature T cells. J Immunol 176 1695-1702
62. AW Thomson, CA Bonham and A Zeevi (1995) Mode of action of tacrolimus (FK506): molecular and cellular mechanisms. Ther Drug Monit 17 584-591
63. A Anel, M Buferne, C Boyer, et al. (1994) T cell receptor-induced Fas ligand expression in cytotoxic T lymphocyte clones is blocked by protein tyrosine kinase inhibitors and cyclosporin A. Eur J Immunol 24 2469-2476
64. DR Cha, SM Feld, C Nast, et al. (1996) Apoptosis in mesangial cells induced by ionizing radiation and cytotoxic drugs. Kidney Int 50 1565-1571
65. PP Tak, PC Taylor, FC Breedveld, et al. (1996) Decrease in cellularity and expression of adhesion molecules by anti-tumor necrosis factor α monoclonal antibody treatments in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 39 1077-1081
66. A Lugering, M Schmidt, N Lugering, et al. (2001) Infliximab induces apoptosis in monocytes from patients with chronic active Crohn's disease by using a caspase-dependent pathway. Gastroenterology 121 1145-1157
67. JM Van den Brande, H Braat, GR van den Brink, et al. (2003) Infliximab but not etanercept induces apoptosis in lamina propria T-lymphocytes from patients with Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology 124 1774-1785
68. AI Catrina, C Trollmo, E af Klint, et al. (2005) Evidence that anti-tumor necrosis factor therapy with both etanercept and infliximab induces apoptosis in macrophages, but not lymphocytes, in rheumatoid arthritis joints: extended report. Arthritis Rheum 52 61-72
69. I Rodriguez, K Matsuura, C Ody, et al. (1996) Systemic injection of a tripeptide inhibits the intracellular activation of CPP32-like proteases in vivo and fully protects mice against Fas-mediated fulminant liver destruction and death. J Exp Med 184 2067-2072
70. M Karin and A Lin (2002) NF-kappaB at the crossroads of life and death. Nat Immunol 3 221-227
71. SR Datta, A Brunet and ME Greenberg (1999) Cellular survival: a play in three Akts. Genes Dev 13 2905-2927
72. G Majno and I Joris (1995) Apoptosis, oncosis, and necrosis: an overview of cell death. Am J Pathol 146 3-19
73. J Kerr, A Wyllie and A Currie (1972) Apoptosis: a basic biological phenomenon with wide-ranging implications in tissue kinetics. Br J Cancer 26 239-257
74. AH Wyllie, RG Morris, AL Smith and D Dunlop (1984) Chromatin cleavage in apoptosis: association with condensed chromatin morphology and dependence on macromolecular synthesis. J Pathol 142 67-77
75. H Ellis and H Horvitz (1986) Genetic control of programmed cell death in the nematode C. elegans. Cell 44 817-829
76. CB Thompson (1995) Apoptosis in the pathogenesis and treatment of disease. Science 267 1456-1462
77. RS Hotchkiss, A Strasser, JE McDunn and PE Swanson (2009) Cell death. N Engl J Med 361 1570-1583
78. L Yu, A Alva, H Su, et al. (2004) Regulation of an ATG7-beclin 1 program of autophagic cell death by caspase-8. Science 304 1500-1502
79. X Qu, J Yu, G Bhagat, et al. (2003) Promotion of tumorigenesis by heterozygous disruption of the beclin 1 autophagy gene. J Clin Invest 112 1809-1820
80. JJ Lum, DE Bauer, M Kong, et al. (2005) Growth factor regulation of autophagy and cell survival in the absence of apoptosis. Cell 120 237-248
81. B Levine and V Deretic (2007) Unveiling the roles of autophagy in innate and adaptive immunity. Nat Rev Immunol 7 767-777
82. HW Virgin and B Levine (2009) Autophagy genes in immunity. Nat Immunol 10 461-470
83. E Duvall and AH Wyllie (1986) Death and the cell. Immunol Today 7 115
84. M Leist, B Single, AF Castoldi, et al. (1997) Intracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP) concentration: a switch in the decision between apoptosis and necrosis. J Exp Med 185 1481-1486
85. J Craft (2011) Dissecting the immune cell mayhem that drives lupus pathogenesis. Sci Transl Med 3 73ps9
86. T Bergsbaken, SL Fink and BT Cookson (2009) Pyroptosis: host cell death and inflammation. Nat Rev Microbiol 7 99-109
87. AN Theofilopoulos (Ed.) (2006) Current directions in autoimmunity Basel: Karger
88. L Aravind, VM Dixit and EV Koonin (1999) The domains of death: evolution of the apoptosis machinery. Trends Biochem Sci 24 47-53
89. C Smith, T Farrah and R Goodwin (1994) The TNF receptor superfamily of cellular and viral proteins: activation, costimulation, and death. Cell 76 959-962
90. RM Locksley, N Killeen and MJ Lenardo (2001) The TNF and TNF receptor superfamilies: integrating mammalian biology. Cell 104 487-501
91. A Ashkenazi and VM Dixit (1999) Apoptosis control by death and decoy receptors. Curr Opin Cell Biol 11 255-260
92. B Huang, M Eberstadt, E Olejniczak, et al. (1996) NMR structure and mutagenesis of the Fas (APO-1/CD95) death domain. Nature 384 638-641
93. C Scaffidi, S Fulda, A Srinivasan, et al. (1998) Two CD95 (APO-1/Fas) signaling pathways. EMBO J 17 1675-1687
94. J Han, CQ Zhong and DW Zhang (2011) Programmed necrosis: backup to and competitor with apoptosis in the immune system. Nat Immunol 12 1143-1149
95. S Nagata (1997) Apoptosis by death factor. Cell 88 355-365
96. R Black, C Rauch, C Kozlosky, et al. (1997) A metalloproteinase disintegrin that releases tumor necrosis factor-α from cells. Nature 385 729-733
97. M Moss, S-LC Jin, M Milla, et al. (1997) Cloning of a disintegrin metalloproteinase that processes precursor tumor necrosis factor-α. Nature 385 733-736
98. KB Elkon and A Marshak-Rothstein (1996) B cells in systemic autoimmune disease: recent insights from Fas-deficient mice and men. Curr Opin Immunol 8 852-859
99. ME Peter, RC Budd, J Desbarats, et al. (2007) The CD95 receptor: apoptosis revisited. Cell 129 447-450
100. A Strasser, PJ Jost and S Nagata (2009) The many roles of FAS receptor signaling in the immune system. Immunity 30 180-192
101. SE Lamhamedi-Cherradi, S Zheng, RM Tisch and YH Chen (2003) Critical roles of tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes 52 2274-2278
102. EC Wang, A Thern, A Denzel, et al. (2001) DR3 regulates negative selection during thymocyte development. Mol Cell Biol 21 3451-3461
103. CS Schmidt, J Liu, T Zhang, et al. (2003) Enhanced B cell expansion, survival, and humoral responses by targeting death receptor 6. J Exp Med 197 51-62
104. M Raff (1992) Social controls on cell survival and cell death. Nature 356 397-400
105. AJ Levine (1997) P53, the cellular gatekeeper for growth and division. Cell 88 323-331
106. H Huang, KM Regan, Z Lou, et al. (2006) CDK2-dependent phosphorylation of FOXO1 as an apoptotic response to DNA damage. Science 314 294-297
107. G Kroemer and JC Reed (2000) Mitochondrial control of cell death. Nat Med 6 513-519
108. H Zou, W Henzel, Z Liu, et al. (1997) Apaf-1, a human protein homologous to C. elegans CED-4, participates in cytochrome c-dependent activation of caspase 3. Cell 90 405-413
109. SA Susin, HK Lorenzo, N Zamzami, et al. (1999) Molecular characterization of mitochondrial apoptosis-inducing factor. Nature 397 441-446
110. D Ron and P Walter (2007) Signal integration in the endoplasmic reticulum unfolded protein response. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 8 519-529
111. M Boyce and J Yuan (2006) Cellular response to endoplasmic reticulum stress: a matter of life or death. Cell Death Differ 13 363-373
112. GS Hotamisligil (2010) Endoplasmic reticulum stress and the inflammatory basis of metabolic disease. Cell 140 900-917
113. JM Adams and S Cory (1998) The Bcl-s protein family: arbiters of cell survival. Science 281 1322-1326
114. ZN Oltvai and SJ Korsmeyer (1994) Checkpoints of dueling dimers foil death wishes. Cell 79 189-192
115. SW Muchmore, M Sattler, H Liang, et al. (1996) X-ray and NMR structure of human Bcl-xL, an inhibitor of programmed cell death. Nature 381 335-341
116. PD Mace, S Shirley and CL Day (2010) Assembling the building blocks: structure and function of inhibitor of apoptosis proteins. Cell Death Differ 17 46-53
117. QL Deveraux and JC Reed (1999) IAP family proteins—suppressors of apoptosis. Genes Dev 13 239-252
118. J Downward (2004) PI 3-kinase, Akt and cell survival. Semin Cell Dev Biol 15 177-182
119. NA Thornberry and Y Lazebnik (1998) Caspases: enemies within. Science 281 1312-1316
120. M Los, S Wesselborg and K Schulze-Osthoff (1999) The role of caspases in development, immunity, and apoptotic signal transduction: lessons from knockout mice. Immunity 10 629-639
121. M Garcia-Calvo, EP Peterson, B Leiting, et al. (1998) Inhibition of human caspases by peptide-based and macrophage inhibitors. J Biol Chem 273 32608-32613
122. M Enari, H Sakahira, H Yokoyama, et al. (1998) A caspase-activated DNase that degrades DNA during apoptosis, and its inhibitor ICAD. Nature 391 43-50
123. H Sakahira, M Enari and S Nagata (1998) Cleavage of CAD inhibitor in CAD activation and DNA degradation during apoptosis. Nature 391 96-99
124. K Schroder and J Tschopp (2010) The inflammasomes. Cell 140 821-832
125. JJ Chae, G Wood, SL Masters, et al. (2006) The B30.2 domain of pyrin, the familial Mediterranean fever protein, interacts directly with caspase-1 to modulate IL-1beta production. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103 9982-9987
126. K Lauber, SG Blumenthal, M Waibel and S Wesselborg (2004) Clearance of apoptotic cells: getting rid of the corpses. Mol Cell 14 277-287
127. MR Elliott, FB Chekeni, PC Trampont, et al. (2009) Nucleotides released by apoptotic cells act as a find-me signal to promote phagocytic clearance. Nature 461 282-286
128. F Ghiringhelli, L Apetoh, A Tesniere, et al. (2009) Activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome in dendritic cells induces IL-1beta-dependent adaptive immunity against tumors. Nat Med 15 1170-1178
129. B McDonald, K Pittman, GB Menezes, et al. (2010) Intravascular danger signals guide neutrophils to sites of sterile inflammation. Science 330 362-366
130. RE Ellis, DM Jacobson and R Horvitz (1991) Genes required for the engulfment of cell corpses during programmed cell death in Caenorhabditis elegans. Genetics 129 79-94
131. MO Hengartner (2001) Apoptosis: corralling the corpses. Cell 104 325-328
132. KS Ravichandran and U Lorenz (2007) Engulfment of apoptotic cells: signals for a good meal. Nat Rev Immunol 7 964-974
133. B Verhoven, RA Schlegel and P Williamson (1995) Mechanisms of phosphatidylserine exposure, a phagocyte recognition signal, on apoptotic T lymphocytes. J Exp Med 182 1597-1601
134. R Hanayama, M Tanaka, K Miyasaka, et al. (2004) Autoimmune disease and impaired uptake of apoptotic cells in MFG-E8-deficient mice. Science 304 1147-1150
135. M Botto, C Dell’Agnola, AE Bygrave, et al. (1998) Homozygous C1q deficiency causes glomerulonephritis associated with multiple apoptotic bodies. Nat Genet 19 56-59
136. D Gershov, S Kim, N Brot and KB Elkon (2000) C-reactive protein binds to apoptotic cells, protects the cells from assembly of the terminal complement components, and sustains an antiinflammatory innate immune response: implications for systemic autoimmunity. J Exp Med 192 1353-1364
137. G Kim, JB Jun and KB Elkon (2002) Necessary role of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase in transforming growth factor beta-mediated activation of Akt in normal and rheumatoid arthritis synovial fibroblasts. Arthritis Rheum 46 1504-1511
138. Y Ren, RL Silverstein, J Allen and J Savill (1995) CD36 gene transfer confers capacity for phagocytosis of cells undergoing apoptosis. J Exp Med 181 1857-1862
139. LM Stuart, PM Henson and RW Vandivier (2006) Collectins: opsonins for apoptotic cells and regulators of inflammation. Curr Dir Autoimmun 9 143-161
140. SJ Gardai, KA McPhillips, SC Frasch, et al. (2005) Cell-surface calreticulin initiates clearance of viable or apoptotic cells through trans-activation of LRP on the phagocyte. Cell 123 321-334
141. NC Franc, J-L Dimarcq, M Lagueux, et al. (1996) Croquemort, a novel Drosophila hemocyte/macrophage receptor that recognizes apoptotic cells. Immunity 4 431-443
142. J Savill, N Dransfield Hogg and C Haslett (1990) Vitronectin receptor-mediated phagocytosis of cells undergoing apoptosis. Nature 343 170-173
143. ML Albert, SFA Pearce, LM Francisco, et al. (1998) Immature dendritic cells phagocytose apoptotic cells via alpha-v-beta-5 and CD36, and cross-present antigens to cytotoxic T lymphocytes. J Exp Med 188 1359-1368
144. D Mevorach, J Mascarenhas, DA Gershov and KB Elkon (1998) Complement-dependent clearance of apoptotic cells by human macrophages. J Exp Med 188 2313-2320
145. M-F Luciani and G Chimini (1996) The ATP binding cassette transporter, ABC1, is required for the engulfment of corpses generated by apoptotic cell death. EMBO J 15 226-235
146. A Devitt, OD Moffatt, C Raykundalia, et al. (1998) Human CD14 mediates recognition and phagocytosis of apoptotic cells. Nature 392 505-509
147. G Lemke and CV Rothlin (2008) Immunobiology of the TAM receptors. Nat Rev Immunol 8 327-336
148. PM Henson, DL Bratton and VA Fadok (2001) Apoptotic cell removal. Curr Biol 11 R795-R805
149. VA Fadok, DL Bratton, A Konowal, et al. (1998) Macrophages that have ingested apoptotic cells in vitro inhibit proinflammatory cytokine production through autocrine/paracrine mechanisms involving TGF-beta, PGE2, and PAF. J Clin Invest 101 890-898
150. RE Voll, M Herrmann, EA Roth, et al. (1997) Immunosuppressive effects of apoptotic cells. Nature 390 350-351
151. ML Huynh, VA Fadok and PM Henson (2002) Phosphatidylserine-dependent ingestion of apoptotic cells promotes TGF-beta1 secretion and the resolution of inflammation. J Clin Invest 109 41-50
152. SJ Kim, KB Elkon and X Ma (2004) Transcriptional suppression of interleukin-12 gene expression following phagocytosis of apoptotic cells. Immunity 21 643-653
153. KB Elkon (2009) Autoimmunity: apoptotic fats grease transcription. Nat Med 15 1246-1248
154. M Bellone, G Iezzi, P Rovere, et al. (1997) Processing of engulfed apoptotic bodies yields T cell epitopes. J Immunol 159 5391-5399
155. KL Rock, E Latz, F Ontiveros and H Kono (2010) The sterile inflammatory response. Annu Rev Immunol 28 321-342
156. TW Du Clos (1996) The interaction of C-reactive protein and serum amyloid P component with nuclear antigens. Molec Biol Rep 23 253-260
157. L Zitvogel, O Kepp and G Kroemer (2010) Decoding cell death signals in inflammation and immunity. Cell 140 798-804
158. I Vermes, C Haanen, H Steffens-Nakken and C Reutelingsperger (1995) A novel assay for apoptosis: flow cytometric detection of phosphatidylserine expression on early apoptotic cells using fluorescein-labeled Annexin V. J Immunol Methods 184 39-51
159. I Nicoletti, G Migliorati, MC Pagliacci, et al. (1991) A rapid and simple method for measuring thymocytes apoptosis by propidium iodide staining and flow cytometry. J Immunol Methods 139 1173-1181
160. Y Gavrieli, Y Sherman and SA Ben-Sasson (1992) Identification of programmed cell death in situ via specific labeling of nuclear DNA fragmentation. J Cell Biol 119 493-501
161. M Kanoh, G Takemura, J Misao, et al. (1999) Significance of myocytes with positive DNA in situ nick end-labeling (TUNEL) in hearts with dilated cardiomyopathy: not apoptosis but DNA repair. Circulation 99 2757-2764
162. T Wrone-Smith, RS Mitra, CB Thompson, et al. (1997) Keratinocytes derived from psoriatic plaques are resistant to apoptosis compared with normal skin. Am J Pathol 151 1321-1329
163. S Nagata, R Hanayama and K Kawane (2010) Autoimmunity and the clearance of dead cells. Cell 140 619-630
164. PL Cohen and RA Eisenberg (1991) LPR and GLD: single gene models of systemic autoimmunity and lymphoproliferative disease. Annu Rev Immunol 9 243-269
165. GH Fisher, FJ Rosenberg, SE Straus, et al. (1995) Dominant interfering Fas gene mutations impair apoptosis in a human lymphoproliferative syndrome. Cell 81 935-946
166. F Rieux-Laucat, F Le Deist, C Hivroz, et al. (1995) Mutations in Fas associated with human lymphoproliferative syndrome and autoimmunity. Science 268 1347-1349
167. J Drappa, AK Vaishnaw, KE Sullivan, et al. (1996) The Canale-Smith syndrome: an inherited autoimmune disorder associated with defective lymphocyte apoptosis and mutations in the Fas gene. N Engl J Med 335 1643-1649
168. AK Vaishnaw, JR Orlinick, JL Chu, et al. (1999) Molecular basis for the apoptotic defects in patients with CD95 (Fas/Apo-1) mutations. J Clin Invest 103 355-363
169. DA Martin, L Zheng, RM Siegel, et al. (1999) Defective CD95/APO-1/Fas signal complex formation in the human autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome, type Ia [in process citation]. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 96 4552-4557
170. KC Dowdell, JE Niemela, S Price, et al. (2010) Somatic FAS mutations are common in patients with genetically undefined autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome. Blood 115 5164-5169
171. SJ Kim, D Gershov, X Ma, et al. (2003) Opsonization of apoptotic cells and its effect on macrophage and T cell immune responses. Ann N Y Acad Sci 987 68-78
172. SD Khare, I Sarosi, XZ Xia, et al. (2000) Severe B cell hyperplasia and autoimmune disease in TALL-1 transgenic mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 97 3370-3375
173. KP Baker (2004) BLyS—an essential survival factor for B cells: basic biology, links to pathology and therapeutic target. Autoimmun Rev 3 368-375
174. KM Hull, N Shoham, JJ Chae, et al. (2003) The expanding spectrum of systemic autoinflammatory disorders and their rheumatic manifestations. Curr Opin Rheumatol 15 61-69
175. A Di Cristofano, P Kotsi, YP Peng, et al. (1999) Impaired Fas response and autoimmunity in Pten (+/−) mice. Science 285 2122-2125
176. J Zhu, X Liu, C Xie, et al. (2005) T cell hyperactivity in lupus as a consequence of hyperstimulatory antigen-presenting cells. J Clin Invest 115 1869-1878
177. M Chen, YH Wang, Y Wang, et al. (2006) Dendritic cell apoptosis in the maintenance of immune tolerance. Science 311 1160-1164
178. BE Price, J Rauch, MA Shia, et al. (1996) Antiphospholipid autoantibodies bind to apoptotic, but not viable, thymocytes in a beta2-glycoprotein I-dependent manner. J Immunol 157 2201-2208
179. LA Casciola-Rosen, G Anhalt and A Rosen (1994) Autoantigens targeted in systemic lupus erythematosus are clustered in two populations of surface structures on apoptotic keratinocytes. J Exp Med 179 1317-1330
180. LA Casciola-Rosen, GJ Anhalt and A Rosen (1995) DNA-dependent protein kinase is one of a subset of autoantigens specifically cleaved early during apoptosis. J Exp Med 182 1625-1634
181. PJ Utz, M Hottelet, PH Schur and P Anderson (1997) Proteins phosphorylated during stress-induced apoptosis are common targets for autoantibody production in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Exp Med 185 843-854
182. DS Pisetsky and PE Lipsky (2010) Microparticles as autoadjuvants in the pathogenesis of SLE. Nat Rev Rheumatol 6 368-372
183. MB Torchinsky and JM Blander (2010) T helper 17 cells: discovery, function, and physiological trigger. Cell Mol Life Sci 67 1407-1421
184. W Emlen, J-A Niebur and R Kadera (1994) Accelerated in vitro apoptosis of lymphocytes from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Immunol 152 3685-3692
185. A Perniok, F Wedekind, M Herrmann, et al. (1998) High levels of circulating early apoptotic peripheral blood mononuclear cells in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 7 113-118
186. M Herrmann, RE Voll, OM Zoller, et al. (1998) Impaired phagocytosis of apoptotic cell material by monocyte-derived macrophages from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 41 1241-1250
187. I Baumann, W Kolowos, RE Voll, et al. (2002) Impaired uptake of apoptotic cells into tingible body macrophages in germinal centers of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 46 191-201
188. BP Morgan and MJ Walport (1991) Complement deficiency and disease. Immunol Today 12 301-306
189. D Santer, BE Hall, TC George, et al. (2010) C1q deficiency leads to the defective suppression of IFN-alpha in response to nucleoprotein containing immune complexes. J Immunol 185 4738-4749
190. C Lood, B Gullstrand, L Truedsson, et al. (2009) C1q inhibits immune complex-induced interferon-alpha production in plasmacytoid dendritic cells: a novel link between C1q deficiency and systemic lupus erythematosus pathogenesis. Arthritis Rheum 60 3081-3090
191. RS Scott, EJ McMahon, SM Pop, et al. (2001) Phagocytosis and clearance of apoptotic cells is mediated by MER. Nature 411 207-211
192. Q Lu and G Lemke (2001) Homeostatic regulation of the immune system by receptor tyrosine kinases of the Tyro 3 family. Science 293 306-311
193. CH Suh, B Hilliard, S Li, et al. (2010) TAM receptor ligands in lupus: protein S but not Gas6 levels reflect disease activity in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Res Ther 12 R146
194. M Napirei, H Karsunky, B Zevnik, et al. (2000) Features of systemic lupus erythematosus in Dnase1-deficient mice [see comments]. Nat Genet 25 177-181
195. K Kawane, M Ohtani, K Miwa, et al. (2006) Chronic polyarthritis caused by mammalian DNA that escapes from degradation in macrophages. Nature 443 998-1002
196. DB Stetson, JS Ko, T Heidmann and R Medzhitov (2008) Trex1 prevents cell-intrinsic initiation of autoimmunity. Cell 134 587-598
197. MA Lee-Kirsch, M Gong, D Chowdhury, et al. (2007) Mutations in the gene encoding the 3′-5′ DNA exonuclease TREX1 are associated with systemic lupus erythematosus. Nat Genet 39 1065-1067
198. L Ronnblom, ML Eloranta and GV Alm (2006) The type I interferon system in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 54 408-420
199. A Hakkim, BG Furnrohr, K Amann, et al. (2010) Impairment of neutrophil extracellular trap degradation is associated with lupus nephritis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 107 9813-9818
200. T Nakajima, H Aono, T Hasunuma, et al. (1995) Apoptosis and functional Fas antigen in rheumatoid arthritis synoviocytes. Arthritis Rheum 38 485-491
201. GS Firestein, M Yeo and NJ Zvaifler (1995) Apoptosis in rheumatoid arthritis synovium. J Clin Invest 96 1631-1638
202. MJ Cantwell, T Hua, NJ Zvaifler and TJ Kipps (1997) Deficient Fas ligand expression by synovial lymphocytes from patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 40 1644-1652
203. A Kawakami, K Eguchi, N Matsuoka, et al. (1996) Thyroid-stimulating hormone inhibits Fas antigen-mediated apoptosis of human thyrocytes in vitro. Endocrinology 137 3163-3169
204. M Tsuboi, K Eguchi, A Kawakami, et al. (1996) Fas antigen expression on synovial cells was downregulated by interleukin 1. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 218 280-285
205. M Salmon, D Scheel-Toellner, AP Huissoon, et al. (1997) Inhibition of T cell apoptosis in the rheumatoid synovium. J Clin Invest 99 439-446
206. K Fujisawa, H Aono, T Hasunuma, et al. (1996) Activation of transcription factor NF-κB in human synovial cells in response to tumor necrosis factor. Arthritis Rheum 39 197-203
207. R Marok, PG Winyard, A Coumbe, et al. (1996) Activation of the transcription factor nuclear factor κ-B in human inflamed synovial tissue. Arthritis Rheum 39 583-591
208. PP Tak, TJ Smeets, DL Boyle, et al. (1999) P53 overexpression in synovial tissue from patients with early and longstanding rheumatoid arthritis compared with patients with reactive arthritis and osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum 42 948-953
209. JL Langowski, X Zhang, L Wu, et al. (2006) IL-23 promotes tumour incidence and growth. Nature 442 461-465
210. K Fujisawa, H Asahara, K Okamoto, et al. (1996) Therapeutic effect of the anti-Fas antibody on arthritis in HTLV-1 tax transgenic mice. J Clin Invest 98 271-278
211. H Zhang, Y Yang, JL Horton, et al. (1997) Amelioration of collagen-induced arthritis by CD95 (Apo-1/Fas)-ligand gene transfer. J Clin Invest 100 1951-1957
212. K Song, Y Chen, R Goke, et al. (2000) Tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) is an inhibitor of autoimmune inflammation and cell cycle progression. J Exp Med 191 1095-1104
213. K Ichikawa, W Liu, M Fleck, et al. (2003) TRAIL-R2 (DR5) mediates apoptosis of synovial fibroblasts in rheumatoid arthritis. J Immunol 171 1061-1069
214. A Jelaska and JH Korn (2000) Role of apoptosis and transforming growth factor beta1 in fibroblast selection and activation in systemic sclerosis. Arthritis Rheum 43 2230-2239
215. S Ohsako and KB Elkon (1999) Apoptosis in the effector phase of autoimmune diabetes, multiple sclerosis and thyroiditis. Cell Death Differ 6 13-21
216. L Kong, N Ogawa, R Masago, et al. (1996) Bcl-2 family in salivary gland from Sjögren's syndrome: Bax may be involved in the destruction of SS salivary glandular epithelium. Arthritis Rheum 39 S289
217. L Behrens, A Bender, MA Johnson and R Hohlfeld (1997) Cytotoxic mechanisms in inflammatory myopathies: co-expression of Fas and protective Bcl-2 in muscle fibres and inflammatory cells. Brain 120 929-938
218. T Sugiura, Y Murakawa, A Nagai, et al. (1999) Fas and Fas ligand interaction induces apoptosis in inflammatory myopathies: CD4+ T cells injury in polymyositis. Arthritis Rheum 42 291-298
219. N Goebels, D Michaelis, M Engelhardt, et al. (1996) Differential expression of perforin in muscle-infiltrating T cells in myositis and dermatomyositis. J Clin Invest 97 2905-2910
220. OM Howard, HF Dong, D Yang, et al. (2002) Histidyl-tRNA synthetase and asparaginyl-tRNA synthetase, autoantigens in myositis, activate chemokine receptors on T lymphocytes and immature dendritic cells. J Exp Med 196 781-791
221. S Hashimoto, M Setareh, RL Ochs and M Lotz (1997) Fas/Fas ligand expression and induction of apoptosis in chondrocytes. Arthritis Rheum 40 1749-1755
222. S Hashimoto, RL Ochs, S Komiya and M Lotz (1998) Linkage of chondrocyte apoptosis and cartilage degradation in human osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum 41 1632-1638
223. FJ Blanco, R Guitian, ME Vazquez, et al. (1998) Osteoarthritis chondrocytes die by apoptosis: a possible pathway for osteoarthritis pathology. Arthritis Rheum 41 284-289
224. C Yang, SW Li, HJ Helminen, et al. (1997) Apoptosis of chondrocytes in transgenic mice lacking collagen II. Exp Cell Res 235 370-373
225. T Aigner and HA Kim (2002) Apoptosis and cellular vitality: issues in osteoarthritic cartilage degeneration. Arthritis Rheum 46 1986-1996
226. B Bohm, S Hess, K Krause, et al. (2010) ADAM15 exerts an antiapoptotic effect on osteoarthritic chondrocytes via up-regulation of the X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis. Arthritis Rheum 62 1372-1382
227. T Kameda, H Mano, T Yuasa, et al. (1997) Estrogen inhibits bone resorption by directly inducing apoptosis of the bone-resorbing osteoclasts. J Exp Med 186 489-495
228. N Okahashi, M Koide, E Jimi, et al. (1998) Caspases (interleukin-1beta-converting enzyme family proteases) are involved in the regulation of the survival of osteoclasts. Bone 23 33-41
229. RS Weinstein, RL Jilka, AM Parfitt and SC Manolagas (1998) Inhibition of osteoblastogenesis and promotion of apoptosis of osteoblasts and osteocytes by glucocorticoids: potential mechanisms of their deleterious effects on bone. J Clin Invest 102 274-282
230. RL Jilka, RS Weinstein, T Bellido, et al. (1998) Osteoblast programmed cell death (apoptosis): modulation by growth factors and cytokines. J Bone Miner Res 13 793-802
231. H Yasuda, N Shima, N Nakagawa, et al. (1998) Osteoclast differentiation factor is a ligand for osteoprotegerin/ osteoclastogenesis-inhibitory factor and is identical to TRANCE/RANKL. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 95 3597-3602
232. YY Kong, H Yoshida, I Sarosi, et al. (1999) OPGL is a key regulator of osteoclastogenesis, lymphocyte development and lymph-node organogenesis. Nature 397 315-323
233. D Wang, N Muller, KG McPherson and HM Reichardt (2006) Glucocorticoids engage different signal transduction pathways to induce apoptosis in thymocytes and mature T cells. J Immunol 176 1695-1702
234. TA Chan, PJ Morin, B Vogelstein and KW Kinzler (1998) Mechanisms underlying nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug-mediated apoptosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 95 681-686
235. P Schwenger, P Bellosta, I Vietor, et al. (1997) Sodium salicylate induces apoptosis via p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase but inhibits tumor necrosis factor-induced c-Jun N-terminal kinase/stress-activated protein kinase activation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 94 2869-2873
236. AW Thomson, CA Bonham and A Zeevi (1995) Mode of action of tacrolimus (FK506): molecular and cellular mechanisms. Ther Drug Monit 17 584-591
237. A Anel, M Buferne, C Boyer, et al. (1994) T cell receptor-induced Fas ligand expression in cytotoxic T lymphocyte clones is blocked by protein tyrosine kinase inhibitors and cyclosporin A. Eur J Immunol 24 2469-2476
238. K Migita, K Eguchi, Y Kawabe, et al. (1995) FK506 augments activation-induced programmed cell death of T lymphocytes in vivo. J Clin Invest 96 727-732
239. M Cutolo, A Barone, S Accardo, et al. (1998) Effect of cyclosporin on apoptosis in human cultured monocytic THP-1 cells and synovial macrophages. Clin Exp Rheumatol 16 417-422
240. DT Teachey, R Greiner, A Seif, et al. (2009) Treatment with sirolimus results in complete responses in patients with autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome. Br J Haematol 145 101-106
241. L Genestier, R Paillot, S Fournel, et al. (1998) Immunosuppressive properties of methotrexate: apoptosis and clonal deletion of activated peripheral T cells. J Clin Invest 102 322-328
242. DR Cha, SM Feld, C Nast, et al. (1996) Apoptosis in mesangial cells induced by ionizing radiation and cytotoxic drugs. Kidney Int 50 1565-1571
243. RG Russell, Z Xia, JE Dunford, et al. (2007) Bisphosphonates: an update on mechanisms of action and how these relate to clinical efficacy. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1117 209-257
244. PP Tak, PC Taylor, FC Breedveld, et al. (1996) Decrease in cellularity and expression of adhesion molecules by anti-tumor necrosis factor α monoclonal antibody treatments in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 39 1077-1081
245. A Lugering, M Schmidt, N Lugering, et al. (2001) Infliximab induces apoptosis in monocytes from patients with chronic active Crohn's disease by using a caspase-dependent pathway. Gastroenterology 121 1145-1157
246. JM Van den Brande, H Braat, GR van den Brink, et al. (2003) Infliximab but not etanercept induces apoptosis in lamina propria T-lymphocytes from patients with Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology 124 1774-1785
247. AI Catrina, C Trollmo, E af Klint, et al. (2005) Evidence that anti-tumor necrosis factor therapy with both etanercept and infliximab induces apoptosis in macrophages, but not lymphocytes, in rheumatoid arthritis joints: extended report. Arthritis Rheum 52 61-72
248. EA Clark and JA Ledbetter (2005) How does B cell depletion therapy work, and how can it be improved? Ann Rheum Dis 64(Suppl 4), 77-80
249. X Ren, Z Xu, JN Myers and X Wu (2007) Bypass NFkappaB-mediated survival pathways by TRAIL and Smac. Cancer Biol Ther 6 1031-1035
250. I Rodriguez, K Matsuura, C Ody, et al. (1996) Systemic injection of a tripeptide inhibits the intracellular activation of CPP32-like proteases in vivo and fully protects mice against Fas-mediated fulminant liver destruction and death. J Exp Med 184 2067-2072
251. M Gray, K Miles, D Salter, et al. (2007) Apoptotic cells protect mice from autoimmune inflammation by the induction of regulatory B cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104 14080-14085
252. Y Chen, S Khanna, CS Goodyear, et al. (2009) Regulation of dendritic cells and macrophages by an anti-apoptotic cell natural antibody that suppresses TLR responses and inhibits inflammatory arthritis. J Immunol 183 1346-1359
253. S Mariathasan and DM Monack (2007) Inflammasome adaptors and sensors: intracellular regulators of infection and inflammation. Nat Rev Immunol 7 31-40
254. M Karin and A Lin (2002) NF-kappaB at the crossroads of life and death. Nat Immunol 3 221-227
255. SR Datta, A Brunet and ME Greenberg (1999) Cellular survival: a play in three Akts. Genes Dev 13 2905-2927